An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of
protein complex
A protein complex or multiprotein complex is a group of two or more associated polypeptide chains. Protein complexes are distinct from multienzyme complexes, in which multiple catalytic domains are found in a single polypeptide chain.
Protein ...
es and other molecules that
transfer
Transfer may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Transfer'' (2010 film), a German science-fiction movie directed by Damir Lukacevic and starring Zana Marjanović
* ''Transfer'' (1966 film), a short film
* ''Transfer'' (journal), in management studies
...
electron
The electron ( or ) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary electric charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,
and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no ...
s from
electron donor
In chemistry, an electron donor is a chemical entity that donates electrons to another compound. It is a reducing agent that, by virtue of its donating electrons, is itself oxidized in the process.
Typical reducing agents undergo permanent chemi ...
s to
electron acceptors via
redox
Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a ...
reactions (both
reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of
protons (H
+ ions) across a
membrane
A membrane is a selective barrier; it allows some things to pass through but stops others. Such things may be molecules, ions, or other small particles. Membranes can be generally classified into synthetic membranes and biological membranes. ...
. The electrons that transferred from NADH and FADH2 to the ETC involves 4 multi-subunit large enzymes complexes and 2 mobile electron carriers. Many of the
enzyme
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...
s in the electron transport chain are membrane-bound.
The flow of electrons through the electron transport chain is an
exergonic process
An exergonic process is one which there is a positive flow of energy from the system to the surroundings. This is in contrast with an endergonic process. Constant pressure, constant temperature reactions are exergonic if and only if the Gibbs fr ...
. The energy from the redox reactions creates an
electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an organic compound that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, condensate dissolution, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known forms o ...
(ATP). In
aerobic respiration, the flow of electrons terminates with molecular
oxygen
Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as ...
as the final electron acceptor. In
anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen (O2). Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain.
In aerobic organisms undergoing r ...
, other electron acceptors are used, such as
sulfate
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula . Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many ...
.
In an electron transport chain, the redox reactions are driven by the difference in the
Gibbs free energy
In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy (or Gibbs energy; symbol G) is a thermodynamic potential that can be used to calculate the maximum amount of work that may be performed by a thermodynamically closed system at constant temperature and ...
of reactants and products. The free energy released when a higher-energy electron donor and acceptor convert to lower-energy products, while electrons are transferred from a lower to a higher
redox potential
Redox potential (also known as oxidation / reduction potential, ''ORP'', ''pe'', ''E_'', or E_) is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons from or lose electrons to an electrode and thereby be reduced or oxidised respe ...
, is used by the complexes in the electron transport chain to create an electrochemical gradient of ions. It is this electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP via coupling with
oxidative phosphorylation with
ATP synthase.
In
eukaryotic organisms the electron transport chain, and site of oxidative phosphorylation, is found on the
inner mitochondrial membrane
The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) is the mitochondrial membrane which separates the mitochondrial matrix from the intermembrane space.
Structure
The structure of the inner mitochondrial membrane is extensively folded and compartmentalized. ...
. The energy released by reactions of oxygen and reduced compounds such as cytochrome ''c'' and (indirectly)
NADH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an aden ...
and
FADH2 is used by the electron transport chain to pump protons into the
intermembrane space, generating the electrochemical gradient over the inner mitochondrial membrane. In photosynthetic eukaryotes, the electron transport chain is found on the thylakoid membrane. Here, light energy drives electron transport through a proton pump and the resulting proton gradient causes subsequent synthesis of ATP. In
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometr ...
, the electron transport chain can vary between species but it always constitutes a set of redox reactions that are coupled to the synthesis of ATP through the generation of an electrochemical gradient and oxidative phosphorylation through ATP synthase.
Mitochondrial electron transport chains
Most
eukaryotic
Eukaryotes () are organisms whose Cell (biology), cells have a cell nucleus, nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are Eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the ...
cells have
mitochondria, which produce ATP from reactions of oxygen with products of the
citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC)—also known as the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of chemical reactions to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and protein ...
,
fatty acid metabolism, and
amino acid metabolism Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids (anabolism), and the breakdown of proteins by catabolism.
The steps of protein synthesis include transcription, translation, and ...
. At the
inner mitochondrial membrane
The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) is the mitochondrial membrane which separates the mitochondrial matrix from the intermembrane space.
Structure
The structure of the inner mitochondrial membrane is extensively folded and compartmentalized. ...
, electrons from
NADH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an aden ...
and
FADH pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which provides the energy driving the process as it is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an
enzymatic
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. ...
series of electron donors and acceptors. Each
electron donor
In chemistry, an electron donor is a chemical entity that donates electrons to another compound. It is a reducing agent that, by virtue of its donating electrons, is itself oxidized in the process.
Typical reducing agents undergo permanent chemi ...
will pass electrons to an
acceptor of higher redox potential, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Each reaction releases energy because a higher-energy donor and acceptor convert to lower-energy products. Via the transferred electrons, this energy is used to generate a
proton gradient
An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane, and th ...
across the mitochondrial membrane by
"pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a state of higher free energy that has the potential to do work. This entire process is called
oxidative phosphorylation since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP by using the electrochemical gradient that the redox reactions of the electron transport chain have established driven by energy-releasing reactions of oxygen.
Mitochondrial redox carriers
Energy associated with the transfer of electrons down the electron transport chain is used to pump protons from the
mitochondrial matrix
In the mitochondrion, the matrix is the space within the inner membrane. The word "matrix" stems from the fact that this space is viscous, compared to the relatively aqueous cytoplasm. The mitochondrial matrix contains the mitochondrial DNA, ribo ...
into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (
ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial
membrane potential (ΔΨ).
It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H
+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
inorganic phosphate
In chemistry, a phosphate is an anion, salt, functional group or ester derived from a phosphoric acid. It most commonly means orthophosphate, a derivative of orthophosphoric acid .
The phosphate or orthophosphate ion is derived from phosph ...
. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the
Krebs cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC)—also known as the Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of chemical reactions to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and protein ...
electron carrier
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to
coenzyme Q
Coenzyme Q, also known as ubiquinone and marketed as CoQ10, is a coenzyme family that is ubiquitous in animals and most bacteria (hence the name ubiquinone). In humans, the most common form is coenzyme Q10 or ubiquinone-10.
It is a 1,4-benzoq ...
(ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from Complex II (
succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to Complex III (
cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to
cytochrome ''c'' (cyt ''c''). Cyt ''c'' passes electrons to Complex IV (
cytochrome ''c'' oxidase; labeled IV).
Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain can be summarized as follows:
NADH+H → ''Complex I'' → Q
↑
''Complex II''
↑
''Succinate'' → ''Complex III'' → cytochrome ''c'' → ''Complex IV'' → HO
↑
''Complex II''
↑
''Succinate''
Complex I
In
Complex I
Respiratory complex I, (also known as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, Type I NADH dehydrogenase and mitochondrial complex I) is the first large protein complex of the respiratory chains of many organisms from bacteria to humans. It catalyzes the ...
(NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase, Type I NADH dehydrogenase, or mitochondrial complex I; ), two electrons are removed from NADH and transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (Q). The reduced product, ubiquinol (QH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
[Lauren, Biochemistry, Johnson/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611]
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an aden ...
is oxidized to NAD, by reducing
flavin mononucleotide
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), or riboflavin-5′-phosphate, is a biomolecule produced from riboflavin (vitamin B2) by the enzyme riboflavin kinase and functions as the prosthetic group of various oxidoreductases, including NADH dehydrogenase, as we ...
to FMNH in one two-electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one-electron steps, through a
semiquinone
Semiquinone (or ubisemiquinone) is a free radical resulting from the removal of one hydrogen atom with its electron during the process of dehydrogenation of a hydroquinone, such as hydroquinone itself or catechol, to a quinone or alternatively the ...
intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an
Fe–S cluster, from the Fe-S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free-radical (
semiquinone
Semiquinone (or ubisemiquinone) is a free radical resulting from the removal of one hydrogen atom with its electron during the process of dehydrogenation of a hydroquinone, such as hydroquinone itself or catechol, to a quinone or alternatively the ...
) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space.
[Garrett & Grisham, Biochemistry, Brooks/Cole, 2010, pp 598-611] As the electrons move through the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.
Complex II
In
Complex II
Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) or succinate-coenzyme Q reductase (SQR) or respiratory complex II is an enzyme complex, found in many bacterial cells and in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes. It is the only enzyme that participates in ...
(
succinate dehydrogenase or succinate-CoQ reductase; ) additional electrons are delivered into the
quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase
biquinoneiron–sulfur subunit mitochondrial (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit D (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex II is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike Complex I, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through Complex II contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
Complex III
In
Complex III
Complex commonly refers to:
* Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe
** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...
(
cytochrome ''bc1'' complex or CoQH-cytochrome ''c'' reductase; ), the
Q-cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption/release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q
O site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of
cytochrome ''c'', a water-soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q
i site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (
2H+2e-) oxidations at the Q
o site to form one quinone (
2H+2e-) at the Q
i site. (In total, four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules.)
:
QH2 + 2(Fe^) + 2 H -> Q + 2(Fe^) + 4 H
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
This complex is inhibited by
dimercaprol
Dimercaprol, also called British anti-Lewisite (BAL), is a medication used to treat acute poisoning by arsenic, mercury, gold, and lead. It may also be used for antimony, thallium, or bismuth poisoning, although the evidence for those uses is n ...
(British Antilewisite, BAL), Napthoquinone and Antimycin.
Complex IV
In
Complex IV
The enzyme cytochrome c oxidase or Complex IV, (was , now reclassified as a translocasEC 7.1.1.9 is a large transmembrane protein complex found in bacteria, archaea, and mitochondria of eukaryotes.
It is the last enzyme in the respiratory electr ...
(
cytochrome ''c'' oxidase; ), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of
cytochrome ''c'' and transferred to molecular oxygen (O) and four protons, producing two molecules of water. The complex contains coordinated copper ions and several heme groups. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The exact details of proton pumping in Complex IV are still under study.
Cyanide is an inhibitor of Complex IV.
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation
![ATP-Synthase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/ATP-Synthase.svg)
According to the
chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
)
, image = Nobel Prize.png
, alt = A golden medallion with an embossed image of a bearded man facing left in profile. To the left of the man is the text "ALFR•" then "NOBEL", and on the right, the text (smaller) "NAT•" then "M ...
winner
Peter D. Mitchell
Peter Dennis Mitchell, FRS (29 September 1920 – 10 April 1992) was a British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis.
Education and early life
Mitc ...
, the electron transport chain and
oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an
electrochemical gradient
An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane, and ...
(proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FF
ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as ''Complex V'' of the electron transport chain. The F component of
ATP synthase acts as an
ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membrane space of mitochondria first enter the ATP synthase complex through an ''a'' subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.
The number of c subunits determines how many protons are required to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After ''c'' subunits, protons finally enter the matrix through an ''a'' subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.
This reflux releases
free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q) with energy provided by O. The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex.
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein,
thermogenin
Thermogenin (called uncoupling protein by its discoverers and now known as uncoupling protein 1, or UCP1) is a mitochondrial carrier protein found in brown adipose tissue (BAT). It is used to generate heat by non-shivering thermogenesis, and ma ...
—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of
brown adipose tissue
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) or brown fat makes up the adipose organ together with white adipose tissue (or white fat). Brown adipose tissue is found in almost all mammals.
Classification of brown fat refers to two distinct cell populations with si ...
—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. Thyroxine is also a natural uncoupler. This alternative flow results in
thermogenesis
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs in all warm-blooded animals, and also in a few species of thermogenic plants such as the Eastern skunk cabbage, the Voodoo lily ('' Sauromatum venosum''), and the giant w ...
rather than ATP production.
Reverse electron flow
Reverse electron flow Reverse electron flow (also known as reverse electron transport) is a mechanism in microbial metabolism. Chemolithotrophs using an electron donor with a higher redox potential than NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H, such as nitrite or sulfur compounds, must use ene ...
is the transfer of electrons through the electron transport chain through the reverse redox reactions. Usually requiring a significant amount of energy to be used, this can reduce the oxidized forms of electron donors. For example, NAD
+ can be reduced to NADH by Complex I. There are several factors that have been shown to induce reverse electron flow. However, more work needs to be done to confirm this. One example is blockage of ATP synthase, resulting in a build-up of protons and therefore a higher
proton-motive force
Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane bound structure, down their electrochemical gradient. An important example is the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions (H+) across a membra ...
, inducing reverse electron flow.
Bacterial electron transport chains
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is NADH → ''Complex I'' → Q → ''Complex III'' → cytochrome ''c'' → ''Complex IV'' → O where ''Complexes I, III'' and'' IV'' are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome ''c'' are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor for this process is molecular oxygen.
In
prokaryotes (
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometr ...
and
archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
Donor Donor Donor
↓ ↓ ↓
dehydrogenase → quinone → ''bc'' → cytochrome
↓ ↓
oxidase(reductase) oxidase(reductase)
↓ ↓
Acceptor Acceptor
Electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a
dehydrogenase
A dehydrogenase is an enzyme belonging to the group of oxidoreductases that oxidizes a substrate by reducing an electron acceptor, usually NAD+/NADP+ or a flavin coenzyme such as FAD or FMN. Like all catalysts, they catalyze reverse as well as ...
, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile
cytochrome
Cytochromes are redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central Fe atom at its core, as a cofactor. They are involved in electron transport chain and redox catalysis. They are classified according to the type of heme and its mode of bi ...
electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, ''E. coli'' (when growing aerobically using glucose and oxygen as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create an electrochemical gradient over a membrane. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain two or at least one.
Electron donors
In the current biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an electron source are called ''
organotroph
An organotroph is an organism that obtains hydrogen or electrons from organic substrates. This term is used in microbiology to classify and describe organisms based on how they obtain electrons for their respiration processes. Some organotrophs su ...
s''. Chemoorganotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and ''
photolithotrophs'' (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an electron source. Such an organism is called a ''
(chemo)lithotroph'' ("rock-eater"). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors such as
hydrogen as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules and oxygen as an energy source.
Complexes I and II
Bacteria can use several different electron donors. When organic matter is the electron source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to ''Complex I'' in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to ''Complex II''). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (
hydrogenase A hydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyses the reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen (H2), as shown below:
Hydrogen uptake () is coupled to the reduction of electron acceptors such as oxygen, nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide (), and fumarat ...
), electron transport chain. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps, while others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow. In the case of lactate dehydrogenase in ''E. coli'', the enzyme is used aerobically and in combination with other dehydrogenases. It is inducible and is expressed when the concentration of DL-lactate in the cell is high.
Quinone carriers
Quinones are mobile, lipid-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use
ubiquinone
Coenzyme Q, also known as ubiquinone and marketed as CoQ10, is a coenzyme family that is ubiquitous in animals and most bacteria (hence the name ubiquinone). In humans, the most common form is coenzyme Q10 or ubiquinone-10.
It is a 1,4-benzoq ...
(Coenzyme Q, the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as
menaquinone
Vitamin K2 or menaquinone (MK) () is one of three types of vitamin K, the other two being vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and K3 ( menadione). K2 is both a tissue and bacterial product (derived from vitamin K1 in both cases) and is usually found in a ...
(Vitamin K). Archaea in the genus ''
Sulfolobus'' use caldariellaquinone. The use of different quinones is due to slight changes in redox potentials caused by changes in structure. The change in redox potentials of these quinones may be suited to changes in the electron acceptors or variations of redox potentials in bacterial complexes.
Proton pumps
A ''
proton pump
A proton pump is an integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane
A biological membrane, biomembrane or cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that separates the interior of a cell f ...
'' is any process that creates a
proton gradient
An electrochemical gradient is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two parts, the chemical gradient, or difference in solute concentration across a membrane, and th ...
across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane, as seen in mitochondrial ''Complexes I'' and ''IV''. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial ''Complex III'' uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the
Q cycle
The Q cycle (named for ''quinol'') describes a series of reactions that describe how the sequential oxidation and reduction of the lipophilic electron carrier, Coenzyme Q (CoQ), between the ubiquinol and ubiquinone forms, can result in the net mov ...
).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps, while others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome ''bc
1'' is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (not in ''E. coli''). As the name implies, bacterial ''bc
1'' is similar to mitochondrial ''bc
1'' (''Complex III'').
Cytochrome electron carriers
Cytochromes
Cytochromes are redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central Fe atom at its core, as a cofactor. They are involved in electron transport chain and redox catalysis. They are classified according to the type of heme and its mode of bi ...
are proteins that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome ''c''. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as ''Complex III'' and ''Complex IV''. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid-state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, electron transport chain) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.
Terminal oxidases and reductases
When bacteria grow in
aerobic
Aerobic means "requiring air," in which "air" usually means oxygen.
Aerobic may also refer to
* Aerobic exercise, prolonged exercise of moderate intensity
* Aerobics, a form of aerobic exercise
* Aerobic respiration, the aerobic process of cel ...
environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an ''oxidase''. When bacteria grow in
anaerobic
Anaerobic means "living, active, occurring, or existing in the absence of free oxygen", as opposed to aerobic which means "living, active, or occurring only in the presence of oxygen." Anaerobic may also refer to:
* Anaerobic adhesive, a bonding a ...
environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase. In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (''Complex IV'') is cytochrome oxidase.
Aerobic
Aerobic means "requiring air," in which "air" usually means oxygen.
Aerobic may also refer to
* Aerobic exercise, prolonged exercise of moderate intensity
* Aerobics, a form of aerobic exercise
* Aerobic respiration, the aerobic process of cel ...
bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, ''E. coli'' (a facultative anaerobe) does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a ''bc
1'' complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Bacterial Complex IV can be split into classes according to the molecules act as terminal electron acceptors. Class I oxidases are cytochrome oxidases and use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. Class II oxidases are quinol oxidases and can use a variety of terminal electron acceptors. Both of these classes can be subdivided into categories based on what redox-active components they contain. E.g. Heme aa3 Class 1 terminal oxidases are much more efficient than Class 2 terminal oxidases
Anaerobic bacteria
An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require molecular oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if free oxygen is present. In contrast, an aerobic organism (aerobe) is an organism that requires an oxygenat ...
, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, ''E. coli'' can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are ''inducible''. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Electron acceptors
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is most often used as the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic bacteria and facultative anaerobes.
Mostly in anaerobic environments different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Photosynthetic
In
oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from an electron donor such as NADH to an acceptor such as O through an electron transport chain, releasing energy. In
photophosphorylation In the process of photosynthesis, the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP using the energy of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. Cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, driven by the main primary source of ...
, the energy of sunlight is used to ''create'' a high-energy electron donor which can subsequently reduce oxidized components and couple to ATP synthesis via proton translocation by the electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains, like the mitochondrial chain, can be considered as a special case of the bacterial systems. They use mobile, lipid-soluble quinone carriers (
phylloquinone
Phytomenadione, also known as vitamin K1 or phylloquinone, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
As a supplement it is used to treat certain bleeding ...
and
plastoquinone
Plastoquinone (PQ) is an isoprenoid quinone molecule involved in the electron transport chain in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The most common form of plastoquinone, known as PQ-A or PQ-9, is a 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone m ...
) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (
cytochrome
Cytochromes are redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central Fe atom at its core, as a cofactor. They are involved in electron transport chain and redox catalysis. They are classified according to the type of heme and its mode of bi ...
s). They also contain a
proton pump
A proton pump is an integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane
A biological membrane, biomembrane or cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that separates the interior of a cell f ...
. The proton pump in ''all'' photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial ''Complex III''. The commonly-held theory of
symbiogenesis
Symbiogenesis (endosymbiotic theory, or serial endosymbiotic theory,) is the leading evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms. The theory holds that mitochondria, plastids such as chloroplasts, and pos ...
proposes that both organelles descended from bacteria.
See also
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Charge-transfer complex
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CoRR hypothesis
The CoRR hypothesis states that the location of genetic information in cytoplasmic organelles permits regulation of its expression by the reduction-oxidation ("redox") state of its gene products.
CoRR is short for "co-location for redox regulatio ...
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Electron equivalent
Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a d ...
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Hydrogen hypothesis The hydrogen hypothesis is a model proposed by William F. Martin and Miklós Müller in 1998 that describes a possible way in which the mitochondrion arose as an endosymbiont within a prokaryotic host in the archaea, giving rise to a symbiotic asso ...
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Respirasome
References
Further reading
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External links
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Khan Academy, video lecture
{{DEFAULTSORT:Electron Transport Chain
Cellular respiration
Integral membrane proteins