Eighty Years' War, 1599–1609

The years 1599–1609 constituted a phase of in the Eighty Years' War (c. 1568–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the emerging Dutch Republic. It followed the Ten Years (1588–1598) that saw significant conquests by the Dutch States Army under the leadership of stadtholders Maurice of Nassau and William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg, and ended with the conclusion of the Twelve Years' Truce (1609–1621) on 9 April 1609. The 1599–1609 period was generally marked by stalemates, with the well-known Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600) bringing the Dutch a tactical victory without long-term gain, Spanish conquests in the Siege of Ostend (1601–1604) and , somewhat balanced out by the Dutch naval triumph in the Battle of Gibraltar (1607) and the 1607 Spanish state bankruptcy. Financial troubles were amongst the primary motives that forced the Dutch and particularly the Spanish to the negotiation table for a ceasefire.

Background

Although Philip II of Spain had bequeathed the Habsburg Netherlands to his elder daughter Isabella and her husband (Philip's nephew) Albert VII, Archduke of Austria on 6 May 1598, they were expected to reconquer and recatholicise the North, which by now was firmly in the hands of the independence-seeking United Provinces. Moreover, the highest military authority of the Army of Flanders remained in the hands of the new king of Spain, Philip III, Isabella's brother. Finally, the Austrian archduke and archduchess had to 'politically obey' (although no details were given how) Philip III, who would also inherit the Netherlands if their marriage remained childless. The unclear division of sovereignty between Brussels and Madrid thus created tensions between them, that would come to light when conflicts arose over who had the authority to make proposals and agreements during the Truce negotiations that started in 1606–1607.

European warfare

Bommelerwaard offensive (1599)

A Spanish strike into Holland was attempted in April 1599 – Francisco de Mendoza, the Admiral of Aragon was ordered by the Archduke of Austria to mount an offensive into the Bommelerwaard. Once this has been taken the Spanish would then be able to cut Holland off and gain more favourable talks in the peace process. The offensive however went awry from the start. Mendoza with 12,000 horse and foot tried to go through to Zaltbommel by taking Schenkenschanz on 28 April, but was repelled by the small English garrison. The Spanish moved around the fort however and took Fort Crevecour and constructed Fort Sint-Andries near Heerewaarden. A siege on the town of Zaltbommel by Spanish troops was attempted but they had to lift the siege by the approaching Anglo-Dutch force of 10,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry led by Maurice of Nassau. The Spanish were defeated in the Siege of Zaltbommel (15 May – 22 July 1599) and subsequent attempts to regain the initiative. Mendoza retreated and the Spanish army then found itself in chaos: mutinies, desertions and sickness took effect.

Capture of mutinous forts (early 1600)

Maurice took advantage of the widespread insurrection – first he retook Wachtendonk and from there launched a campaign in the surrounding area to retake the only remnants of Spanish forces in the area, at forts Crevecoeur and San Andreas. Fort Crevecoeur gave in easily after Maurice offered them money on the account of the garrison's mutiny. Fort San Andreas was next – the garrison had mutinied against their officers but regarded the fort as their only pledge for the payment of their arrears. After a brief Siege of San Andreas (1600) from 28 January to 6 March, and a failure by a Spanish relief force led by Luis de Velasco to get to them in time, San Andreas was thus duly delivered into Dutch hands.

Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600)

By now, it had become clear that Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands was strong. However, control over Zeeland meant that the Northern Netherlands could control and close the estuary of the Scheldt, the entry to the sea for the important port of Antwerp. The port of Amsterdam benefited greatly from the blockade of the port of Antwerp, to the extent that merchants in the North began to question the desirability of reconquering the South. A campaign to control the Southern provinces' coast region was launched against Maurice's advice in 1600. Although portrayed as a liberation of the Southern Netherlands, the campaign was chiefly aimed at eliminating the threat to Dutch trade posed by the Spanish-supported Dunkirkers. The Spaniards strengthened their positions along the coast, leading to the Battle of Nieuwpoort.

Although the States-General army won great acclaim for itself and its commander by inflicting a then-surprising defeat of a Spanish army in open battle, Maurice halted the march on Dunkirk