Eric Haraldsson ( non, Eiríkr Haraldsson , no, Eirik Haraldsson; died 954), nicknamed Bloodaxe ( non, blóðøx , no, Blodøks) and Brother-Slayer ( la, fratrum interfector), was a 10th-century
Norwegian
Norwegian, Norwayan, or Norsk may refer to:
*Something of, from, or related to Norway, a country in northwestern Europe
*Norwegians, both a nation and an ethnic group native to Norway
*Demographics of Norway
*The Norwegian language, including the ...
king
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
. He ruled as
King of Norway
The Norwegian monarch is the head of state of Norway, which is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary system. The Norwegian monarchy can trace its line back to the reign of Harald Fairhair and the previous petty kingdoms ...
from 932 to 934, and twice as
King of Northumbria
Northumbria, a kingdom of Angles, in what is now northern England and south-east Scotland, was initially divided into two kingdoms: Bernicia and Deira. The two were first united by king Æthelfrith around the year 604, and except for occasional ...
: from 947 to 948, and again from 952 to 954.
Sources
Historians have reconstructed a narrative of Eric's life and career from the scant available historical data. There is a distinction between contemporary or near contemporary sources for Eric's period as ruler of
Northumbria
la, Regnum Northanhymbrorum
, conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Northumbria
, common_name = Northumbria
, status = State
, status_text = Unified Anglian kingdom (before 876)North: Anglian kingdom (af ...
, and the entirely saga-based sources that detail the life of Eric of Norway, a chieftain who ruled the
Norwegian Westland in the 930s. Norse sources have identified the two as the same since the late 12th century, and while the subject is controversial, most historians have identified the two figures as the same since W. G. Collingwood's article in 1901. This identification has been rejected recently by the historian Clare Downham, who argued that later Norse writers synthesized the two Erics, possibly using English sources. This argument, though respected by other historians in the area, has not produced consensus.
Contemporary or near-contemporary sources include different
recension Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author. The term is derived from Latin ''recensio'' ("review, analysis").
In textual criticism (as ...
s of the ''
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alf ...
'', Eric's coinage, the ''Life ''of
St Cathróe
ST, St, or St. may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Stanza, in poetry
* Suicidal Tendencies, an American heavy metal/hardcore punk band
* Star Trek, a science-fiction media franchise
* Summa Theologica, a compendium of Catholic philosophy an ...
, and possibly
skaldic poetry
A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditionally ...
.
[In two or three centuries of oral transmission, such poems and individual verses could have been adapted and rearranged to suit other needs. Roberta Frank's verdict is that " story may help us to understand Norse court poetry, but skaldic verse can tell us little about history that we did not already know." "Skaldic Poetry." In ''Old Norse-Icelandic Literature'', ed. Carol J. Clover and John Lindow. Ithaca and London, 1985. pp. 157–96: 174.] Such sources reproduce only a hazy image of Eric's activities in
Anglo-Saxon England
Anglo-Saxon England or Early Medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066, consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927, when it was united as the Kingdom o ...
.
Strikingly, Eric's historical obscurity stands in sharp contrast to the wealth of legendary depictions in the kings' sagas, where he takes part in the sagas of his father
Harald Fairhair
Harald Fairhair no, Harald hårfagre Modern Icelandic: ( – ) was a Norwegian king. According to traditions current in Norway and Iceland in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, he reigned from 872 to 930 and was the first King of Nor ...
and his younger half-brother
Haakon the Good
Haakon Haraldsson (c. 920–961), also Haakon the Good (Old Norse: ''Hákon góði'', Norwegian: ''Håkon den gode'') and Haakon Adalsteinfostre (Old Norse: ''Hákon Aðalsteinsfóstri'', Norwegian: ''Håkon Adalsteinsfostre''), was the king of ...
. These include the late 12th-century Norwegian synoptics – ''
Historia Norwegiæ
''Historia Norwegiæ'' is a short history of Norway written in Latin by an anonymous monk. The only extant manuscript is in the private possession of the Earl of Dalhousie, and is now kept in the National Records of Scotland in Edinburgh. The manu ...
''(perhaps ''c''. 1170),
Theodoricus monachus
Theodoric the Monk ( la, Theodoricus monachus; also ''Tjodrik munk''; in Old Norse his name was most likely ''Þórir'') was a 12th-century Norwegian Benedictine monk, perhaps at the Nidarholm Abbey. He may be identical with either Bishop Tore of ...
' ''Historia de antiquitate regum Norwagiensium'' (''c''. 1180), and ''
Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum
''Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum'' ( Icelandic for "''Summary of the Norwegian Kings' Sagas''"), often shortened to ''Ágrip'', is a history of the kings of Norway. Written in Old Norse, it is, along with the ''Historia Norvegiæ'', one of the N ...
'' (''c''. 1190) – and the later Icelandic
kings' sagas
Kings' sagas ( is, konungasögur, nn, kongesoger, -sogor, nb, kongesagaer) are Old Norse sagas which principally tell of the lives of semi-legendary and legendary (mythological, fictional) Nordic kings, also known as saga kings. They were compo ...
''
Orkneyinga saga'' (''c''. 1200), ''
Fagrskinna
''Fagrskinna'' ( ; is, Fagurskinna ; trans. "Fair Leather" from the type of parchment) is one of the kings' sagas, written around 1220. It is an intermediate source for the ''Heimskringla'' of Snorri Sturluson, containing histories of Norwegian k ...
'' (''c''. 1225), the ''
Heimskringla
''Heimskringla'' () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorre Sturlason (1178/79–1241) 1230. The name ''Heimskringla'' was first used in the 17th century, derived ...
'' ascribed to
Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of the ...
(''c''. 1230), ''
Egils saga
''Egill's Saga'' or ''Egil's saga'' ( non, Egils saga ; ) is an Icelandic saga (family saga) on the lives of the clan of Egill Skallagrímsson (Anglicised as Egill Skallagrimsson), an Icelandic farmer, viking and skald. The saga spans the years ...
'' (1220–1240), and ''
Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta
''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' or ''The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason''
is generically a hybrid of different types of sagas and compiled from various sources in the fourteenth century, but is most akin to one of the kings' sagas. It ...
'' (''c''. 1300). Exactly in what sense the Eric of the sagas may have been based on the historical Eric of Northumbria, and conversely, to what extent later evidence might be called upon to shed light on the historical figure, are matters which have inspired a variety of approaches and suggestions among generations of historians. Current opinion veers towards a more critical attitude towards the use of sagas as historical sources for the period before the 11th century, but conclusive answers cannot be offered.
Epithet
Eric's soubriquet ''blóðøx'', ‘Bloodaxe’ or 'Bloody-axe', is of uncertain origin and context. It is arguable whether its preservation in two ''
lausavísur'' by
Egill Skallagrímsson
Egil Skallagrímsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic: ; 904 995) was a Viking Age war poet, sorcerer, berserker, and farmer.Thorsson, 3 He is known mainly as the anti-hero of ''Egils saga, Egil's Saga''. ''Egil's Saga'' historically narrates a p ...
and a contemporary
skald
A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditionally ...
genuinely dates to the 10th century or had been inserted at some stage when Eric was becoming the focus of legend.
[Egill Skallagrímsson, ''Lausavísur'', stanza 25: "I ]gill
A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...
dabbled my blade / In Bloodaxe’s boy 'Blóðøxar ... blóði'', lit. 'Bloodaxe's blood' / In one galley Gunnhild’s son", tr. H. Pálsson and P. Edwards, ''Egils saga'' ch. 56, pp. 147–8; Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir, ''Lausavísur'', stanza 1 (written in ''dróttkvætt''): "Valkyrie's-game, avengers – / awaits not sitting still now – / wish to awake 'gainst you, / warring for death of Blood-Axe 'Blóðøxar'', tr. Lee M. Hollander, ''Heimskringla'' ch. 28, p. 118. There is no guarantee that it significantly predates the 12th-century narrative tradition, where it is first attached to him in ''Ágrip'' and in Latin translation as ''sanguinea securis'' in the ''Historia Norwegiæ.''
[''Agrip ''ch. 2, 5; ''Historia Norwegiæ''; ''Nóregs konungatal'','' ''stanza 10, ed. Kari Ellen Gade.] The sagas usually explain it as referring to Eric's slaying of his half-brothers in a ruthless struggle to monopolise his rule over Norway; Theodoricus gives the similar nickname ''fratrum interfector'' (''killer of brothers'' or ''brother-bane'').
[Cf: ''blekkir brœðra'' 'brother-killer' in Egill Skallagrímsson, ''Lausavísur'', stanza 22 (''Egils saga'' ch. 57).] ''Fagrskinna'', on the other hand, ascribes it to Eric's violent reputation as a Viking raider.
[''Fagrskinna'' ch. 8.]
Family background
Father
The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS E) describes Eric laconically as ‘Harold’s son’ (''Haroldes sunu'').
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ''(MS E) 952; Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia Anglorum'' V.22: 'Hyrc filium Haraldi'. Other Haralds known from this period include Aralt mac Sitric (d. 940, '']Chronicon Scotorum
''Chronicon Scotorum'', also known as ''Chronicum Scotorum'', is a medieval Irish chronicle.
Overview
According to Nollaig Ó Muraíle, it is "a collection of annals belonging to the ' Clonmacnoise group', covering the period from prehistoric tim ...
'' AD 940), the father of Maccus and Gofraid (Arailt), and Harold Bluetooth. In the early part of the 12th century,
John of Worcester
John of Worcester (died c. 1140) was an English monk and chronicler who worked at Worcester Priory. He is usually held to be the author of the ''Chronicon ex chronicis''.
''Chronicon ex chronicis''
The ''Chronicon ex chronicis'' is a world wide ...
had reason to believe that Eric (''Yrcus'') was of royal Scandinavian stock (''Danica stirpe progenitum'', a phrase used earlier for the Hiberno-Norse ruler of Northumbria,
Sihtric Cáech Sihtric or Sitric is an anglo-Saxon personal name. It is cognate with the Old Norse Sigtrygg.
People called Sihtric or Sitric, include:
*Sitric Cáech (died 927), ruler of Dublin and then Viking Northumbria in the early 10th century
*Sitric II of ...
).
[John of Worcester, ''Chronicle'', ed. Thorpe vol. 1, pp. 30 (Sihtric), 135 (Eric).]
This appears to match with independent tradition from Norwegian synoptic histories and Icelandic sagas, which are explicit in identifying Eric of Northumbria as a son of the Norwegian king
Harald (I) Fairhair. The skaldic poems ascribed to Egill Skallagrímsson may offer further reassurance that the sagas are on the right track, although doubts have been expressed about the date and integrity of the verses in the form in which they have survived. One of Egill's ''lausavísur'' speaks of an encounter in England with a man of "Harald's line" (''Haralds áttar''), while the ''
Arinbjarnarkviða'' envisages a ruler at York (Jórvik) who is a descendant of
Halfdán (''Halfdanar'') and of the
Yngling
The Ynglings were a dynasty of kings, first in Sweden and later in Norway, primarily attested through the poem ''Ynglingatal''. The dynasty also appears as Scylfings (Old Norse ''Skilfingar'') in ''Beowulf''. When ''Beowulf'' and ''Ynglingatal'' ...
dynasty (''ynglings burar'').
[Egill Skallagrímsson, ''Lausavísur'', stanza 26; ''Arinbjarnarkviða'', stanzas 3, 4 and 12.] If genuine, the latter identification would form the only direct clue in the contemporary record which might link Eric with the Norwegian dynasty.
Another Harald known from this period is
Aralt mac Sitric
Harald Sigtryggsson ( sga, Aralt mac Sitric; non, Haraldr Sigtryggsson , died 940) was a Viking leader who ruled Limerick in the early 10th century. He was the son of Sitric Cáech and great-grandson of Ímar, making him one of the Uí Ímair. H ...
(d. 940), king of Limerick,
[''Chronicon Scotorum'' AD 940; ''Annals of the Four Masters'' AD 938.] the probable father of
Maccus Maccus is a personal name which is first attested and possibly coined in the tenth century, the name Maccus, later also written as Mac(c)hus, was especially common in the Border country:
*Maccus mac Arailt (fl. 971–974), also Maccus Haraldsson.
...
and
Gofraid
is an Irish masculine given name, arising in the Old Irish and Middle Irish/Middle Gaelic languages, as , and later partially Anglicised as Goffraid.
' corresponds to the Old Norse ', cognate with Gottfried or ', and Galfrid or '. ''Gofraid''/' ...
. This may be relevant, since both these brothers and a certain Eric have been described as rulers of 'the Isles' (
Hebrides
The Hebrides (; gd, Innse Gall, ; non, Suðreyjar, "southern isles") are an archipelago off the west coast of the Scottish mainland. The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner and Outer Hebrid ...
) (see below). In a letter addressed to
Pope Boniface VIII
Pope Boniface VIII ( la, Bonifatius PP. VIII; born Benedetto Caetani, c. 1230 – 11 October 1303) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 December 1294 to his death in 1303. The Caetani, Caetani family was of b ...
,
King Edward I
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vassa ...
(r. 1272–1307) remembered a certain Eric (''Yricius'') as having been a king of Scotland subject to the English king.
In the 19th century, a case had also been made for
Harald Bluetooth
Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson ( non, Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson; da, Harald Blåtand Gormsen, died c. 985/86) was a king of Denmark and Norway.
He was the son of King Gorm the Old and of Thyra Dannebod. Harald ruled as king of Denmark from c. 95 ...
King of Denmark (d. 985) as being Eric's true father.
J.M. Lappenberg
Johann Martin Lappenberg (July 30, 1794 – November 28, 1865) was a German diplomat and historian.
Biography
He was born at Hamburg, where his father, Valentin Anton Lappenberg (1759–1819), held an official position. He attended the Johanneum ...
and
Charles Plummer
Charles Plummer, FBA (1851–1927) was an English historian and cleric, best known as the editor of Sir John Fortescue's ''The Governance of England'', and for coining the term "bastard feudalism". He was the fifth son of Matthew Plummer of St ...
, for instance, identified Eric with Harald's son Hiring.
[J.M. Lappenberg (tr. B. Thorpe), ''A History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings''. 1845. 152. Cf: J.H. Todd, ''The War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill''. London, 1867. 266–7.] The only authority for this son's existence is
Adam of Bremen
Adam of Bremen ( la, Adamus Bremensis; german: Adam von Bremen) (before 1050 – 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle ''Gesta ...
, who in his ''Gesta'' (''c''. 1070) claims to cite the otherwise unknown ''Gesta Anglorum'' for a remarkable anecdote about Hiring's foreign adventures: "Harald sent his son Hiring to England with an army. When the latter had subjugated the island, he was in the end betrayed and killed by the Northumbrians."
[Adam of Bremen, ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' II xxv (§ 22), tr. Francis J. Tschan, ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. New York, 1959. pp 70–1.] Even if Eric's rise and fall had been the inspiration for the story, the names are not identical and Harald Bluetooth's ''floruit'' does not sit well with Eric's.
A brother?
In the account cited in the Latin text of the North Sagas entitled, ''Morte Rex Eilricus'' (The death of King Eirikr) which had been copied long ago from the annals of the lost York Chronicles, the author provides the details of the events leading to Eric (Eirikr or Eirik) Bloodaxe's death "fraudulently, treacherously betrayed by Earl Osulfi" (
Osulf, Earl of Bamburg) "... was killed by Earl Maccus ... at the
Battle of Steinmor ... and there fell Eirikr, with his sons and brothers and all his army ... and his brother Reginaldo
atin for Ragnald or Ragnvald... His son was also known as: Henricus or Haericus
atin formand brother as Ragnald or Reginaldus
atin form... together with his son Henrico" whom the commentator Michael Wood in a 1981 BBC documentary series identifies as 'Harékr' (from the Latin ''Haeric'' or ''Henricus'' or ''Haericus'') "and brother Ragnald" (from the Latin ''Reginaldo'' or ''Reginaldus''). Historians have been struck by the correspondence with these names in ''Fagrskinna'', which says two of the kings who died with Eric in his final battle against Osulf (Olaf) were called Harékr and Ragnvald, although they are not identified as relatives there
[Campbell, "Two Notes". p. 97.] they certainly are identified as his son (''cum filio'' – meaning: 'with his son') and his brother ( – meaning: 'and his brother') in the North Sagas.
Mother and half-brothers (sagas)
Further details on his family background are provided solely by the Icelandic and Norwegian sources of the 12th and 13th centuries, which are of limited and uncertain historical value and should therefore be treated with due circumspection. Harald 'Fairhair' is usually portrayed as a polygamous and fertile king, the number of his sons varying between 16
[''Historia Norwegiæ'', tr. Kunin, pp. 14–5.] and 20.
[''Ágrip'' ch. 2; ''Heimskringla ''ch.] While Eric's mother remains anonymous in the synoptic histories (''Ágrip'') and most of the Icelandic sagas,
[''Ágrip'' ch. 2; ''Fagrskinna'' ch. 3.] the ''Heimskringla'' (''c''. 1230) claims that she was
Ragnhildr, daughter of Eric, king of (South) Jutland.
[''Heimskringla'' (''Haraldar saga'') ch. 21; likewise, ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' ch. 2. Three ninth-century kings of Jutland called Eric appear in Rimbert's ''Life'' of Anskar (introduction and ch. 26).] The possibility that Harald had married a Danish princess may find some support in a skaldic stanza which is usually assigned to
Þorbjörn Hornklofi
Þórbjǫrn Hornklofi (Modern Norwegian: ''Torbjørn Hornklove'') was a 9th-century Norwegian skald and one of the court poet of King Harald Fairhair. His poetry has sometimes been regarded as a contemporary source of information regarding King Har ...
's ''
Hrafnsmál
''Hrafnsmál'' (Old Norse: ; "raven song") is a fragmentary skaldic poem generally accepted as being written by the 9th-century Norwegian skald Þorbjörn Hornklofi. ''Hrafnsmál'' largely consists of a conversation between an unnamed valkyrie and ...
'', a eulogy on Harald's deeds in the form of a conversation between a raven and
valkyrie
In Norse mythology, a valkyrie ("chooser of the slain") is one of a host of female figures who guide souls of the dead to the god Odin's hall Valhalla. There, the deceased warriors become (Old Norse "single (or once) fighters"Orchard (1997:36) ...
. It tells that Harald "chose the lady from Denmark
'konu danska''/ broke with his Rogaland loves / and his lemans of Horthaland, / the maidens of Hálogaland / and of Hathaland eke."
[''Haraldskvæði (Hrafnsmál)'', ed. R.D. Fulk]
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages
, tr. Hollander, ''Heimskringla'' ''(Haraldar saga)'' ch. 21. The stanza is ascribed to Þorbjörn Hornklofi in ''Heimskringla (Haraldar saga)'' ch. 21 and ''Flateyjarbók'', but to Þjóðólfr of Hvinir later on in ''Flateyjarbók''. In the ''Flateyjarbók'', it is preceded by another stanza which refers to the "handmaidens of Ragnhildr" (''ambáttir Ragnhildar'') as witnesses of the event. However, it is uncertain whether her name was already in the original composition, as another manuscript reading has the metrically regular ''ambáttir Danskar''.
[Note that Fulk has adopted the reading ''Ragnhildar''.] The account of ''Heimskringla'', which claims that Harald had enjoyed the company of eleven consorts before Ragnhildr, and that of ''Egils saga''
[''Egils saga ''ch. 36, which says the Eric was relatively young when most of Harald's sons were of mature age.] are at variance with the suggestion elsewhere that Eric was one of the oldest (''Fagrskinna''), if not the eldest son of Harald (''Historia Norwegiæ'', ''Ágrip'').
[''Fagrskinna ''ch. 3; ''Historia Norwegiæ'', tr. Kunin, p. 14; ''Ágrip'' ch. 2 (specifying in ch. 5 that Haakon was nearly twenty when he returned to Norway); ''Orkneyinga ''Saga ch. 8. The succinct account by Theodoricus ch. 2 has nothing to say on the matter.] Whatever one makes of the discrepancy, the sagas – including ''Heimskringla'' – are unanimous in making Haakon Eric's younger half-brother and successor.
Early career (sagas)
According to ''Heimskringla'' and ''Egils saga'', Eric spent much of his childhood in fosterage with the ''
hersir
A Hersir was a local Viking military commander of a ''hundred'' (a county subdivision) of about 100 men and owed allegiance to a jarl or king. They were also aspiring landowners, and, like the middle class in many feudal societies, supported the k ...
''
Thórir son of Hróald.
[''Heimskringla (Haraldar saga)'' ch. 24, 32 (which adds that Eric was entrusted to Thórir after his mother's death); ''Egils saga'' ch. 36; ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' ch. 2.] Of his adolescent years, a remarkable picture is painted in ''Heimskringla,'' which recounts that Eric, aged twelve and seemingly possessed of prodigious valour and strength, embarked on a career of international piracy: four years were spent harrying the Baltic coasts and those of Denmark, Frisia and Germany ('Saxland'); another four years those of Scotland, Wales, Ireland and France; and lastly, Lappland and Bjarmaland (in what is now northern Russia).
[This episode is not supported by the Kiev history known as the ]Primary Chronicle
The ''Tale of Bygone Years'' ( orv, Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ, translit=Pověstĭ vremęnĭnyxŭ lětŭ; ; ; ; ), often known in English as the ''Rus' Primary Chronicle'', the ''Russian Primary Chronicle'', or simply the ...
, which is silent about any such Eric active in or near Russia. Describing the last trip, ''Egils saga'' notes that Eric sailed up the
Dvina River into the Russian hinterland of
Permia
Great Perm, or simply Perm, in Latin ''Permia'', was a medieval historical region in what is now the Perm Krai of the Russian Federation. Cherdyn is said to have been its capital.
The origin of the name ''Perm'' is uncertain. Most common expla ...
, where he sacked the small trading port of
Permina.
[''Egils saga'' ch. 37. The expedition is dated to the time when Eric ruled ]Hordaland
Hordaland () was a county in Norway, bordering Sogn og Fjordane, Buskerud, Telemark, and Rogaland counties. Hordaland was the third largest county, after Akershus and Oslo, by population. The county government was the Hordaland County Municipal ...
and Fjord Province.
Marriage
The ''Life of St
Cathróe of Metz
Saint Cathróe ( circa 900–971) was a monk and abbot. His life is recorded in a hagiography written soon after his death by a monk at the at Metz, where Cathróe was abbot. Miracles of healing were attributed to Cathróe during his life, ...
'', written ''c''. 1000 at the latest and therefore of near contemporary value, has information about Eric and his wife. It relates that "after keeping him for some time", the King of the Cumbrians conducted Cathróe to ''Loidam Civitatem'', the boundary between the ''Normanni'' ("Scandinavians") and the ''Cumbri'' ("Britons"):
And there he was received by a certain nobleman, Gunderic, by whom he was led to king ''Erichius'' in the town of York, because this king had as wife a relative of the godly Cathróe
Given what is known of Cathróe's own background, this probably means that she was of
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
("Cumbrian") or Scottish descent. This contradicts to some extent later saga tradition. According to the early 13th century ''
Egils saga
''Egill's Saga'' or ''Egil's saga'' ( non, Egils saga ; ) is an Icelandic saga (family saga) on the lives of the clan of Egill Skallagrímsson (Anglicised as Egill Skallagrimsson), an Icelandic farmer, viking and skald. The saga spans the years ...
'', Eric's consort at York was
Gunnhild, the famous "mother of kings".
[''Egils saga'' chs. 45, 57] This account was constructed by the author of ''Egils saga'' using an earlier poem called ''
Arinbjarnarkviða'' "Lay of Arinbjörn", and this poem does not mention Gunnhild by name, implying therefore that the name was introduced by the author of ''Egils saga''.
Saga tradition is, however, unanimous that Eric did cohabit with a woman named Gunnhild. Her name occurs in a handful of Egill's ''lausavísur''. The earliest saga, ''Historia Norwegiæ'', describes her as the daughter of
Gorm inn Gamli
Gorm the Old ( da, Gorm den Gamle; non, Gormr gamli; la, Gormus Senex), also called Gorm the Languid ( da, Gorm Løge, Gorm den Dvaske), was List of Danish monarchs, ruler of Denmark, reigning from to his death or a few years later.Lund, N. ...
(‘the Old’), king of Denmark (and hence a sister of
Harald Bluetooth
Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson ( non, Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson; da, Harald Blåtand Gormsen, died c. 985/86) was a king of Denmark and Norway.
He was the son of King Gorm the Old and of Thyra Dannebod. Harald ruled as king of Denmark from c. 95 ...
). Most subsequent accounts
[Theodoricus names her on several occasions (ch. 2, etc.), but omits to identify her background. For further discussion, see the main article on Gunnhild.] name her father
Ozur, nicknamed either Toti "teat" (''Egils saga, Fagrskinna'', ''Heimskringla'') or lafskegg "dangling beard" (''Ágrip'', ''Fagrskinna''), a man who hailed from the northern province of
Hålogaland
Hålogaland was the northernmost of the Norway, Norwegian provinces in the medieval Norse sagas. In the early Viking Age, before Harald Fairhair, Hålogaland was a Monarchy, kingdom extending between the Namdalen valley in Trøndelag county and ...
(''Egils saga'', ''Heimskringla'').
[''Ágrip'' ch. 5. ''Fagrskinna ''ch. 5; ''Egils saga'' ch. 37, ''Heimskringla'' (''Haraldar saga'') ch. 32 and 34. Cf: the longer account in ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'', ch. 3.] Icelandic hostility towards Gunnhild has been cited as a possible source for her dissociation from the Danish royal house.
[Gwyn Jones, ''A History of the Vikings''. Oxford, 1984. 121–22.]
There is no consensus on how to solve this problem. An early suggestion is that the name for the king in York in the ''Life ''of Cathróe has been erroneously supplanted for Eric's predecessor
Amlaíb Cuarán
Amlaíb mac Sitric (d. 980; non, Óláfr Sigtryggsson ), commonly called Amlaíb Cuarán (O.N.: ), was a 10th-century Norse-Gael who was King of Northumbria and Dublin. His byname, ''cuarán'', is usually translated as "sandal". His name appe ...
(Olaf Sihtricsson), whose (second) wife Dúnflaith was an Irishwoman. Recently, Clare Downham has suggested that ''Erichius'', Eric of Northumbria, is not the same as Eric Bloodaxe. And there remains the possibility that he was not strictly monogamous, and the existence of two wives need not be mutually exclusive.
King of Norway (sagas)
The dominant theme of the sagas about Harald's numerous sons is the struggle for the Norwegian throne, in particular the way it manifests itself in the careers of Haakon and his foil Eric. According to ''Heimskringla'', Harald had appointed his sons as client kings over the various districts of the kingdom, and intended Eric, his favourite son, to inherit the throne after his death.
[''Heimskringla'' ''(Haraldar saga)'' ch. 33.] At strife with his half-brothers, Eric brutally killed Ragnvald (Rögnvaldr), ruler of
Hadeland
Hadeland () is a traditional district in the southeastern part of Norway. It is centered on the southern part of the large lake Randsfjorden in Innlandet and Viken counties. The district consists of the municipalities Gran in Innlandet county a ...
on his father's orders, and
Bjørn Farmann
Bjørn Farmann ("Bjørn the Tradesman", also called Bjørn Haraldsson, Farmand and Kaupman, died between 930 and 934) was a king of Vestfold. Bjørn was one of the sons of King Harald Fairhair of Norway. In late tradition, Bjørn Farmann was made ...
, ruler of
Vestfold
Vestfold is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in Eastern Norway. In 2020 the county became part of the much larger county of Vestfold og Telemark. Located on the western shore of the Oslofjord, it bordered th ...
.
[''Heimskringla'' ''(Haraldar saga)'' ch. 34–5.] Some texts maintain that towards the end of his life, Harald allowed Eric to reign together with him (''Heimskringla'', ''Ágrip'', ''Fagrskinna'')''.'' When Harald died, Eric succeeded to the realm, slaughtered the combined forces of his half-brothers
Olaf
Olaf or Olav (, , or British ; Old Norse: ''Áleifr'', ''Ólafr'', ''Óleifr'', ''Anleifr'') is a Scandinavian and German given name. It is presumably of Proto-Norse origin, reconstructed as ''*Anu-laibaz'', from ''anu'' "ancestor, grand-father" a ...
and Sigrød, and gained full control of Norway.
[''Heimskringla'' ''(Haraldar saga)'' ch. 42–3.] At the time, however, Eric's younger and most famous half-brother Haakon, often nicknamed ''Aðalsteinsfóstri'', had been staying at the West-Saxon court, having been sent there to be reared as fosterson to King Æthelstan (r. 924–939).
[E.g. ''Fagrskinna'' ch. 4. There is no contemporary English evidence for this. The least that can be said is that some form of diplomatic contact may have existed between England and Norway. Writing in the 12th century, ]William of Malmesbury
William of Malmesbury ( la, Willelmus Malmesbiriensis; ) was the foremost English historian of the 12th century. He has been ranked among the most talented English historians since Bede. Modern historian C. Warren Hollister described him as "a ...
records that Æthelstan received an embassy from "a certain Harold, king of the Norwegians" (''Haroldus quiadam, rex Noricorum'') at York and was given a ship. ''Gesta regum'' II ch. 135. See R.I. Page, ''Chronicles of the Vikings''. p. 33–4. A more detailed but fictitious account of Harald's relations with Æthelstan is set out in ''Fagrskinna ''ch. 4. Eric's rule was reputedly harsh and despotic and so he fell rapidly out of favour with the Norwegian nobility. At this propitious time, Haakon returned to Norway, found a nobility eager to accept him as king instead and ousted Eric, who fled to Britain.
[Theodoricus monachus, ch. 2, suggest that Haakon sailed to Norway on the invitation of disgruntled noblemen. ''Heimskringla'', on other hand, explains Haakon's return to Norway merely as a response to news of his father's death.] ''Heimskringla'' specifies that Haakon owed his success in large part to Sigurd, earl of Lade.
Determining the date and length of Eric's reign (before and after his father's death) is a challenging and perhaps impossible task based on the confused chronology of our late sources.
[The sources differ on the length of Eric's reign in Norway and on whether it was preceded by one of joint rule at all, although a number of them appear to agree on a total of five years (''Nóregs konungatal'' stanza 10, ''Ágrip'' ch. 5). Eric's period of joint rule with his father, if given at all, varies between two years (''Ágrip'' ch. 5) and three years (''Fagrskinna'' ch. 5, ''Heimskringla (Haraldar saga)'' ch. 42.). The ''Historia Norwegiæ'' notes only one year of rule and Theodoricus monachus (ch. 2) uniquely distinguishes between two years of single rule and one of joint rule with his brother.] It is also unfortunate that no contemporary or even near contemporary record survives for Eric's short-lived rule in Norway, if it is historical at all.
Jarls of Orkney (sagas)
The Norse sagas differ in the way they treat the manner and route by which Eric first came to Britain after he was forced out of Norway. The synoptic histories offer the most concise accounts. Theodoricus goes straight for Eric's arrival in England, his welcome there by
King Æthelstan, his brief rule and his death soon afterwards. Similarly, the ''Historia Norwegiæ'' makes him flee directly to England, where he was received by his half-brother Haakon, baptised and given charge of Northumbria by Æthelstan. When Eric's rule became intolerable, he was driven out and slain on an expedition in Spain. ''Ágrip'' tells that he came to Denmark first. According to ''Historia Norwegiæ'', it would have been his wife's native country and hence a power base where he might have expected to muster some support, but the text makes no such claims.
[That Haakon regarded Danish loyalties as an issue in need of military attention is suggested by his naval campaigns in Sjóland, Skáney and Vestra-Gautland, although Eric appears to have made the move forward by this time (''Ágrip'' ch. 5). However, Gunnhild's Danish background is no longer readily apparent in the text. M. Cormack, "''Egils saga'', ''Heimskringla'', and the Daughter of Eiríkr blóðøx." p. 63.]
However, later sagas greatly expand upon Eric's activities in the interim between his reigns in Norway and Northumbria, claiming that he initially adopted a predatory lifestyle of raiding, whether or not he was aiming for a more political line of business in the longer run. The
jarldom of Orkney, the former Viking base subjected and annexed by Eric's father, came to loom large in these stages of the literary development. ''Fagrskinna'' (''c''. 1220) mentions his daughter Ragnhild and her marriage to an Orkney earl, here Hávard, but never describes Eric as actually stepping ashore. The ''Orkneyinga saga'', written ''c''. 1200, does speak of his presence in Orkney and his alliance with the joint jarls
Arnkel and
Erland, sons of
Torf-Einarr
Einarr Rognvaldarson ( early 890s–c. 910), often referred to by his byname Torf-Einarr (sometimes anglicised as Turf-Einar), was one of the Norse earls of Orkney. The son of the Norse ''jarl'' Rognvald Eysteinsson and a concubine, his rise t ...
, but not until his rule in Northumbria was challenged by Olaf (Amlaíb Cuarán). However, a number of later sagas such as the ''
Separate Saga of St. Olaf
''The Separate (or Independent) Saga of St. Olaf'' ''(Olav den helliges saga'') is one of the kings' sagas. It was written about King Olaf II of Norway (''Olaf Haraldsson''), later Saint Olaf (''Olav den Hellige''), patron saint of Norway.
His ...
'' (''c''. 1225), ''Heimskringla'', ''Egils saga'' and ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' assert that he sailed directly to Orkney, where he took the joint jarls into vassalage, collected forces and so set up a base which enabled him to organise several expeditions in overseas territory. Named targets include Ireland, the Hebrides, Scotland and England. Eric sealed the alliance by giving his daughter
Ragnhild in marriage to the future earl of Orkney, Arnfinn, son of Thorfinn Turf-Einarsson.
[''Heimskringla (Hákonar saga)'' ch. 3; ''Egils saga'' ch. 59; ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' ch. 15. For further discussion, see M. Cormack, "''Egils saga'', ''Heimskringla'', and the Daughter of Eiríkr blóðøx."]
King of Northumbria
It is when Eric gains the kingship in Northumbria that he finally steps more firmly into the historical limelight, even though the sources provide only scanty detail and present notorious problems of their own. The historical sources – e.g., versions A-F of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', ''Historia regum'' and Roger of Wendover's ''Historia Anglorum –'' tend to be reticent and the chronology is confused. However, the best chronological guideline appears to be that offered by the Worcester Chronicle, i.e., the D-text of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.
[Clare Downham, "Chronology."]
The Northumbria on which he set foot was one which had been bitterly fought over between the West-Saxon kings and the Hiberno-Norse line of descendants from
Ímair, kings of Dublin. The Northumbrians' own position in the middle of the struggle may have been complex and the outcome was variable, leading an unsympathetic historian like Henry of Huntingdon to judge harshly "their usual faithlessness" (''solita infidelitas'').
[Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia'' V ch. 22.]
Historical background
Æthelstan
In 927, having ejected
Gofraid ua Ímair
Gofraid ua Ímair or Guthfrith of Ivar ( non, Guðrøðr , la, Guthfridus, fl. from AD 918 until death in 934) was a Hiberno-Scandinavian (people of Gaelic and Scandinavian birth and Culture) and Viking leader who ruled Dublin and briefly Vik ...
from York,
King Æthelstan brought Northumbria under English control. His victory in the
Battle of Brunanburh
The Battle of Brunanburh was fought in 937 between Æthelstan, King of England, and an alliance of Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, Constantine II, King of Scotland, and Owain, King of Strathclyde. The battle is often cited as the point ...
in 937, in which he and his half-brother Edmund defeated Gofraid's son
King Olaf (III) Guthfrithson of Dublin, seems to have had the effect of consolidating his power. This impression is borne out by royal charters issued towards the end of his reign, between 937 and 939, which style Æthelstan ruler over all Britain (e.g., or ).
[For instance, S 432 (AD 437): 'Rex totius Albionis'; S 437 (AD 937): 'rex Anglorum et eque totius Albionis gubernator '; S 438 (AD 937): 'basileos Anglorum et et eque totius Britannie orbis'; S 441 (AD 938): 'basileus industrius Anglorum cunctarumque gentium in circuitu persistentium'; S 444 (AD 938): 'tocius rex Brittanniæ'; S 446 (AD 939): 'basileos Anglorum et equæ totius Brittanniæ orbis curagulus'; S 449 (AD 939).]
Edmund and the two Olafs
![Midland Map - 5 Boroughs 912 Ad](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Midland_Map_-_5_Boroughs_912_Ad.svg)
However, Æthelstan died in 939 and his successor
Edmund
Edmund is a masculine given name or surname in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector".
Persons named Edmund include:
People Kings and ...
, only 18 years of age,
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 940 for 939.] was unable to retain control of Northumbria. In 939 or 940, almost as soon as Edmund had come to power, a new ruler of the
Uí Ímair
The Uí Ímair (; meaning ‘''scions of Ivar’''), also known as the Ivar Dynasty or Ivarids was a royal Norse-Gael dynasty which ruled much of the Irish Sea region, the Kingdom of Dublin, the western coast of Scotland, including the Hebrides ...
dynasty had made York his seat. From Irish annals it is known that Edmund's old rival
Olaf Guthfrithson
Olaf Guthfrithson or Anlaf Guthfrithson ( non, Óláfr Guðrøðsson ; oe, Ánláf; sga, Amlaíb mac Gofraid; died 941) was a Hiberno-Scandinavian (Irish-Viking) leader who ruled Dublin and Viking Northumbria in the 10th century. He was th ...
left Dublin in 939 (''Annals of the Four Masters''), that in 940 his cousin, known in Ireland as
Amlaíb Cuarán
Amlaíb mac Sitric (d. 980; non, Óláfr Sigtryggsson ), commonly called Amlaíb Cuarán (O.N.: ), was a 10th-century Norse-Gael who was King of Northumbria and Dublin. His byname, ''cuarán'', is usually translated as "sandal". His name appe ...
and in England as Olaf Sihtricsson, joined him in York (''Annals of the Four Masters'', ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'') and that Olaf Guthfrithson died in 941 (''Annals of Clonmacnoise'','' Chronicon Scotorum''), while the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS E) dates his death – incorrectly it seems – to 942.
[Downham, "Chronology". 33–34. ''Annals of the Four Masters'' II 638 (AD 937 for 939); ''Annals of the Four Masters'' II 640 (AD 938 for 940), ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' pp. 151–52 (AD 933 for 940); ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' p. 152 (AD 934 for 941), ''Chronicon Scotorum'' p. 202 (AD 940 for 941).] Amlaíb Cuarán succeeded him and did so with popular support, as the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) reports that in 941, "the Northumbrians belied their pledges, and chose Olaf
.e., Amlaíb Cuaránfrom Ireland as their king."
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 941.] Amlaíb shared the throne with his nephew
Ragnald (Rögnvaldr), son of Gofraid. There are indications that
Wulfstan, Archbishop of York and a leading statesman in Northumbrian politics, played a key role in Amlaíb's support, although he would later change his mind (see below). In 942 Edmund struck back with a recapture of Mercia and the
Five Boroughs
5 is a number, numeral, and glyph.
5, five or number 5 may also refer to:
* AD 5, the fifth year of the AD era
* 5 BC, the fifth year before the AD era
Literature
* ''5'' (visual novel), a 2008 visual novel by Ram
* ''5'' (comics), an awar ...
of
Danelaw
The Danelaw (, also known as the Danelagh; ang, Dena lagu; da, Danelagen) was the part of England in which the laws of the Danes held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. The Danelaw contrasts with the West Saxon law and the Mercian ...
, which so impressed contemporaries that a poem was written in honour of the achievement and included in the ''Chronicle''.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 942. The borders of Mercia are here given as Dore, ]Whitwell Gate Whitwell may refer to:
Places
;UK
*Whitwell, Derbyshire
**Whitwell Common, Derbyshire
* Whitwell, Hertfordshire
*Whitwell, Isle of Wight
*Whitwell & Reepham railway station, Norfolk
*Whitwell, North Yorkshire, near Catterick
*Whitwell, Rutland
*Whi ...
and the Humber
The Humber is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal rivers Ouse and Trent. From there to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between th ...
. In response, Amlaíb launched a successful raid on
Tamworth (Mercia), probably sometime later that year.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 943. The entry for this year consists of three items: (1) the raid on Tamworth, probably in (late) 942, (2) the Leicester debacle (beginning with ''Her'', as if intended for 943) and (3) the reconciliation between Olaf and Edmund. The first two items, clumsily incorporated as they seem, are unique to the ''Chronicles'' and appear to derive from a northern source. These broadly overlap with information found in the ''Historia regum'', a later representative of this northern recension. The ''Historia regum'', which is often unreliable on matters of chronology but which contains valuable detail not found elsewhere, adds that Olaf first went south to the Mercian town of ]Northampton
Northampton () is a market town and civil parish in the East Midlands of England, on the River Nene, north-west of London and south-east of Birmingham. The county town of Northamptonshire, Northampton is one of the largest towns in England; ...
(''Hamtona'') before he proceeded to Tamworth. Downham, "Chronology". pp. 34–41 (where she takes issue with earlier views since Beaven, who rejected the chronology of the D-text of the ''Chronicle'' in favour of less reliable sources such as ''Historia regum''). However, in 943, when Amlaíb had marched on to
Leicester
Leicester ( ) is a city status in the United Kingdom, city, Unitary authorities of England, unitary authority and the county town of Leicestershire in the East Midlands of England. It is the largest settlement in the East Midlands.
The city l ...
, one of the Boroughs, he and Wulfstan were besieged by Edmund and managed to escape only by a hair's breadth. Peace negotiations followed later that year to the effect that Edmund accepted Amlaíb as an ally and as two northern sources add, ceded to him Northumbria as far south as Watling Street. Later, Edmund stood sponsor to him at baptism and to Ragnall at confirmation. In 944, however, Northumbria passed into West-Saxon hands again as Edmund drove out both Viking rulers.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS A, E) 945.] The chronicler
Æthelweard Æthelweard, also spelled Ethelweard, Aethelweard, Athelweard, etc., is an Anglo-Saxon male name. It may refer to:
* King Æthelweard of the Hwicce (''fl''. 7/8th century)
* King Æthelweard of East Anglia (''fl.'' mid-9th century)
* Æthelweard (s ...
is clearer on the point of agency, writing that it was Wulfstan and the ealdorman () of the Mercians who deposed these 'deserters' – perhaps born again pagans – and forced them to submit to Edmund.
[Æthelweard, ''Chronicon'' IV, ch. 6''. ''] The same year, Edmund raided Cumbria and entrusted it to
Malcolm (I) of Scotland in exchange for support "both on sea and on land". The Irish annals report that in 945, Amlaíb was back in Dublin and an anonymous ruler at York, possibly Ragnald (Rögnvaldr), died. Edmund was described as in one of his charters, but did not live long enough to enjoy his renewed hold on the northern zone. He was killed in 946.
Eric's first reign (947/8–948)
When
Eadred
Eadred (c. 923 – 23 November 955) was King of the English from 26 May 946 until his death. He was the younger son of Edward the Elder and his third wife Eadgifu, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. His elder brother, Edmund, was killed tryin ...
succeeded to the throne in 946, Northumbrian as well as Scottish loyalties had proved unstable, though nothing is known for certain of the ambitions of rival rulers at this stage. Eadred "reduced all the land of Northumbria to his control; and the Scots granted him oaths that they would do all that he wanted."
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS D, E) 946. Cf: William of Malmesbury, ''Gesta regum'' II ch. 146: "The Northumbrians and Scots were easily brought to swear an oath of fealty to him adred.] Moreover, in 947 he convened Archbishop Wulfstan and the Northumbrian witan at
Tanshelf (now in
Pontefract
Pontefract is a historic market town in the Metropolitan Borough of Wakefield in West Yorkshire, England, east of Wakefield and south of Castleford. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is one of the towns in the City of Wake ...
, West Yorkshire), on the boundary of the Humber (near an old Roman road), where they pledged their obedience to him. What perceived threat was being countered remains unclear, but English rule does not seem to have been very warmly received.
In any event, the ''Chronicle'' (MS D) notes that the Northumbrians soon violated their pledges and oaths (947)
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 947.] and records a definite outcome of their disloyalty in 948, by which time "they had taken Eirik
'Yryc''for their king".
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 948. Cf: William of Malmesbury, ''Gesta regum'' II ch. 146: "... and soon afterwards, when they broke the agreement and set up a certain King Eric [] over them, he [Eadred] almost wiped them out, and laid waste the whole province with famine and bloodshed."] That year, King Eadred harshly punished the northern defectors by launching a destructive raid on Northumbria, which notably included burning the
Ripon
Ripon () is a cathedral city in the Borough of Harrogate, North Yorkshire, England. The city is located at the confluence of two tributaries of the River Ure, the Laver and Skell. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the city ...
minster founded by
St Wilfrid
Wilfrid ( – 709 or 710) was an English bishop and saint. Born a Northumbrian noble, he entered religious life as a teenager and studied at Lindisfarne, at Canterbury, in Francia, and at Rome; he returned to Northumbria in about 660, and ...
. Although Eadred's forces had to sustain heavy losses in the Battle of
Castleford
Castleford is a town within the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. It had a population of 45,106 at a 2021 population estimate. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, to the north of the town centre the River Calder joins the ...
(''Ceaster forda'') – near Tanshelf – as they returned southwards, Eadred managed to check his rival by promising the latter's supporters even greater havoc if they did not desert Eric. The Northumbrians preferred to appease the English king, renounced Eric and paid compensation.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 948. ''Historia regum'' AD 950, ed. Arnold, vol. 2, p. 127: 'Verum hoc cognito, Northymbrenses timore perterriti, Yrcum quem sibi regem praefecerant abjecerunt, regis injurias honoribus, detrimenta muneribus expleverunt, ejusque offensam pecunia non modica placaverunt'.]
The
Chronicle of the Kings of Alba
The ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', or ''Scottish Chronicle'', is a short written chronicle of the Kings of Alba, covering the period from the time of Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) (d. 858) until the reign of Kenneth II (Cináed mac ...
records that shortly thereafter, in 948 or 949,
Malcolm (I) of Scotland and Cumbria, at
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
* Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given na ...
's instigation, raided Northumbria as far south as the
River Tees
The River Tees (), in Northern England, rises on the eastern slope of Cross Fell in the North Pennines and flows eastwards for to reach the North Sea between Hartlepool and Redcar near Middlesbrough. The modern day history of the river has be ...
and returned with many cattle and captives.
[''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', ed. Skene, p. 10.] Marios Costambeys suggests that it "may have been directed against, or mounted in favour of, Eirik, though the protagonist could just as easily have been Óláf Sihtricson."
[Costambeys, "Erik Bloodaxe (''d''. 954)".]
Eric's second reign (952–954)
Eric's removal cleared the way for Amlaíb
nlaf Cwiran who having suffered defeat at
Slane
Slane () is a village in County Meath, in Ireland. The village stands on a steep hillside on the left bank of the River Boyne at the intersection of the N2 (Dublin to Monaghan road) and the N51 (Drogheda to Navan road). As of the 2016 census ...
(Co. Meath, Ireland) in 947, returned to Northumbria and took the kingship, supposedly in 949, if the E-text is to be trusted.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ''(MS E) 949. The E-text of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' describes Edmund's death two years too late and accordingly, some doubts may be cast over the dating of Amlaíb's arrival in 949 and his expulsion in favour of Eric in 952. However, a solid for Amlaíb's second reign at York is provided by the entry for 948 in the D-text and by the Irish entries for Amlaíb's defeat in Slane in 947.] Eadred does not appear to have undertaken any significant action and may even have turned a blind eye on his brother's godson, or so at least the silence of the sources appears to suggest.
The E-text reports, however, that in 952, "the Northumbrians drove out King Olaf and accepted Eric, son of Harold."
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS E) 952. Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia Anglorum'', assigns it to the fourth year of Eadred's reign.] The Annals of Ulster for the same year report a victory of the "foreigners", i.e., the Northmen or the Norse-Gaels, over "the men of Scotland and the Welsh
'Bretnu'', i.e., Britons of Strathclydeand the Saxons."
[''Annals of Ulster''] Exactly what this succinct account may tell us of his second rise to power, if anything, is frustratingly unclear. He may have led the Viking forces in a second bid for the throne, or only returned from the sideline to exploit the ravages of defeat.
His reign proved once again of a short duration, since in 954 (a date on which MSS D and E agree), the Northumbrians expelled him, too.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MSS D, E) 954. Henry of Huntingdon, ''Historia Anglorum'': "King Eadred, in the seventh year of his reign, was once more received in the kingdom of Northumbria."]
Clare Downham notes the existence of an otherwise unrecorded ''Eltangerht'', whose coins were minted at York and date from about the same time, but nothing is known of him from other records.
[Clare Downham, "Chronology". p. 48.]
Archbishop Wulfstan and the charters
The nature of Eric's relationship with
Archbishop Wulfstan, the leading Northumbrian churchman who played such a decisive role in Amlaíb's career in the early 940s, remains tantalisingly unclear. One might assume that Wulfstan, given his political eminence, headed the Northumbrian party which elected Eric. It has likewise been suggested that Eadred's punitive attack on the ancient minster of Ripon, which carried little military weight, was targeted at Wulfstan in particular. In what sense his deposition in 948 may have affected the relationship in later years is more open to speculation.
The witness lists of
Anglo-Saxon charters, which reveal when or not Wulfstan attended Eadred's court, in his own right or as a diplomat intermediating between two kings, have been used to provide a chronological framework for Wulfstan's swerving loyalties. Between 938 and 941, that is roughly between the Battle of Brunanburh (937) and the recovery of the Five Boroughs (942), the archbishop did not attest any royal charters, but he began to do so during or after the negotiations of 942.
[The following is based on 'Wulfstan 14, fl. 931–956', ''Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England''. Accessed: 6 February 2009.] What the charters reveal for Eric's first reign is less clear-cut, but intermittent absence may explain gaps in the record for Wulfstan's attestations in the turbulent years 947–948.
[AD 946 (Eadred's reign): S 519–20. In 947, Wulfstan attests six or seven charters (S 522a, 523, 525–26, 528, 542 and the spurious S 521), but he is absent from another four (S 522, 524, 527, 530); in AD 948, it is eight charters (S 531–32, 535, 542, 547 and the spurious S 536–37, 540) against three (S 533–34 and the spurious 538). One may compare Wulfstan's attendance (S 544, 546, 548–550, 552) and non-attendance (S 545, 547, 551) in AD 949.] Unfortunately, the critical period between 950 and 954 has produced comparatively few charters (owing perhaps to Eadred's deteriorating health), but what little there is may be instructive. Wulfstan is still seen at court in 950, but of the five charters which were issued in 951, not one was attested by him,
[S 554–548 (AD 951).] which once again may imply his backing of Amlaíb. Eric's reign (952–954) is more obscure. We do know, however, that in 952, the same year that Eric began his second term at York, Wulfstan was arrested and stood on trial in ''Iudanbyrig'' (unknown)
[On the authority of Simeon of Durham, ]Michael Swanton
Michael James Swanton (born 1939) is a British historian, linguist, archaeologist and literary critic, specialising in the Anglo-Saxon period and its Old English literature.
Early life
Born in Bermondsey, in the East End of London, in childho ...
(in his translation, n. 10) identifies ''Iudanbyrig'' with Jedburgh, "a manor of the bishops of Lindisfarne", now in Roxburghshire, in the south-east of Scotland. Cf: Downham, "Chronology". p. 47 n. 162; Andrew Breeze, "Some Scottish names, including 'Vacomagi, Boresti, Iudanbyrig, Aberlessic' and 'Dubuice'." ''Scottish language'' 26 (2007): pp. 79–95. on account of several unspecified allegations which had been repeatedly brought before Eadred.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 952.] Of the few charters surviving for 953, Wulfstan attests one
[S 560 (AD 953).] and by 955, after Eric's death, he was restored to office, but now with
Dorchester rather than York as his episcopal seat.
[''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (MS D) 954.] Clare Downham suggests that during this period, Wulfstan may have been pressured by King Eadred into relinquishing his support of Eric.
Coinage
![Eric-Rex-coins](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Eric-Rex-coins.jpg)
Eric's Northumbrian rule is also corroborated by numismatic evidence. As of 3 February 2009, 31 coins minted at York had been found which bear the inscription of his name. These can be divided into two distinct types of issue: N549, in which the moneyer's name (reverse) is written horizontally and broken up in two, and N550, in which his name is inscribed around the edges and Eric's name (obverse) accompanied by a sword symbol (image above on the right). The two principal moneyers, Ingalger and Radulf, who had also minted coins for Amlaíb, occur on both types. The two types may correspond to his two reigns, but it is not out of the question that both were issued during a single reign.
[Costambeys, "Erik Bloodaxe (''d.'' 954)".]
''Life'' of St Cathróe
Eric's sudden appearance in the ''Chronicle'', first noted by the D-text, is a puzzling one, lacking any information as to how or why he emerged on the scene. As hinted above, the ''Life'' of the Scottish saint
Cathróe of Metz
Saint Cathróe ( circa 900–971) was a monk and abbot. His life is recorded in a hagiography written soon after his death by a monk at the at Metz, where Cathróe was abbot. Miracles of healing were attributed to Cathróe during his life, ...
, written by a cleric (Reimann) who claimed to have been a former pupil of the saint, may possibly shed some light on his background. St Cathróe, a Scottish saint with a
Brythonic
Brittonic or Brythonic may refer to:
*Common Brittonic, or Brythonic, the Celtic language anciently spoken in Great Britain
*Brittonic languages, a branch of the Celtic languages descended from Common Brittonic
*Britons (Celtic people)
The Br ...
name, visited a certain King Eric (''Erichus'') in York as he proceeded southwards from his native
Strathclyde
Strathclyde ( in Gaelic, meaning "strath (valley) of the River Clyde") was one of nine former local government regions of Scotland created in 1975 by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 and abolished in 1996 by the Local Government et ...
and Cumbria to ''Loida civitas'', sometimes identified as
Leeds
Leeds () is a city and the administrative centre of the City of Leeds district in West Yorkshire, England. It is built around the River Aire and is in the eastern foothills of the Pennines. It is also the third-largest settlement (by populati ...
, on the boundary with Cumbria, ultimately intending to go to West France.
[He was escorted by a certain nobleman called Gunderic "a quo perducitur ad regem Erichium in Euroacum urbem, qui scilicet rex habebat conjugem, ipsius Divini Cathroë propinquam". A. O. Anderson (ed.), ''Early Sources'', p. 441.] This Eric was both settled and married, and may have been on good terms with his neighbours in the north-west, although the evidence is indirect and somewhat ambiguous: the saint claimed kinship not only with Eric's wife but also with
Dyfnwal (III) (d. 975), king of Strathclyde and Cumbria (''Donevaldus, rex Cumbrorum''), which may point to an alliance of some kind between the two rulers. Based on internal evidence for the saint's itinerary, Cathróe's stay is to be dated between 940 x 943, when
Constantine (II) left the kingdom of Scotland to
Malcolm (I), and 946, when Edmund was slain.
[Downham, "Chronology". p. 26–7.] The greatest obstacle to an identification of the Erics lies in the problem that the account would be difficult to square with the version of events presented by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' and the assertion in royal charters that in 946, Edmund was still king of all Britain.
[E.g. ''rex et primicerius totius Albionis'', S 509 (AD 946).] It may be noted that the text's chronology has likewise presented some difficulties concerning the political status of Dyfnwal in the story (see
main article there).
King of the Hebrides (''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'')
A further glimpse may be offered by the mid-12th-century Irish saga entitled ''
Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil
''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'' ("The Victorious Career of Cellachán of Cashel")Donnchadh Ó Corráin writes that this title "was first given it by Eugene O'Curry in his transcript of the text. It has no title in the earliest copy, that in th ...
'', a text which was primarily designed to glorify the deeds of
Cellachán mac Buadacháin (d. 954), king of Munster, and hence his descendants, the
Clann Faílbe. In one of its poems, an "Eric, King of the Islands" (''Éiric Righ na n-Innse''), meaning ruler of the Hebrides,
[''Dictionary of the Irish Language'' cols. 269–70, 'inis' ( ww.edil.ie.''.''] is described as having allied himself to Sitriuc mac Tuirgeis, king of Dublin.
[''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'' § 44, pp. 25, 83.] Although the ''Caithréim'' is hardly a work celebrated for its accuracy as a source of history, the distant memory of an Eric who ruled the
Hebrides
The Hebrides (; gd, Innse Gall, ; non, Suðreyjar, "southern isles") are an archipelago off the west coast of the Scottish mainland. The islands fall into two main groups, based on their proximity to the mainland: the Inner and Outer Hebrid ...
may not be fictitious. It may be a matter of coincidence that the next Vikings known to have ruled the Hebrides were also 'sons of Harold',
Gofraid mac Arailt
Gofraid mac Arailt (died 989), in Old Norse Guðrøðr Haraldsson , was a Scandinavian or Norse-Gael king. He and his brother Maccus were active in the lands around the Irish Sea in the 970s and 980s.
Origins
Gofraid and Maccus are usually assume ...
, ''ri Innsi Gall'' (d. 989), who was succeeded by his son Ragnall, ''rí na n-innsi'' (d. 1005),
[''Annals of Ulster ''AD 989, 1005.] and probably Gofraid's brother
Maccus mac Arailt
Maccus mac Arailt ( fl. 971–974), or Maccus Haraldsson, was a tenth-century King of the Isles. Although his parentage is uncertain, surviving evidence suggests that he was the son of Harald Sigtryggson, also known as Aralt mac Sitriuc, the Hib ...
, who is accorded the title "king of very many islands" ().
[John of Worcester, ''Chronicle'' AD 973 and ''Historia regum'' AD 973, ed. Arnold, p. 130.]
Death
![Eric places](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Eric_places.jpg)
The ''Chronicle'' gives no explanation, but it seems as if the abdications of Amlaíb and Eric are described as essentially northern affairs, apparently without much (direct) West-Saxon intervention, let alone invasion. The historical accounts of Eric's death point to more complex circumstances, but Northumbrian politics are to the fore. Following a report on the invasion of Scotland by
William I
William I; ang, WillelmI (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman king of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087 ...
in 1072, the ''Historia regum'' attributed to
Symeon of Durham
__NOTOC__
Symeon (or Simeon) of Durham (died after 1129) was an English chronicler and a monk of Durham Priory.
Biography
Symeon entered the Benedictine monastery at Jarrow as a youth. It moved to Durham in 1074, and he was professed in 1085 or ...
recalls that Eric was driven out and slain by one Maccus son of Onlaf.
['Illico Northymbrenses, expulso rege suo atque occiso a Maccus filio Onlafi, juramentis et muneribus placaverunt regem Eadredum, commissa provincia Osulfo comiti.' ''Historia regum ''AD 1072, ed. Arnold, p. 197; similarly, Roger of Howden, ''Chronica'' I, p. 57.] The ''Flores historiarum'' (early 13th century) by
Roger of Wendover
Roger of Wendover (died 6 May 1236), probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire, was an English chronicler of the 13th century.
At an uncertain date he became a monk at St Albans Abbey; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of ...
is thought to have relied on a northern source now lost to us when it adds the following details:
Stainmore
Stainmore is a remote geographic area in the Pennines on the border of Cumbria, County Durham and North Yorkshire. The name is used for a civil parish in the Eden District of Cumbria, England, including the villages of North Stainmore and South ...
, traditionally in
Westmorland
Westmorland (, formerly also spelt ''Westmoreland'';R. Wilkinson The British Isles, Sheet The British IslesVision of Britain/ref> is a historic county in North West England spanning the southern Lake District and the northern Dales. It had an ...
and administratively in
Cumbria
Cumbria ( ) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in North West England, bordering Scotland. The county and Cumbria County Council, its local government, came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. Cumb ...
, lies in the main pass through the northern
Pennines
The Pennines (), also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills, are a range of uplands running between three regions of Northern England: North West England on the west, North East England and Yorkshire and the Humber on the east. Commo ...
, the Stainmore Pass or Gap, which marks the boundary between Cumbria in the west and modern
Durham Durham most commonly refers to:
*Durham, England, a cathedral city and the county town of County Durham
*County Durham, an English county
*Durham County, North Carolina, a county in North Carolina, United States
*Durham, North Carolina, a city in No ...
in the east. It is here that the mountains are traversed by an old Roman road – more or less followed by the
A66 today – leading from York to
Catterick and north-westwards from Catterick (via
Bowes
Bowes is a village in County Durham, England. Located in the Pennine hills, it is situated close to Barnard Castle. It is built around the medieval Bowes Castle.
Geography and administration Civic history
Bowes lies within the historic count ...
, Stainmore,
Brough,
Appleby and
Penrith) to
Carlisle
Carlisle ( , ; from xcb, Caer Luel) is a city that lies within the Northern England, Northern English county of Cumbria, south of the Anglo-Scottish border, Scottish border at the confluence of the rivers River Eden, Cumbria, Eden, River C ...
. Eric may therefore have followed by and large the same route that St Cathroé had taken, except in the opposite direction, possibly with Strathclyde or the Hebrides as his intended destination.
The ''comes''
Osulf who betrayed Eric was high-reeve of the northern half of Northumbria, centred on Bamburgh, roughly corresponding to the former kingdom of Bernicia. He clearly benefited from his murderous plot against Eric. The ''
Historia regum
The ''Historia Regum'' ("History of the Kings") is a historical compilation attributed to Symeon of Durham, which presents material going from the death of Bede until 1129. It survives only in one manuscript compiled in Yorkshire in the mid-to-lat ...
'' says that the province of Northumbria was henceforward administered by earls and records the formal appointment of Osulf as earl of Northumbria the following year.
[''Historia regum'' (6th section) AD 952, ed. Arnold, vol. 2, p. 94: 'defecerunt hic reges Northanhymbrorum; et deinceps ipsa provincia administrata est per comites'; ''Historia regum'' (section 6) AD 953, ed. Arnold, vol. 2, p. 94: 'Comes Osulf suscepit comitatum Northanhymbrorum'.] Likewise, the early 12th century ''
De primo Saxonum adventu
'' De primo Saxonum adventu '' is a historical work, probably written in Durham during the episcopate of Ranulf Flambard (1099–1128).Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', p. lxxix. It recounts the coming of the English (called the "Saxons") ...
'' notes that "
rst of the earls after Erik, the last king whom the Northumbrians had, Osulf administered under King Eadred all the provinces of the Northumbrians."
['Primus comitum post Eiricum, quem ultimum regem habuerunt Northymbrenses, Osulf provincias omnes Northanhymbrorum sub Edrido rege procuravit'. ''De primo Saxonum adventu'', ed. Arnold, vol. 2, p. 382, tr. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 77.] By contrast, the identity of Eric's slayer, the ''comes ''Maccus son of Anlaf, is unclear. His name may point to origins in a Norse-Gaelic family based in the
Border country
The Anglo-Scottish border () is a border separating Scotland and England which runs for between Marshall Meadows Bay on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The surrounding area is sometimes referred to as "the Borderlands".
The ...
. While Anlaf (Middle Irish: ''Amlaíb'', Old Norse: ''Óláfr'') is a common Scandinavian and Norse-Gaelic name,
Maccus Maccus is a personal name which is first attested and possibly coined in the tenth century, the name Maccus, later also written as Mac(c)hus, was especially common in the Border country:
*Maccus mac Arailt (fl. 971–974), also Maccus Haraldsson.
...
, a Norse-Gaelic name of Middle Irish origin, is geographically more restricted and is particularly well attested in southern Scottish place-names.
[David E. Thornton, "Hey Mac! The name Maccus, tenth to fifteenth centuries". ''Nomina'' 20 (1997–9): 67–98. Alex Woolf concludes that the name would seem to be "intimately connected with the zone of Gaelic, Norse and Anglo-Saxon fusion in Northumbria". ''From Pictland to Alba''. p. 190 note 26.] Based on Eric's confrontation with his predecessor Óláfr in ''Fagrskinna'', attempts have been made to connect Onlaf to
Amlaíb Cuarán
Amlaíb mac Sitric (d. 980; non, Óláfr Sigtryggsson ), commonly called Amlaíb Cuarán (O.N.: ), was a 10th-century Norse-Gael who was King of Northumbria and Dublin. His byname, ''cuarán'', is usually translated as "sandal". His name appe ...
, but this must remain in the realm of speculation.
Eric's death receives a grander treatment in the synoptic histories and sagas. ''Fagrskinna'', apparently the ''Eiríksmál'' which it incorporates, and ''Heimskringla'' assert that Eric and five other kings died together in battle in an unnamed place in England.
[''Fagrskinna'' ch. 8; ''Heimskringla'' ''(Hakonar saga) ''ch. 4.] According to ''Ágrip'' and ''Historia Norwegiæ'', Eric died on a foray in Spain after being forced out of Northumbria.
[''Ágrip'' ch. 7; ''Historia Norwegiæ'' 106.] Somewhat in line with the former version, earlier generations of scholars have envisaged the occasion of Eric's death on Stainmore to have been a last stand in battle.
[W. G. Collingwood, "King Eiríkr of York".] The view was espoused by W.G. Collingwood and later still by
Frank Stenton
Sir Frank Merry Stenton, FBA (17 May 1880 – 15 September 1967) was an English historian of Anglo-Saxon England, and president of the Royal Historical Society (1937–1945).
The son of Henry Stenton of Southwell, Nottinghamshire, he was edu ...
, who speculates that Eric might have attempted to regain the kingdom or was fighting off pursuers.
[W. G. Collingwood, "The Battle of Stainmoor"; F. M. Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England''. p. 360.] Finnur Jónsson
Finnur Jónsson (May 29, 1858 – March 30, 1934) was an Icelandic-Danish philologist and Professor of Nordic Philology at the University of Copenhagen. He made extensive contributions to the study of Old Norse literature.
Finnur Jónsson was b ...
re-interprets the alternative tradition in a historical light by proposing that ''Span-'' "Spain" in ''Ágrip'' goes back to a scribal confusion for ''Stan''-, which in turn would have referred to Stainmore (OE *''Stan''). Having thus ascribed a historical core to the body of Scandinavian material, he in turn interprets the event as a battle.
[Finnur Jónsson, ''Den Oldnorske og Oldislandske Litteraturs Historie''. Copenhagen, 1920–1924. 3 vols: vol 2. 2nd ed. p. 614, note 2.]
However, scholars today are usually less prepared to colour the sober records with details from the sagas, preferring to take the view that Eric was assassinated in exile.
[Smyth, ''Warlords''. p. 228; Hudson, ''Viking pirates''. pp. 5, 38.] In sum then, it looks as if Eric, expelled and heading in a north-westerly direction (possibly in search of support), was about to cross over into Cumbria, when in a bid for power, his official Osulf had him killed through the agency of Maccus. Exactly what made this a betrayal (''proditio'') in the eyes of the 10th century chronicler or those of
Roger of Wendover
Roger of Wendover (died 6 May 1236), probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire, was an English chronicler of the 13th century.
At an uncertain date he became a monk at St Albans Abbey; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of ...
, is unclear. It is unknown whether Osulf was also behind Eric's expulsion, despite being the main beneficiary, and whether he was expected to grant Eric safe passage and perhaps an escort to guide him safely through that part of Northumbria over which he (Osulf) had jurisdiction. It is equally obscure whether Maccus ambushed his victims, or was part of the escort, betraying them (''fraudulenter'') as soon as he saw the opportunity.
''Eiríksmál''
Towards the end of its portrait of Eric, ''
Fagrskinna
''Fagrskinna'' ( ; is, Fagurskinna ; trans. "Fair Leather" from the type of parchment) is one of the kings' sagas, written around 1220. It is an intermediate source for the ''Heimskringla'' of Snorri Sturluson, containing histories of Norwegian k ...
'' cites the ''
Eiríksmál Eiríksmál is a skaldic poem composed c. 954 at the behest of the Norwegian queen Gunnhild
in honour of her slain consort Erik Bloodaxe. Only the beginning of the poem is extant.
According to Roger of Wendover, Eric, a Viking ruler was betrayed ...
'' ("Lay of Eric"), an anonymous panegyric written in commemoration of Eric's death and according to the saga's introduction, commissioned by his widow Gunnhild.
Except for a single stanza in the Edda, the skaldic poem is preserved nowhere else and what has survived may represent only the opening stanzas.
Cast as a dialogue between
Bragi
Bragi (; Old Norse: ) is the skaldic god of poetry in Norse mythology.
Etymology
The theonym Bragi probably stems from the masculine noun ''bragr'', which can be translated in Old Norse as 'poetry' (cf. Icelandic ''bragur'' 'poem, melody, wis ...
,
Odin
Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
, and fallen heroes, it tells of Eric's arrival in
Valhöll
In Norse mythology Valhalla (;) is the anglicised name for non, Valhǫll ("hall of the slain").Orchard (1997:171–172) It is described as a majestic hall located in Asgard and presided over by the god Odin. Half of those who die in combat ...
, accompanied by five other kings, and his splendid welcome there by Odin and his entourage. Odin had eagerly awaited his coming because "many lands
../ with his sword he has reddened" and on being asked why he had deprived Eric of such earthly glory, answers that "the future is uncertain", since the grey wolf is always lying in wait. Eric is then greeted by the famous hero
Sigmundr: "Hail now, Eiríkr
../ here you shall be welcome; / brave hero, enter the hall."
[''Eiríksmál'', tr. Finlay, ''Fagrskinna'' ch. 8.]
Some have argued that the language of the poem shows influence from
Old English
Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Anglo ...
.
[Edith Marold, "''Eiríksmál''". In ''Medieval Scandinavia. An Encyclopedia'', ed. Phillip Pulsiano and Kirsten Wolf. New York: Garland, 1993. pp. 161–62.] However, on recently examining the poem, John McKinnell could find little trace of this. The (original) date of composition remains a matter of some debate: some argue that it was written shortly after Eric's death, while others who regard the poem as an imitation of the ''
Hákonarmál
''Hákonarmál'' (Old Norse: 'The Song of Hákon') is a skaldic poem which the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed about the fall of the Norwegian king Hákon the Good at the battle of Fitjar and his reception in Valhalla. This poem emulates ' ...
'' in honour of
Haakon the Good
Haakon Haraldsson (c. 920–961), also Haakon the Good (Old Norse: ''Hákon góði'', Norwegian: ''Håkon den gode'') and Haakon Adalsteinfostre (Old Norse: ''Hákon Aðalsteinsfóstri'', Norwegian: ''Håkon Adalsteinsfostre''), was the king of ...
prefer a date sometime after Haakon's death, ''c''. 961.
In spite of the decidedly pagan contents of the poem, Eric may have died a Christian, as some of the sagas suggest. There is no evidence for his religious beliefs, but if ever Eric was to be accepted and consecrated as king, probably with Wulfstan as king-maker, acceptance of the Christian faith would have been set as a condition to royal office. The impression is borne out by Wulfstan's earlier removal of Amlaíb Cuarán and Ragnald on grounds that they had become, in Æthelweard's words, ''deserti'' "deserters" (see above).
In support of this view, it has sometimes been suggested that the name of one ''Eiric rex Danorum'', "Eric king of the Danes", written into the
Durham ''Liber Vitae'', f. 55v., may represent Eric of York.
["Eiric rex danorum, Botild regina, Tovi, Modera uxor Tovi, Alf, Sunapas, Thor Muntokes sune, Ulf Duft, Torkitell muli, Osbern, Eoltkill, Askill, Turkill, Walecho, Gerbrun". Durham ''Liber Vitae''. p. 78. E.g. Charles Plummer, ''Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel''. p. 148; Richard A. Fletcher, ''The Barbarian Conversion''. p. 392.] However, this can now be safely rejected in favour of an identification with Eric Ejegod (r. 1095–1103), whose queen Bodil (''Botild'') occurs by name after him.
[John Insley, "The Scandinavian Personal Names". In ''The Durham Liber Vitae and Its Context''. p. 90.]
Rey Cross
![Eirik Blodøks with Gunhild, Egil Skallagrimsson standing](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Eirik_Blod%C3%B8ks_with_Gunhild%2C_Egil_Skallagrimsson_standing.jpg)
On the north side of the A66 in Stainmore today stands the so-called
Rey cross
Rey Cross is the remains of a stone cross at Stainmore. It is also known as Rere Cross and is a Grade II* listed structure and a scheduled monument. It is located towards the western edge of County Durham, approximately east of the border with ...
, also known as Rere Cross, though what survives is little more than a stump consisting of the socket and a fragment of the shaft. Before it was temporarily housed at the
Bowes Museum
The Bowes Museum is an art gallery in the town of Barnard Castle, in County Durham in northern England. It was built to designs by Jules Pellechet and John Edward Watson to house the art collection of John Bowes and his wife Joséphine Benoît ...
in 1990 and moved to its present location, it stood on a mound of rock a little further west on the south side of the road –
coordinates
In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space. The order of the coordinates is sig ...
: . The two sides of the shaft once seem to have borne carvings, if that much can be concluded from
John Speed
John Speed (1551 or 1552 – 28 July 1629) was an English cartographer, chronologer and historian of Cheshire origins.S. Bendall, 'Speed, John (1551/2–1629), historian and cartographer', ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (OUP 2004/ ...
's supposed description in 1611. Based on stylistic observations made by W. G. Collingwood when certain features were apparently still visible, it has been described as an Anglo-Scandinavian cross, possibly of the 10th century. No burials have been found. All evidence seems to point to its use as a boundary marker (between Cumbria and Northumbria), much like the
Legg's cross (County Durham) on
Dere Street
Dere Street or Deere Street is a modern designation of a Roman road which ran north from Eboracum (York), crossing the Stanegate at Corbridge (Hadrian's Wall was crossed at the Portgate, just to the north) and continuing beyond into what is n ...
. The name has been explained as deriving from
Old Norse
Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and t ...
''hreyrr'', "cairn", or "boundary cairn". Towards the end of the 19th century, however,
W. S. Calverley W. may refer to:
* SoHo (Australian TV channel) (previously W.), an Australian pay television channel
* ''W.'' (film), a 2008 American biographical drama film based on the life of George W. Bush
* "W.", the fifth track from Codeine's 1992 EP '' B ...
argued that whatever its function in later ages, crosses in those times were usually tombstones, whereas boundary crosses postdate the Conquest. In the absence of a churchyard, he tentatively links the erection of the Rey cross to the putative battle on Stainmore. Although he ultimately rejects the idea of a memorial stone for Eric as "mere romance", W. G. Collingwood was less prepared to dismiss it out of hand: "a romancer might be justified in fancying that the Rey cross was carved and set up by Northumbrian admirers of the once mighty and long famous last King of York." No further evidence has been adduced to support the suggestion.
Reputation in the sagas
The figure that Eric became in the Norse sagas is a heady mix of history, folklore, and political propaganda. He is usually portrayed as a larger-than-life Viking hero, whose powerful and violent performances bring him many short-term successes, but ultimately make him flawed and unpopular as a ruler and statesman. The ''Heimskringla'' describes Eric as "a large and handsome man, strong and of great prowess, a great and victorious warrior", but also "violent of disposition, cruel, gruff, and taciturn".
[''Heimskringla'' (''Haraldar saga'') ch. 43.] The synoptic histories (Theodoricus, the ''Historia Norwegiae'', and ''Ágrip'') to some degree seek to excuse Eric's cruelty and fall from favour with the Norwegian nobility by pointing out another weakness, that of his naive faith in the evil counsels of his wife.
Conflict with Egill Skallagrimsson (''Egils saga'')
![Egil Skallagrimsson 17c manuscript](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Egil_Skallagrimsson_17c_manuscript.jpg)
One of the richest sagas to deal with Eric Bloodaxe and his affairs in England is ''
Egils saga
''Egill's Saga'' or ''Egil's saga'' ( non, Egils saga ; ) is an Icelandic saga (family saga) on the lives of the clan of Egill Skallagrímsson (Anglicised as Egill Skallagrimsson), an Icelandic farmer, viking and skald. The saga spans the years ...
'', which is also a rich if problematic source for skaldic poems surviving from the 10th century. It tells how at the instigation of his wife Gunnhild, King Eric became involved in a prolonged conflict with
Egill Skallagrimsson
Egil or Egill is a masculine given name derived from Old Norse. It may refer to:
Characters
* Egil (Hymiskvida), farmer in the poem ''Hymiskvida''
* Egil, brother of Volund, hero of Völundarkviða and the Thidreks saga
* Egil One-Hand, hero from ...
, the well-known Icelander Viking and skald. The account seems designed to enhance Egill's abilities as a warrior, wizard, and poet. The story can be summarised as follows.
Egill had killed
Bárðr of Atley, one of the king's retainers, thus making an enemy of Queen Gunnhild, who never forgave him and did everything within her power to take revenge. Gunnhild ordered her two brothers to kill Egil and Egill's older brother Þórólfr, who had been on good terms with both her and the king before. However, this plan did not go well, as Egill easily killed the pair when they confronted him, greatly increasing the Queen's thirst for revenge. All that happened shortly before the death of Harald Fairhair and King Eric's killing of his brothers to secure his place on the throne. He then declared Egill an outlaw in Norway. Berg-Önundr gathered a company of men to capture Egill but was killed in his attempt to do so. Escaping from Norway, Egill killed Ragnald (Rögnvaldr Eirikssen), the king's son, and then cursed his parents, setting a horse's head on a pole (''
níðstöng'' or "spite-post") and saying,
He set up the pole of spite in the cliff-face and left it standing; he faced the horse's eyes on the land, and he rist runes upon the pole, and said all the formal words of the curse.
[''Egils saga'' ch. 57.] (''
níð'' has been variously translated as "scorn", "spite" or "curse"). Gunnhild also put a spell on Egill, which made him feel restless and depressed until they met again. The last encounter happened when Erik and Gunnhild were living in England. Egill was shipwrecked on a nearby shore and came before Eric, who sentenced him to death. But Egill composed a drápa in Eric's praise in the dungeon during the night, and when he recited it in the morning, Eric gave him his freedom and forgave any vengeance or settlement for the killing of Ragnald.
Modern culture
*In his lyric poem ''Briggflatts'',
Basil Bunting
Basil Cheesman Bunting (1 March 1900 – 17 April 1985) was a British modernist poet whose reputation was established with the publication of '' Briggflatts'' in 1966, generally regarded as one of the major achievements of the modernist traditio ...
refers several times to Eric Bloodaxe, his flight and death on Stainmore, as in the lines: "By such rocks / men killed Bloodaxe. // Fierce blood throbs in his tongue, / lean words. / Skulls cropped for steel caps / huddle round Stainmore."
[Basil Bunting (intr. By Richard Caddell), ''Complete Poems.'' New Directions, 2003. p. 60.]
*
Poul Anderson
Poul William Anderson (November 25, 1926 – July 31, 2001) was an American fantasy and science fiction author who was active from the 1940s until the 21st century. Anderson wrote also historical novels. His awards include seven Hugo Awards and ...
, a Danish-American writer of
science fiction
Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel unive ...
and
fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving Magic (supernatural), magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy ...
, wrote ''
Mother of Kings
''Mother of Kings'' is a historical novel by American writer Poul Anderson. It was first published in 2001 by Tor Books. The book is an account of the life of Gunnhild, Mother of Kings, a tenth-century queen of Norway and wife of King Eirik Bloo ...
'',
[New York: Tor (, ) 2001, 2003] a fictionalized
biography
A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life. It involves more than just the basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or ...
of Queen Gunnhild, including mythological elements as well as historical facts, and telling much of Eric, Gunnhild, and their children, especially their many efforts to regain the throne of Norway as well their long feud with Egill.
*He appears as a Berserker class Servant in
Type-Moon's mobile game ''
Fate/Grand Order
is a free-to-play Japanese mobile game, developed by Lasengle (formerly Delightworks) using Unity, and published by Aniplex, a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment Japan. The game is based on Type-Moon's ''Fate/stay night'' franchise, and ...
''.
*He appears in
Philip José Farmer's ''
Riverworld
Riverworld is a fictional planet and the setting for a series of science fiction books written by Philip José Farmer (1918–2009). Riverworld is an artificial "Super-Earth" environment where all humans (and pre-humans) are reconstructed. The b ...
'' series.
*He appears as a recurring character in ''Oathsworn'', a series of Viking Age historical novels by
Robert Low, beginning with ''
The Whale Road''.
Notes
The Name Bloodaxe has also be used by Graffiti Artist "Bloodaxe" around South Yorkshire.
Sources
Primary sources
*
Anderson, Alan Orr, ''Early Sources of Scottish History A.D. 500–1286'', volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990.
*''
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alf ...
'' MSS D ('Worcester Chronicle', London, British Library,
Cotton Tiberius
This is an incomplete list of some of the manuscripts from the Cotton library that today form the Cotton collection of the British Library. Some manuscripts were destroyed or damaged in a fire at Ashburnham House in 1731, and a few are kept in othe ...
B.IV) and E (‘Peterborough Chronicle’ or ‘Laud Chronicle’, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Laud 636), ed. D. Dumville and S. Keynes, ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. A Collaborative Edition''. Vols 6 and 7. Cambridge, 1983; tr. Michael J. Swanton, ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles''. 2nd ed. London, 2000.
*
Æthelweard Æthelweard, also spelled Ethelweard, Aethelweard, Athelweard, etc., is an Anglo-Saxon male name. It may refer to:
* King Æthelweard of the Hwicce (''fl''. 7/8th century)
* King Æthelweard of East Anglia (''fl.'' mid-9th century)
* Æthelweard (s ...
, ''Chronicon'', ed. and tr. Alistair Campbell, ''The Chronicle of Æthelweard''. London, 1961.
*Reimann or Ousmann,'' De S. Cadroe abbate'' (The ''Life'' of
St Cathróe
ST, St, or St. may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Stanza, in poetry
* Suicidal Tendencies, an American heavy metal/hardcore punk band
* Star Trek, a science-fiction media franchise
* Summa Theologica, a compendium of Catholic philosophy an ...
), ed.
John Colgan
John Colgan, OFM (Irish ''Seán Mac Colgan''; c. 1592 – 15 January 1658), was an Irish Franciscan friar noted as a hagiographer and historian.
Life
Colgan was born c. 1592 at Priestown near Carndonagh. He joined the Franciscan Order and w ...
, ''
Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae
''Acta Sanctorum Hiberniae'' is the abbreviated title of a celebrated work on the Irish saints by the Franciscan, John Colgan (Leuven, 1645).
Aided by Father Hugh Ward, O.F.M., Father Stephen White, S.J., and Brother Míchél Ó Cléirigh, O.F. ...
'', Vol. 1. pp. 494 ff; in part reprinted by W.F. Skene, ''Chronicles of the Picts, Chronicles of the Scots''. pp. 106–116; ed. the Bollandists, ''
Acta Sanctorum
''Acta Sanctorum'' (''Acts of the Saints'') is an encyclopedic text in 68 folio volumes of documents examining the lives of Christian saints, in essence a critical hagiography, which is organised according to each saint's feast day. The project w ...
''. 1865. 1 March 473–80 (incomplete); ed. and tr. A.O. Anderson, ''Early Sources of Scottish History, A.D. 500 to 1286''. (from Colgan's edition, pp. 495–7). No full translation has appeared to this date.
*
Chronicle of the Kings of Alba
The ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'', or ''Scottish Chronicle'', is a short written chronicle of the Kings of Alba, covering the period from the time of Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) (d. 858) until the reign of Kenneth II (Cináed mac ...
, ed. W.F. Skene. ''Chronicles of the Picts and Scots: And Other Memorials of Scottish History''. Edinburgh, 1867. 8–10.
*Post-Conquest English histories:
**
William of Malmesbury
William of Malmesbury ( la, Willelmus Malmesbiriensis; ) was the foremost English historian of the 12th century. He has been ranked among the most talented English historians since Bede. Modern historian C. Warren Hollister described him as "a ...
, ''Gesta regum Anglorum'', ed. and tr. R.A.B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson and M. Winterbottom, ''William of Malmesbury. Gesta Regum Anglorum. The History of the English Kings''. OMT. 2 vols: vol 1. Oxford, 1998.
**
John of Worcester
John of Worcester (died c. 1140) was an English monk and chronicler who worked at Worcester Priory. He is usually held to be the author of the ''Chronicon ex chronicis''.
''Chronicon ex chronicis''
The ''Chronicon ex chronicis'' is a world wide ...
, ''Chronicle (of Chronicles)'', ed. Benjamin Thorpe, ''Florentii Wigorniensis monachi chronicon ex chronicis''. 2 vols. London, 1848–9; tr. J. Stevenson, ''Church Historians of England''. 8 vols: vol. 2.1. London, 1855. 171–372.
**
Henry of Huntingdon
Henry of Huntingdon ( la, Henricus Huntindoniensis; 1088 – AD 1157), the son of a canon in the diocese of Lincoln, was a 12th-century English historian and the author of ''Historia Anglorum'' (Medieval Latin for "History of the English"), ...
, ''Historia Anglorum'', ed. and tr. D.E. Greenway, ''Henry Archdeacon of Huntingdon. Historia Anglorum. The History of the English People''. OMT. Oxford, 1996.
**''
Historia Regum (Anglorum et Dacorum)'', ed. Thomas Arnold, ''Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia''. 2 vols: vol 2. London, 1885. 1–283; tr. J. Stevenson, ''Church Historians of England''. 8 vols: vol. 4 (part 2: ''The Historical Works of Simeon of Durham''). London, 1853. 425–617.
**''
De primo Saxonum adventu
'' De primo Saxonum adventu '' is a historical work, probably written in Durham during the episcopate of Ranulf Flambard (1099–1128).Rollason (ed.), ''Libellus de Exordio'', p. lxxix. It recounts the coming of the English (called the "Saxons") ...
'', ed. Thomas Arnold, ''Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia''. 2 vols: vol 2. London, 1885. 365–84 (Appendix 1); tr. Alan Orr Anderson, ''Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers A.D. 500 to 1286''. Revised and corrected ed. Stamford: Paul Watkins, 1991 (1908).
**
Roger of Wendover
Roger of Wendover (died 6 May 1236), probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire, was an English chronicler of the 13th century.
At an uncertain date he became a monk at St Albans Abbey; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of ...
, ''
Flores Historiarum
The ''Flores Historiarum'' (Flowers of History) is the name of two different (though related) Latin chronicles by medieval English historians that were created in the 13th century, associated originally with the Abbey of St Albans.
Wendover's '' ...
'', ed.
H. O. Coxe, ''Rogeri de Wendoveri chronica, sive, Flores historiarum''. Vol 1. London, 1841. 402–3.
**
Roger of Howden
Roger of Howden or Hoveden (died 1202) was a 12th-century English chronicler, diplomat and head of the minster of Howden in the East Riding of Yorkshire.
Roger and Howden minster
Roger was born to a clerical family linked to the ancient minste ...
, ''Chronica Rogeri de Houedene'', ed. William Stubbs. ''Chronica magistri de Houedene''. 4 vols.: vol. 1. Rolls series 51. London, 1868.
*''Corpus of Early Medieval Coin Finds'' (EMC), at th
Department of Coins and Medals, Fitzwilliam Museum
*
Anglo-Saxon charters, here indicated as S + number and date following Peter Sawyer, ''Anglo-Saxon Charters. An Annotated List and Bibliography''. London, 1968, an
The Electronic Sawyer.
*Contemporary skaldic poetry:
**''
Eiríksmál Eiríksmál is a skaldic poem composed c. 954 at the behest of the Norwegian queen Gunnhild
in honour of her slain consort Erik Bloodaxe. Only the beginning of the poem is extant.
According to Roger of Wendover, Eric, a Viking ruler was betrayed ...
'', ed. R.D. Fulk,
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'; tr. Alison Finlay, ''Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway''. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2004. pp. 58–9.
**
Egill Skallagrímsson
Egil Skallagrímsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic: ; 904 995) was a Viking Age war poet, sorcerer, berserker, and farmer.Thorsson, 3 He is known mainly as the anti-hero of ''Egils saga, Egil's Saga''. ''Egil's Saga'' historically narrates a p ...
, ''Lausavísur'', ed.
Margaret Clunies Ross Margaret Beryl Clunies Ross (born 24 April 1942) is a medievalist who was until her retirement in 2009 the McCaughey Professor of English Language and Early English Literature and Director of the Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Syd ...
. At
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'.
**–––, ''Arinbjarnarkviða'', ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. At
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'.
**–––, ''Höfuðlausn'', ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. At
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'.
**
Eyvindr Finnsson skáldaspillir, ''Lausavísur'', ed. Russel Poole. At
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'.
*Synoptics:
**''
Historia Norwegiæ
''Historia Norwegiæ'' is a short history of Norway written in Latin by an anonymous monk. The only extant manuscript is in the private possession of the Earl of Dalhousie, and is now kept in the National Records of Scotland in Edinburgh. The manu ...
'', ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, tr. Peter Fisher, ''Historia Norwegie''. Museum Tusculanum Press, 2003; tr. Debra Kunin, ''A History of Norway and the Passion and Miracles of the Blessed Óláfr''. London: Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London, 2001
Online PDF, including corrections, available from Viking Society for Northern Research
**''
Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum
''Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum'' ( Icelandic for "''Summary of the Norwegian Kings' Sagas''"), often shortened to ''Ágrip'', is a history of the kings of Norway. Written in Old Norse, it is, along with the ''Historia Norvegiæ'', one of the N ...
'', ed. and tr. M.J. Driscoll, ''Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum''. Viking Society for Northern Research Text Series 10. 2nd ed. 2008 (1995).
**
Theodoricus monachus
Theodoric the Monk ( la, Theodoricus monachus; also ''Tjodrik munk''; in Old Norse his name was most likely ''Þórir'') was a 12th-century Norwegian Benedictine monk, perhaps at the Nidarholm Abbey. He may be identical with either Bishop Tore of ...
, ''Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium'', ed. Gustav Storm, ''Monumenta Historica Norvegiæ: Latinske kildeskrifter til Norges historie i middelalderen''. Kristiania, 1880; tr. David and Ian McDougall, ''Theodoricus Monachus. Historia de Antiquitate regum Norwagiensium''. Viking Society for Northern Research. 1998.
*''
Nóregs konungatal ''Nóregs konungatal'' (''List of Norwegian Kings'') is an Icelandic skaldic poem. Composed around 1190, the poem is preserved in the 14th-century ''Flateyjarbók'' manuscript. It is based on the lost historical work of Sæmundr fróði and is the b ...
'' (c. 1190, preserved in ''
Flateyjarbók
''Flateyjarbók'' (; "Book of Flatey") is an important medieval Icelandic manuscript. It is also known as GkS 1005 fol. and by the Latin name ''Codex Flateyensis''. It was commissioned by Jón Hákonarson and produced by the priests and scribes ...
''), ed. Kari Ellen Gade,
Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages'.
*Icelandic
kings' sagas
Kings' sagas ( is, konungasögur, nn, kongesoger, -sogor, nb, kongesagaer) are Old Norse sagas which principally tell of the lives of semi-legendary and legendary (mythological, fictional) Nordic kings, also known as saga kings. They were compo ...
. Chapter numbering follows that assigned in the translations given below:
**''
Fagrskinna
''Fagrskinna'' ( ; is, Fagurskinna ; trans. "Fair Leather" from the type of parchment) is one of the kings' sagas, written around 1220. It is an intermediate source for the ''Heimskringla'' of Snorri Sturluson, containing histories of Norwegian k ...
'', ed.
Finnur Jónsson
Finnur Jónsson (May 29, 1858 – March 30, 1934) was an Icelandic-Danish philologist and Professor of Nordic Philology at the University of Copenhagen. He made extensive contributions to the study of Old Norse literature.
Finnur Jónsson was b ...
, ''Fagrskinna. Nóregs Kononga Tal''. Copenhagen, 1902–3
PDF available from septentrionalia.net tr. Alison Finlay, ''Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway''. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2004. The chapter numbering follows that of Bjarni Einarsson (the most recent editor) and Alison Finlay.
**''
Egils saga
''Egill's Saga'' or ''Egil's saga'' ( non, Egils saga ; ) is an Icelandic saga (family saga) on the lives of the clan of Egill Skallagrímsson (Anglicised as Egill Skallagrimsson), an Icelandic farmer, viking and skald. The saga spans the years ...
'', ed. Finnur Jónsson, ''Egils saga Skallagrímssonar''. Halle, 1894; tr. Herman Pálsson and Paul Edwards, ''Egil's Saga''. Harmondsworth, 1976.
**Snorri Sturluson, ''
Heimskringla
''Heimskringla'' () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorre Sturlason (1178/79–1241) 1230. The name ''Heimskringla'' was first used in the 17th century, derived ...
'', ed. Finnur Jónsson, ''Snorri Sturluson. Heimskringla. Nóregs konunga sögur''. Copenhagen, 1911; tr.
Lee M. Hollander
Lee Milton Hollander (November 8, 1880 – October 19, 1972) was an American philologist who specialized in Old Norse studies. Hollander was for many years head of the Department of Germanic Languages at the University of Texas at Austin. ...
, ''Snorri Sturluson
Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway'.
University of Texas Press
The University of Texas Press (or UT Press) is a university press that is part of the University of Texas at Austin. Established in 1950, the Press publishes scholarly books and journals in several areas, including Latin American studies, Texan ...
, 1964.
**''
Orkneyinga saga'' (ch. 8–9 and 17), ed. Finnbogi Guðmundsson, ''Orkneyinga saga''. Íslenzk fornrit 34. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, 1965; tr. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards, ''Orkneyinga Saga: The History of the Earls of Orkney''. London: Hogarth Press, 1978. Republished 1981, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
**''
Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta
''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta'' or ''The Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason''
is generically a hybrid of different types of sagas and compiled from various sources in the fourteenth century, but is most akin to one of the kings' sagas. It ...
'' (''Longer saga of Óláf Tryggvason''), ed. Ólafur Halldórsson, ''Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar en mesta''. Copenhagen, 1958; ed. Hèr hefr upp Sögu Ólafs konúngs Tryggvasonar
available from Saganet tr. John Sephton, ''The Saga of Olaf Tryggwason''. London, 1895 (based on edition in ''Fornmanna sögur'').
*
Irish annals
A number of Irish annals, of which the earliest was the Chronicle of Ireland, were compiled up to and shortly after the end of the 17th century. Annals were originally a means by which monks determined the yearly chronology of feast days. Over t ...
:
**
Annals of the Four Masters
The ''Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland'' ( ga, Annála Ríoghachta Éireann) or the ''Annals of the Four Masters'' (''Annála na gCeithre Máistrí'') are chronicles of medieval Irish history. The entries span from the Deluge, dated as 2,24 ...
, ed. and tr. John O’Donovan, ''Annála Rioghachta Éireann. Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters''. 7 vols.: vol. 2. Royal Irish Academy. Dublin, 1848–51.
**
Annals of Clonmacnoise
The ''Annals of Clonmacnoise'' ( ga, Annála Chluain Mhic Nóis) are an early 17th-century Early Modern English translation of a lost Irish chronicle, which covered events in Ireland from prehistory to 1408. The work is sometimes known as ''Mag ...
, Denis Murphy, ''The Annals of Clonmacnoise''. Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Dublin, 1896.
**
Chronicon Scotorum
''Chronicon Scotorum'', also known as ''Chronicum Scotorum'', is a medieval Irish chronicle.
Overview
According to Nollaig Ó Muraíle, it is "a collection of annals belonging to the ' Clonmacnoise group', covering the period from prehistoric tim ...
, ed. and tr. Gearóid Mac Niocaill. ''Chronicon Scotorum''
Editionan
translationavailable from CELT, supplied with readings from older edition of
W. M. Hennessy
William Maunsell Hennessy (1829–1889) was an Irish official and scholar.
Life
Hennessy was born at Castle Gregory, County Kerry. After school education he emigrated to the United States, where he lived for some years. He returned to Ireland a ...
(ed. and tr.), ''Chronicum Scotorum''. London, 1866.
**
Annals of Ulster
The ''Annals of Ulster'' ( ga, Annála Uladh) are annals of medieval Ireland. The entries span the years from 431 AD to 1540 AD. The entries up to 1489 AD were compiled in the late 15th century by the scribe Ruaidhrí Ó Luinín, ...
, ed. and tr. Seán Mac Airt and Gearóid Mac Niocaill, ''The Annals of Ulster (to AD 1131)''. Dublin, 1983.
*''
Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil
''Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil'' ("The Victorious Career of Cellachán of Cashel")Donnchadh Ó Corráin writes that this title "was first given it by Eugene O'Curry in his transcript of the text. It has no title in the earliest copy, that in th ...
'', ed. Alexander Bugge, ''Caithream Ceallachain Caisil. The Victorious Career of Cellachan of Cashel''. Christiania, 1905.
*
Durham ''Liber Vitae'', ed. A.H. Thompson, ''Liber vitae ecclesiae Dunelmensis''. Surtees Society 136. 1923.
Secondary sources
*Calverley, W.S. "Stainmoor." ''Notes on the early sculptured crosses, shrines and monuments in the present diocese of Carlisle'', ed. W.G. Collingwood. Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 11. Kendal, 1899. 264–8.
*Campbell, Alistair. "Two Notes on the Norse Kingdoms in Northumbria." ''
English Historical Review
''The English Historical Review'' is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal that was established in 1886 and published by Oxford University Press (formerly Longman). It publishes articles on all aspects of history – British, European, and wo ...
'' 57 (1942): 85–97: 91–7 ("The End of the Kingdom of Northumbria.").
*Collingwood, W.G. "King Eirík of York." ''Saga-book of Viking Club Society for Northern Research'' 2 (1897–1900): 313–27.
*Collingwood, W.G. "The battle of Stainmoor in legend and history." ''Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian Archaeological Society'' series 2 no. 2 (1902): 231–41.
*Cormack, Margaret. "''Egils saga'', ''Heimskringla'', and the Daughter of Eiríkr blóðøx." ''alvissmál'' 10 (2001): 61–8
Available online*Costambeys, Marios. "Erik Bloodaxe (''d''. 954)."
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'. September 2004. Accessed: 2 February 2009.
*
*
*Downham, Clare. ''Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland. The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014''. Edinburgh, 2007.
*
Hudson, Benjamin T. Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion, and Empire in the North Atlantic'. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 .
*Jakobsson, Sverrir.
"„Erindringen om en mægtig Personlighed“: Den norsk-islandske historiske tradisjon om Harald Hårfagre i et kildekritisk perspektiv.“ "Historisk tidsskrift" 81 (2002): 213–30.'
*Lang, James (ed.). ''Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture. Volume VI: Yorkshire North Riding (Except Ryedale)''. British Academy 6. Oxford, 2002.
*McKinnell, John. "Eddic Poetry in Anglo-Scandinavian Northern England." In ''Vikings and the Danelaw. Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress'', ed. James Graham-Campbell et al. Oxford, 2001. 327–44.
*
*Smyth, Alfred P. ''Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 1984.
*
Stenton, F.M. ''Anglo-Saxon England''. 3rd ed. Oxford, 1971.
*
Williams, Ann. "Eadred (''d''. 955)."
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'. September 2004. Accessed: 2 February 2009.
*
Further reading
*Bailey, R.N. "The Rey cross: background." In ''Stainmore. The Archaeology of a North Pennine Pass'', ed. B. Vyner. Tees Archaeology Monographs 1. Hartlepool, 2001. 118–20.
*Cormack, Margaret, "Fact and Fiction in the Icelandic Sagas," History Compass 4 (2006).
*Dumville, D.N. "St Cathróe of Metz and the hagiography of exoticism." In ''Studies in Irish Hagiography. Saints and scholars'', ed. John Carey, Máire Herbert and Pádraig Ó Riain. Dublin, 2001. 172–88.
*
*Larrington, Carolyne. "Egill’s longer poems: ''Arinbjarnarkviða'' and ''Sonatorrek''." In ''Introductory Essays on Egils saga and Njáls saga'', ed. J. Hines and D. Slay, London: The Viking Society for Northern Research, 1992
*Williams, Gareth. ''Eirik Bloodaxe''. Saga Book, 2010
*Woolf, Alex. ''From Pictland to Alba, 789–1070''. The New Edinburgh History of Scotland. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. , OCLC 123113911
External links
*
Photo of Rey Cross Flickr.com.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Eric Bloodaxe
880s births
Year of birth uncertain
954 deaths
10th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles
10th-century Norwegian monarchs
Monarchs of Jorvik
Viking rulers
Vikings killed in battle
Fairhair dynasty
Monarchs killed in action
Northumbrian monarchs
Norwegian exiles
10th-century English monarchs
Orkneyinga saga characters
950s deaths
10th-century Vikings