Ejective consonant

In phonetics, ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced and tenuis consonants. Some languages have glottalized sonorants with creaky voice that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with implosives, which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of glottalic consonants, which includes ejectives.

Description

In producing an ejective, the stylohyoid muscle and digastric muscle contract, causing the hyoid bone and the connected glottis to raise, and the forward articulation (at the velum in the case of ) is held, raising air pressure greatly in the mouth so when the oral articulators separate, there is a dramatic burst of air. The Adam's apple may be seen moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are more obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like “spat” consonants, but ejectives are often quite weak. In some contexts and in some languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops.Fallon, 2002. ''The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives'' These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called ''intermediates'' in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: = strongly ejective, = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language.

In strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants. The most common ejective is even if it is more difficult to produce than other ejectives like or because the auditory distinction between and is greater than with other ejectives and voiceless consonants of the same place of articulation. In proportion to the frequency of uvular consonants, is even more common, as would be expected from the very small oral cavity used to pronounce a voiceless uvular stop. , on the other hand, is quite rare. That is the opposite pattern to what is found in the implosive consonants, in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare.

Ejective fricatives are rare for presumably the same reason: with the air escaping from the mouth while the pressure is being raised, like inflating a leaky bicycle tire, it is harder to distinguish the resulting sound as salient as a .

Occurrence

Ejectives occur in about 20% of the world's languages. Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. The occurrence of ejectives often correlates to languages in mountainous regions such as the North American Cordillera where ejectives are extremely common. They frequently occur throughout the Andes and Maya Mountains. They are also common in the East African Rift and the South African Plateau (see Geography of Africa). In Eurasia they are extremely common in the Caucasus, which forms an island of ejective languages. Elsewhere, they are rare.

Language families that distinguish ejective consonants include:
* Afroasiatic languages, especially in the Cushitic and Omotic branches, and in some languages of the Semitic ( Ethio-Semitic and Modern South Arabian) and Chadic branches (e.g. Hausa)
* All three families of the Caucasus: the Northwest Caucasian languages ( Circassian, Abkhaz and Ubykh); the Northeast Caucasian languages such as Chechen and Avar; and the Kartvelian languages such as Georgian
* the Athabaskan, Siouan and Salishan families of North America along with the many diverse families of the Pacific Northwest from central California to British Columbia
* Mayan family, as well as neighboring Lencan languages and Xincan languages
* Aymaran family
* the southern varieties of Quechua ( Qusqu-Qullaw)
* Puelche and Tehuelche of the Chonan languages
* Alacalufan family
* a few Nilo-Saharan languages
* Sandawe, Hadza, and the Khoisan families of southern Africa
* Itelmen of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
* Yapese and Waima'a of the Austronesian family
According to the glottalic theory, the Proto-Indo-European language had a series of ejectives (or, in some versions, implosives), but no extant Indo-European language has retained them. Ejectives are found today in Ossetian only because of influence of the nearby Northeast Caucasian and/or Kartvelian language families.

It had once been predicted that ejectives and implosives would not be found in the same language but both have been found phonemically at several points of articulation in Nilo-Saharan languages ( Gumuz, Me'en, and T'wampa), Mayan language ( Yucatec), Salishan (Lushootseed), and the Oto-Manguean Mazahua. Nguni languages, such as Zulu have an implosive ''b'' alongside a series of allophonically ejective stops. Dahalo of Kenya, has ejectives, implosives, and click consonants.

Non-contrastively, ejectives are found in many varieties of British English, usually replacing word-final fortis plosives in utterance-final or emphatic contexts.

Types

Almost all ejective consonants in the world's languages are stops or affricates, and all ejective consonants are obstruents. is the most common ejective, and is common among languages with uvulars, less so, and is uncommon. Among affricates, are all quite common, and and are not unusual ( is particularly common among the Khoisan languages, where it is the ejective equivalent of ).

A few languages have ejective fricatives. In some dialects of Hausa, the standard affricate is a fricative ; Ubykh (Northwest Caucasian, now extinct) had an ejective lateral fricative ; and the related Kabardian also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, . Tlingit is an extreme case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar, and uvular fricatives, ; it may be the only language with the last type. Upper Necaxa Totonac is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives (alveolar, lateral, and postalveolar ) but lacks any ejective stop or affricate (Beck 2006). Other languages with ejective fricatives are Yuchi, which some sources analyze as having (but not the analysis of the Wikipedia article), Keres dialects, with , and Lakota, with . Amharic is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative , at least historically, but it has been also analyzed as now being a sociolinguistic variant (Takkele Taddese 1992).

An ejective retroflex stop is rare. It has been reported from Yawelmani and other Yokuts languages, Tolowa, and Gwich'in.

Because the complete closing of the glottis required to form an ejective makes voicing impossible, the allophonic voicing of ejective phonemes causes them to lose their glottalization; this occurs in Blin (modal voice) and Kabardian (creaky voice). A similar historical sound change also occurred in Veinakh and Lezgic

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