The Hmu language (''hveb Hmub''), also known as Qiandong Miao (黔东, Eastern Guizhou Miao), Central Miao, East Hmongic, or (somewhat ambiguously) Black Miao, is a

dialect cluster A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varie ...

of Hmongic languages of China. The best studied dialect is that of Yǎnghāo (养蒿) village,

Taijiang County Taijiang County () is a county in eastern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ''Qeef Dongb Naif Dol Hmub D ...

Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to t ...

Province, China. Qanu (咯努), a Hmu variety, had 11,450 speakers as of 2000, and is spoken just south of

Kaili City Kaili (, Hmu language: ''Kad Linx'') is a county-level city under the administration of Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, in southeastern Guizhou province, People's Republic of China. It is the center of Miao culture, hosting more ...

, Guizhou. The Qanu are ethnoculturally distinct from the other Hmu.

Names

Autonyms include ' in Kaili, ' in Jinping County, ' in Tianzhu County, ' in

Huangping County Huangping County (; Hmu: ''Wangx Zangx'') is a county in the east of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ...

, ' in some parts of

Qiandongnan Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ''Qeef Dongb Naif Dol Hmub Dol Gud Zid Zid Zeb''; Kam language: ''Qeens Donc Nanc Nyenc Miiul Nyenc Gaeml Zil Zl Zous''), also known as Southeast Qian Autonomous Prefecture of Miao ...

(''Miaoyu Jianzhi 苗语简志'' 1985), and ' in

Rongshui Miao Autonomous County Rongshui Miao Autonomous County (; Standard Zhuang: ) is under the administration of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. The seat of Rongshui County is Rongshui Town. It borders the prefecture-level divisions of Qiandongnan (Guizhou) ...

, Guangxi. Ná-Meo, spoken by the Mieu people of Cao Minh Commune, Tràng Định District, Lạng Sơn Province, Vietnam, may be closely related.

Subdivisions and distribution

Wang (1985)

Wang Fushi (1985) groups the Qiandong Miao languages as follows. *Northern: 1,000,000 speakers in Kaili, Majiang, Nandan, Leishan, Taijiang, Huangping, Jianhe, Zhenyuan, Sansui, Shibing, Sandu, Fuquan, Pingba, Zhenning, Xingren, Zhenfeng, Anlong, Wangmo, etc. *Eastern: 250,000 speakers in Jinping, Liping, Jianhe, Jingzhou, Tongdao, Huitong, etc. *Southern: 350,0000 speakers in Rongjiang, Congjiang, Nandan, Sandu, Rongshui, Sanjiang, etc. Includes Na Meo of northern Vietnam. *Western ( Raojia): 15,000 speakers in Heba of Majiang, Mianluo of Duyun, Sandu, Rongjiang, parts of Nandan

Wu (2009)

Wu Zhengbiao (2009) divides Hmu into seven different dialects. Past classifications usually included only three or four dialects. For example, Li Jinping & Li Tianyi (2012), based on past classifications, divide Hmu into the three dialects of Northern, Southern, and Eastern. Datapoint locations of representative dialects are from Li Yunbing (2000). *Eastern (''Representative dialect'': Sanjiang township 三江乡, Jinping County, Guizhou) ** Jinping County,

(in Ouli 偶里寨 of Ouli Township 偶里乡, etc.) ***Hekou 河口 dialect (10,000+ speakers): spoken in Hekou 河口乡, Wenniu 文牛乡, and Zhanghua 彰化乡 townships ***Ouli 偶里 dialect (20,000+ speakers): spoken in Pinglve 平略乡, Ouli 偶里乡, Zhaizao 寨早乡, Jiaosan 皎三乡, Maoping 茅坪乡, Guazhi 挂治乡, Pingjin 平金乡, and Suijiang 稳江乡, Loujiang 娄江乡, and Tongpo 铜坡乡 townships ***Yuhe 裕河 dialect (about 3,000 speakers): spoken in Yuhe 裕河乡, Xinmin 新民乡, and Guben 固本乡 townships **

Jingzhou County Jingzhou Miao and Dong Autonomous County (; usually referred to as Jingzhou County, commonly abbreviated as Jingzhou, ) is an autonomous county of Miao and Dong peoples in Hunan Province, China, the county is under the administration of the pre ...

Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...

(in Caidiwan 菜地湾, etc.) **

Huitong County Huitong County () is a county of Hunan Province, China, it is under the administration of Huaihua Prefecturel-level City. Located on the west central margin of the province, the county lies to the east of the border of Guizhou. It is bordered to ...

*Northern (''Representative dialect'': Yanghao village 养蒿村, Guading town 挂丁镇,

Kaili city Kaili (, Hmu language: ''Kad Linx'') is a county-level city under the administration of Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, in southeastern Guizhou province, People's Republic of China. It is the center of Miao culture, hosting more ...

, Guizhou) ** Kaili (in Yanghao 养蒿 of Guading Township 挂丁镇, etc.) **

Leishan County Leishan (, Hmu language:''Zangx Xongx'') is a county in the east of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: '' ...

Shibing County Shibing County (; Hmu: ''Qib Jux'') is a county in the east of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ''Qee ...

**Gedong 革东镇 in

Jianhe County Jianhe County () is in the southeast of Guizhou Province, China. Under the administration of Qiandongnan Prefecture, it is from the provincial capital of Guiyang, and from Kaili City, the prefectural seat. Administration Jianhe County admini ...

Fuquan County Fuquan () is a county-level city in east-central Guizhou province of the People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a populat ...

Weng'an County Weng'an County () is a county in Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou, China. Weng'an has an area of 1973.8 square kilometers and a population of 460,600 as of 2003. Gallery Voa chinese +stone tablet 29jun10 300.jpg, Stone table ...

Xingren County Xingren () is a county-level city of southwestern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qianxinan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. Geography and climate Due to its low latitude and elevation above , Xingren has a mons ...

**parts of

Anlong County Anlong County () is a county in the southwest of Guizhou province, China, bordering Guangxi to the south. It is under the administration of the Qianxinan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. Wildlife Lungtou frog or Anlung odorous frog, ''Odorra ...

**Yangwu 杨武乡, Longquan 龙泉镇, Paidiao 排调镇, Xingren 兴仁镇 townships, and also parts of Yahui 雅灰乡 in Danzhai County **

Duyun Duyun () is the capital of Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture in Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The area surrounding the city was affected by the Miao rebellion of 1735–36. The city participated in the uprising ...

***Bagu Township 坝固镇: Jijia 鸡贾, Yanglie 羊列, Baduo 把朵, Metao 么陶 ***Wangsi Township 王司镇: Taohua 桃花, Xinchang 新场, Wulu 乌路, Wuzhai 五寨 ***Pu'an Township 普安镇: Zongjiang 总奖村, Guanghua 光华村, Xingfu 幸福村 *Northeastern **Zhaitou 寨头村, Baye 巴冶村, and Liangshan 良上村 villages of

Sansui County Sansui County () is a county in eastern Guizhou province, China, bordering Hunan province to the east. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture and is one of the province's eastern gateways. Geography ...

**Gaoyongzhai 高雍寨, Guanme Township 观么乡,

*Western (including Raojia; ''Representative dialect'': Baixing village 白兴村, Heba township 河坝乡,

Majiang County Majiang County () is a county of southeast-central Guizhou province, China. It is the westernmost county-level division of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture (; Hmu language: ''Qee ...

, Guizhou) **Heba Village 河坝村, Longshan Township 龙山乡,

**Raohe Village 绕河村, Luobang Township 洛邦乡,

(also in Pingzhai 坪寨 of Wu'ai Village 五爱村) *Southern (''Representative dialect'': Yangpai village 羊排村, Yangwu township 扬武乡, Danzhai County, Guizhou) ** Sandu County: Lalan 拉揽乡 (in Paishaozhai 排烧寨, etc.), Jiaoli 交梨乡, Dujiang 都江镇 townships; Jialan 甲揽, Yangwu 羊吴, Dediao 的刁, Hongguang 红光, and Wuyun 巫匀 villages of Pu'an Township 普安镇 ** Danzhai County: Paidao 排岛 and Paimo 排莫 of Yahui Township 雅灰乡 *Southeastern 1 (''Representative dialect'': Datu village 大土村, Jiuqian township 九迁乡,

Libo County Libo County () is a county of southern Guizhou province, China, bordering Guangxi to the south. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture. Geography The county is located in the remote southeastern corner o ...

, Guizhou) **Datu 大土村, Shuiwei 水维村, and Jialiao 甲料村 villages in Jiarong 佳荣镇 Township,

**parts of Jiajiu 加鸠乡 Township,

Congjiang County Congjiang County () is a county in Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is divided by the Duliu River (), the upper reaches of the Liu River, and borders Guangxi to the south. It is an important transit point as t ...

**Xunle Township 馴乐苗族乡,

Huanjiang County Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County ( Zhuang: ; ) is an ethnic Maonan autonomous county in the north of Guangxi, China, bordering Guizhou province to the north and northwest. It is under the administration of Hechi Hechi () is a prefecture-level ...

*Southeastern 2 (''Representative dialect'': Zhenmin 振民, Gongdong township 拱洞乡,

Rongshui County Rongshui Miao people, Miao Autonomous County (; Standard Zhuang: ) is under the administration of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China. The seat of Rongshui County is Rongshui Town. It borders the prefecture-level divisions of Qiandongn ...

, Guangxi) **Bingmei 丙妹镇, Tingdong 停洞乡, Cuili 翠里乡, and much of the Yueliangshan 月亮山 area in

Rongjiang County Rongjiang County () is a county in southeastern Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture. Administration Rongjiang County is divided into 9 towns and 4 townships and 6 Ethnic to ...

(in Gunqinzhai 滚琴寨 of Dongtou Township 洞头乡, Yaogao 尧告, etc.) ** Sanjiang County **

Northern Vietnam Northern Vietnam ( vi, Bắc Bộ) is one of three geographical regions within Vietnam. It consists of three administrative regions: the Northwest (Vùng Tây Bắc), the Northeast (Vùng Đông Bắc), and the Red River Delta (Đồng Bằng S ...

(Lang Son, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, and Tuyen Quang provinces): Na Meo language

Others

Sanqiao 三锹 (三橇) is a mixed

Kam Kaam (Gurmukhi: ਕਾਮ ''Kāma'') in common usage, the term stands for 'excessive passion for sexual pleasure' and it is in this sense that it is considered to be an evil in Sikhism. In Sikhism it is believed that Kaam can be overcome ...

–Hmu language spoken in

Liping County Liping County () is a county in the southeast of Guizhou province, China, bordering Hunan to the east and Guangxi to the southeast. It is part of the Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture. History The county was affected by the Miao re ...

and Jinping County,

, China by about 6,000 people.

Classification

Hmu has been recognized as a branch of Hmongic since the 1950s. Wang (1985) recognized three varieties. Matisoff (2001) treated these as distinct languages, which is reflected in ''Ethnologue''. Lee (2000) added a fourth variety, Western Hmu (10,000 speakers), among the Yao, and Matisoff (2006) lists seven (Daigong, Kaili Lushan, Taijiang Zhenfeng Phö, Rongjiang .

Writing

Northern Qiandong Miao, also known as Central Miao and as Eastern Guizhou Hmu (黔东方言 ''Qián-Dōng fāngyán''), was chosen as the standard for Hmu-language textbooks in China, based on the pronunciation of Yǎnghāo (养蒿) village.

Phonology

The phonemic inventory and alphabetic transcription are as follows. is not distinct from a zero initial (that is, if we accept as a consonant, there are no vowel-initial words in Hmu), and only occurs with tones 1, 3, 5, 7. The aspirated nasals and fricatives do not exist in Southern or Eastern Hmu; cognates words use their unaspirated homologues. Further, in Eastern Hmu, ''di, ti'' merge into ''j, q''; ''c'' merges into ''x''; ''r'' (Northern ) merges into ''ni''; and ''v'' is pronounced . In Southern Hmu, words cognate with ''hni'' (and some with ''ni'') are pronounced ; those with ''r'' are ; and some words exchange ''s'' and ''x''. ''Ai'' does not occur after palatalized consonants. after palatalized consonants is spelled ''in''. Additional diphthongs occur in Chinese loans. All dialects have eight tones. There is no

sandhi Sandhi ( sa, सन्धि ' , "joining") is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Examples include fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of one sound depending on near ...

. In the chart below, Northern Hmu is represented by Yanghao village (

), Eastern Hmu by 偶里 village ( Jinping County), and Southern Hmu by 振民 (

). The lowest tones—Northern tones 4 and 6, Eastern tones 3 and 8, and Southern tone 6—are said to make the preceding consonant murmured (

breathy voice Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, whispery voice, soughing and susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like ...

d), presumably meaning that these are murmured tones as in other Hmongic languages. They are marked with in the chart.

References and notes

External links

Hmu basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
{{Languages of China Hmongic languages Languages of China