The Eastern religions are the religions which originated in East,

South South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...

and Southeast Asia and thus have dissimilarities with Western,

African African or Africans may refer to: * Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa: ** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa *** Ethn ...

and

Iranian religions Iranian religions also known as Persian religions are, in the context of comparative religion, a grouping of religious movements that originated in the Iranian (Persian) plateau (or Greater Iran). Background The beliefs, activities, and cultura ...

. This includes the East Asian religions such as Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion, Shinto, and

Korean Shamanism Korean shamanism or Mu-ism is a religion from Korea. In the Korean language, alternative terms for the tradition are ''musok'' () and ''mugyo'' (무교, 巫敎). Scholars of religion have classified it as a folk religion. There is no central auth ...

;

South Asian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification of ...

such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism; and Southeast Asian religions such as Vietnamese folk religion as well as animistic

indigenous religions Indigenous religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being "indigenous". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the "world religions" and "new re ...

. This East-West religious distinction, just as with the East-West culture distinction, and the implications that arise from it, is broad and not precise. Furthermore, the geographical distinction has less meaning in the current context of global transculturation. While many Western observers attempt to distinguish between

Eastern philosophies Eastern philosophy or Asian philosophy includes the various philosophies that originated in East and South Asia, including Chinese philosophy, Japanese philosophy, Korean philosophy, and Vietnamese philosophy; which are dominant in East Asia, ...

and religions, this is a distinction that does not exist in some Eastern traditions.

Indic religions

Also known as Dharmic religions, these are the religious sects originating in the Indian subcontinent, which includes Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc. The theologies and philosophies of these religions have several concepts in common, such as ''

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

'', '' karma'', '' maya'' and '' samsara''.

Hinduism

Museum für Indische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 036 2

Hinduism originated on the Indian subcontinent and was related to many other religious traditions outside the subcontinent, in places like ancient Central Asia and ancient Iran. It is considered by some to be the world's oldest extant major religion. Some consider Hinduism to originate from the

Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...

along with animism of the pre-Harappan migrants as well as the Indo-Aryan migrants. Hinduism contains a vast body of scripture, divided as

revealed Reveal or Revealed may refer to: People * Reveal (rapper) (born 1983), member of the British hip hop group Poisonous Poets * James L. Reveal (1941–2015), American botanist Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Revealed'', a 2013 novel ...

and

remembered Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding (memory), encoding and storage (memory), storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: ...

, expounding on dharma, or religious living. Hindus consider the '' Vedas'' and the '' Upanishads'' as being among the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. The '' '', a treatise excerpted from the ', is sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the ''Vedas''. It is difficult to identify any universal belief or practice in Hinduism, although prominent themes include: ''

Dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

'', '' Samsara'', '' Karma'', and '' Moksha''. Hinduism is sometimes called a

polytheistic religion Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the b ...

, but this is an oversimplification. Hinduism includes a diverse collection of schools whose beliefs span monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism and even

atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...

. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school holds that there is only one causal entity ( Brahman), which manifests itself into all the various living and non-living forms that we observe, whereas traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism worship Vishnu and Shiva in a relatively more monotheistic sense (caused by a differentiation between the parabrahman and

atman Atman or Ātman may refer to: Film * ''Ātman'' (1975 film), a Japanese experimental short film directed by Toshio Matsumoto * ''Atman'' (1997 film), a documentary film directed by Pirjo Honkasalo People * Pavel Atman (born 1987), Russian hand ...

). A number of scholars even consider the

Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...

school of thought to have atheistic leanings.

Buddhism

Buddhism is a

nontheistic Nontheism or non-theism is a range of both religious and nonreligious attitudes characterized by the absence of espoused belief in the existence of god or gods. Nontheism has generally been used to describe apathy or silence towards the subject o ...

Indian religion and

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...

. Buddhism was founded around the 5th century BCE in Nepal by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, with the

Four Noble Truths In Buddhism, the Four Noble Truths (Sanskrit: ; pi, cattāri ariyasaccāni; "The four Arya satyas") are "the truths of the Noble Ones", the truths or realities for the "spiritually worthy ones". Four Noble Truths: BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY Encycl ...

and the Eightfold Path as its central principles. According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were revealed by the Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into Gautama Buddha">Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into Theravada, Mahayana">Theravada">Gautama Buddha">Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The schools of Buddhism are typically divided into Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. In academic circles, Mahayana is further divided into East Asian Buddhism, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism teaches that someone who becomes bodhi, enlightened without instruction is a Buddhahood, buddha. The primary goal of Buddhism is the liberation of the practitioner from samsara. Buddhists hold this to be the solution to the problem of suffering.

Jainism

Jainism is the religion of the followers of the Jinas or

Tirthankars In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the '' dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passa ...

(torch bearers and spiritual teachers of dharma).

Parshvanatha ''Parshvanatha'' (), also known as ''Parshva'' () and ''Parasnath'', was the 23rd of 24 ''Tirthankaras'' (supreme preacher of dharma) of Jainism. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of ''Kalīkālkalpataru (Kalpavriksha in this "Kal ...

and

Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6t ...

, the 23rd and 24th

, respectively, revived the Jain religion and re-organized the shraman sangha. Jains highlight the practice of austerity. Jain philosophy states that the jiva, or soul, can escape the cycle of rebirth and death by freeing itself from karmic bondages. When nothing remains but the purity of the jiva, that person is called a ''jina'', or winner, which is the origin of the term Jain. Karma is viewed as an accumulation that burdens the soul, causing attachment and suffering.

Ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

, or non-violence, is central to Jain faith, philosophy and practice. It is interpreted very strictly as prohibiting all forms of harm to other living beings. Due to this, Jainism requires a strict vegetarian lifestyle. ''Ahimsa'' also applies to speaking, as one's words can cause harm and suffering.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a religion which began in Punjab of Northern India. It is founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and the nine human

gurus Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...

that followed. He received a vision to preach the way to enlightenment and God in Sultanpur. His views rejected the traditional worships and caste of the Hindu faith. Freedom from reincarnation is tied to remembrance and repetition on one universal God. In Sikhism, God is Nirankar, a formless and shapeless one. Sikhs believe that there is one universal God who is the ultimate creator, sustainer, and destroyer. The Gurū Granth Sāhib are the central scriptures intended to preserve hymns and the teachings of the Sikh Gurus and other saints from Hindu and Sufi traditions. Rituals, religious ceremonies or empty worship are considered of little use and Sikhs are discouraged from fasting or going on pilgrimages. The tenets of Sikhism include (1) honest living/earning (2) tithing and giving alms (3) chanting on God. Sikhism also has a strong warrior tradition which arose in defense of religious freedom and human rights from a tyrannical

Moghul Mughal or Moghul may refer to: Related to the Mughal Empire * Mughal Empire of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries * Mughal dynasty * Mughal emperors * Mughal people, a social group of Central and South Asia * Mughal architecture * Mug ...

occupation of India.

East Asian religions

The group of East Asian religions or philosophies, also known as Taoic religions, may be considered as forming a group within world religions comparable to the Abrahamic or

Dharmic Dharma (; sa, wikt:धर्म#Sanskrit, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is Untranslatabili ...

groups. The Taoic faiths claim at least 500 million members worldwide.

Taoism

Taoism, also known as Daoism, comprises a variety of related religious and philosophical traditions. Categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Taoist propriety and ethics places an emphasis on the

Three Jewels of the Tao The Three Treasures or Three Jewels () are basic virtues in Taoism. Although the ''Tao Te Ching'' originally used ''sanbao'' to mean "compassion", "frugality", and "humility", the term was later used to translate the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, ...

; love, moderation, humility. Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness. Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. Taoism or Daoism is a type of belief, or a way of thinking about life. It is at least 2,500 years old and it comes from China. Taoism is now said to be a philosophy. Tao (or Dao, 道) is the name of the force or the "Way" that Taoists believe makes everything in the world. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon. Popular Taoism typically presents the

Jade Emperor The Jade Emperor or Yudi ( or , ') in Chinese culture, traditional religions and myth is one of the representations of the first god ( '). In Daoist theology he is the assistant of Yuanshi Tianzun, who is one of the Three Pure Ones, the three ...

as the head

deity A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...

. Intellectual, or "elite", Taoism usually presents

Laozi Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state ...

and the

Three Pure Ones The Three Pure Ones (), also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Divine Teachers, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities, are the three highest gods in the Taoist pantheon. They are regarded as pure ...

at the top of the pantheon. Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. But this sort of

shamanism Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a Spirit world (Spiritualism), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as tranc ...

is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists. Tao itself is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the South Asian concept of

Shinto

Shinto is an animistic folk religion practiced in Japan. Shinto literally means "the way of the gods". Many Japanese Shintoists also identify themselves as Buddhists. Japanese Pure Land Buddhism is deeply intertwined with the Shinto faith. Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values. Taoic influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery.

Ritual cleanliness Ritual purification is the ritual prescribed by a religion by which a person is considered to be free of ''uncleanliness'', especially prior to the worship of a deity, and ritual purity is a state of ritual cleanliness. Ritual purification may ...

is a central part of Shinto life.

Shrines A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy sacred space, space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor worship, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, Daemon (mythology), daem ...

have a significant place in Shinto, reflecting the animistic veneration of the kami. "Folk", or "popular", Shinto places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly

divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...

, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shintoists.

Confucianism

Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social and political thought, influential in the history of East Asia. It is highly debated amongst scholars whether Confucianism is a religion or simply an ethical system. The Chinese Communist Party does not recognize it as a religion. It is commonly associated with legalism but it rejects legalism for

ritualism Ritualism, in the history of Christianity, refers to an emphasis on the rituals and liturgical ceremonies of the church. Specifically, the Christian ritual of Holy Communion. In the Church of England, Anglican church in the 19th century, the rol ...

. It also endorses

meritocracy Meritocracy (''merit'', from Latin , and ''-cracy'', from Ancient Greek 'strength, power') is the notion of a political system in which economic goods and/or political power are vested in individual people based on talent, effort, and achiev ...

as the ideal of nobility. Confucianism has a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness. There are organizations that specifically promote Confucianism as a religion in Indonesia (

Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia The Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia ( id, Majelis Tinggi Agama Konghucu Indonesia, MATAKIN; Chinese: 印尼孔教總會; pinyin: yìnní kǒngjiào zǒnghuì) is a Confucian church established in 1955 in Indonesia, compri ...

) and Hong Kong (

Confucian Academy The Confucian Academy is a non-governmental organization (NGO) founded in 1930 by Dr. Chen Huanzhang ( 陳煥章) to promote Confucianism. It follows Confucius's teachings to provide students with the relevant knowledge. His teachings are based ...

). Confucianism tolerates the Chinese folk recognition of the existence of animistic spirits,

ghosts A ghost is the soul or spirit of a dead person or animal that is believed to be able to appear to the living. In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely from an invisible presence to translucent or barely visible wispy shapes, to rea ...

and

deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...

. It approves paying them proper respect, but at a more fundamental level encourages avoiding them. Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built.

East Asian Buddhism

Shamanism and Animism

Shamanism Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a Spirit world (Spiritualism), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as tranc ...

and Animism have historically been practised in Asia, and is still practiced in most of Asia. Compare:

Northeast Asia

* Mongolian shamanism *

Korean shamanism Korean shamanism or Mu-ism is a religion from Korea. In the Korean language, alternative terms for the tradition are ''musok'' () and ''mugyo'' (무교, 巫敎). Scholars of religion have classified it as a folk religion. There is no central auth ...

Ainu religion The Ainu are the indigenous people of the lands surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk, including Hokkaido Island, Tōhoku region, Northeast Honshu Island, Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula and Khabarovsk Krai, before the arri ...

* Ko-Shintō * Turkic Shamanism

China

Chinese shamanism Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (; alternatively ''wū xí zōngjiào''), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China. Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the Hongshan culture. ...

* Manchu shamanism * Northeast China folk religion * Nuo folk religion *

Bon ''Bon'', also spelled Bön () and also known as Yungdrung Bon (, "eternal Bon"), is a Tibetan religious tradition with many similarities to Tibetan Buddhism and also many unique features.Samuel 2012, pp. 220-221. Bon initially developed in t ...

Southeast Asia

Đạo Mẫu Đạo Mẫu (, ) is the worship of mother goddesses which was established in Vietnam in the 16th century. While scholars like Ngô Đức Thịnh propose that it represents a systematic worship of mother goddesses, Đạo Mẫu draws together f ...

* Burmese Folk Religion

Others

Chinese

Chan Buddhism Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...

* Chinese salvationist religions ** Xiantiandao ** Yiguandao * Falun Gong * Luoism *

Wang Hao-te Wang Hao-te (1921–1999) was the founder of the Great Way of Maitreya (), which is based in Hsinchu, Taiwan. According to a survey done in 2004, this religion has 1,000,000 members and 2,000 temples all over the world. Wang was born in 1921, th ...

* Yao folk religion

Dravidian

Dravidian folk religion The early Dravidian religion constituted a non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic. The Agamas are non-Vedic in origin,Mudumby Narasimhachary (ed.) (1976). "Āgamaprāmāṇya of Yāmunācārya ...

Japanese

* Japanese Buddhism *

Ryukyuan religion The Ryukyuan religion (琉球信仰), Ryūkyū Shintō (琉球神道), Nirai Kanai Shinkō (ニライカナイ信仰), or Utaki Shinkō (御嶽信仰) is the indigenous belief system of the Ryukyu Islands. While specific legends and traditions ...

* Shinto * Shugendō * Tenrikyo

Korean

* Cheondoism *

Daejongism Daejongism ( ko, 대종교, 大倧敎 ''Daejonggyo'' or ''Taejongkyo'', "religion of the Divine Progenitor" or "great ancestral religion") or Dangunism ( ko, 단군교, 檀君敎 ''Dangungyo'' or ''Tangunkyo'', "religion of Dangun") is the name of ...

* Daesun Jinrihoe * Gasin faith *

Jeung San Do Jeung San Do (), occasionally called Jeungsanism ( ''Jeungsangyo''), meaning "The Dao/Tao of Jeung-san", although this term is better reserved for a larger family of movements, is a new religious movement founded in South Korea in 1974. It is one ...

Seon Buddhism Seon or Sŏn Buddhism (Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ('' ...

* Suwunism * Won Buddhism

Meivazhi

Nāstik (Heterodox Indian)

* Ajivika *

Ajñana ''Ajñāna'' () was one of the ''nāstika'' or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. It was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism, Jainism and the Ājīvika ...

* Buddhism *

Charvaka Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrac ...

* Jainism

Nepalese religions

Bön ''Bon'', also spelled Bön () and also known as Yungdrung Bon (, "eternal Bon"), is a Tibetan culture, Tibetan religious tradition with many similarities to Tibetan Buddhism and also many unique features.Samuel 2012, pp. 220-221. Bon initiall ...

(Tibet / Nepal) * Kirat Mundhum * Newar Buddhism

Tai and Miao

* Ahom religion * Mo religion (

Zhuang Shigongism Mo or Moism () is the religion of most Zhuang people, the largest ethnic minority of China. It has a large presence in Guangxi. While it has a supreme god, the creator Bu Luotuo (布洛陀), numerous other deities are venerated as well. It has ...

) * Tai folk religion

Tibeto-Burmese

* Burmese folk religion * Benzhuism * Bimoism *

Bathouism Bathouism (also, Bathou) is the folk religion of the Boro people of Assam in Northeast India. The name ('','' five; '','' deep) in Boro means ''five principles''. The five principles are: (air), (fire), (earth), (water) and (ether). The ...

* Bongthingism * Donyi-Polo *

Heraka Jadonang Malangmei (1905-1931) popularly known as Haipou Jadonang was a Naga spiritual leader and political activist from Manipur, British India. He established the ''Heraka'' religious movement, which was based on the ancestral Naga religion, an ...

* Kiratism *

Qiang folk religion Qiang folk religion is the indigenous religion of the majority of the Qiang people, an ethnic group of Sichuan ( China) tightly related to the Han Chinese and the Tibetans.Chapter 1.3.6 "Religion" It is pantheistic, involving the worship of a var ...

* Sanamahism

Sarnaism

Vietnam

Vietnamese folk religion ( vi, tín ngưỡng dân gian Việt Nam) is the largest religion in Vietnam with about 45.3% of the Vietnamese population that are associated with this religion. * Caodaism *

Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương (, , "Way of the Strange Fragrance from the Precious Mountain") refers to a religious tradition originally practiced by the mystic Đoàn Minh Huyên (1807–1856) and continued by Huỳnh Phú Sổ, founder of the ...

* Đạo Dừa *

* Hòa Hảo

Secularization

Historical

Charvaka (Historical)

Din-I Ilahi (Historical)

Notes

References

* De Bary, William Theodore & Tu, Weiming. ''Confucianism and Human Rights''. Columbia University Press (1998). . * Fisher, Mary Pat. ''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths''. I.B. Tauris (1997). . * Flood, Gavin D. ''An Introduction to Hinduism''. Cambridge University Press (1996). . * Huang, Siu-chi. ''Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods''. Greenwood Press (1999). . * Leaman, Oliver. ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy''. Routledge (1999). . * LaFargue, Michael. ''Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching''. SUNY Press (1994). . * Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu. ''Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world''. Blackwell Publishing (2001). . * Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. ''Taoism and Chinese Religion''. University of Massachusetts (1981). * Morgan, Diane. ''The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion''. St. Martin's Griffin (2001). . * Ono, Sakyo. ''Shinto: The Kami Way''. Tuttle Publishing (2004). . * Pilgrim, Richard B. ''Buddhism and the Arts of Japan''. Columbia University Press (1999). . * Rausch, Thomas P. & Chapple, Christopher Key. ''The College Student's Introduction to Theology''. Liturgical Press (1993). . * Segal, Robert Alan. ''The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion''. Blackwell Publishing (2006). . * Sharot, Stephen. ''A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion''. NYU Press (2001). . * Slingerland, Edward Gilman. ''Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China''. Oxford University Press (2003). . * Smart, Ninian. ''World Philosophies''. Routledge UK (2000). . * Swami Bhaskarananda. ''The Essentials of Hinduism''. Viveka Press (1994). . * Weightman, Simon. Hinnells, John (ed). ''Handbook of Living Religions''. Penguin Books (1997). . * Yao, Xinzhong. ''An Introduction to Confucianism''. Cambridge University Press (2000). . * York, Michael. ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.'' NYU Press (2005). . {{Religion topics Religion in Asia Comparative religion