Polystyrene sulfonates are a group of medications used to treat high blood potassium. Effects generally take hours to days. They are also used to remove potassium, calcium, and sodium from

solution Solution may refer to: * Solution (chemistry), a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another * Solution (equation), in mathematics ** Numerical solution, in numerical analysis, approximate solutions within specified error bounds * Soluti ...

s in technical applications. Common side effects include loss of appetite, gastrointestinal upset, constipation, and

low blood calcium Hypocalcemia is a medical condition characterized by low calcium levels in the blood serum. The normal range of blood calcium is typically between 2.1–2.6 mmol/L (8.8–10.7 mg/dL, 4.3–5.2 mEq/L) while levels less than 2.1 mmol ...

. These polymers are derived from

polystyrene Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer made from monomers of the aromatic hydrocarbon styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a ...

by the addition of sulfonate functional groups. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate was approved for medical use in the United States in 1958. A polystyrene sulfonate was developed in the 2000s to treat Clostridium ''difficile'' associated diarrhea under the name

Tolevamer Tolevamer is a medication developed to combat ''Clostridium difficile'' associated diarrhea. It is a potassium sodium polystyrene sulfonate. It was never marketed. Mechanism of action Tolevamer was designed to bind the enterotoxins of ''Clostridi ...

, but it was never marketed.

Medical uses

Polystyrene sulfonate is usually supplied in either the sodium or calcium form. It is used as a

potassium binder Potassium binders are medications that bind potassium ions in the gastrointestinal tract, thereby preventing its intestinal absorption. They consist of polystyrene sulfonate resins attached to a cation and are administered either orally or by retent ...

in acute and

chronic kidney disease Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of kidney disease in which a gradual loss of kidney function occurs over a period of months to years. Initially generally no symptoms are seen, but later symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vo ...

for people with hyperkalemia (abnormal high blood serum potassium levels). However, it is unclear if it is beneficial and there is concern about possible side effects when it is combined with

sorbitol Sorbitol (), less commonly known as glucitol (), is a sugar alcohol with a sweet taste which the human body metabolizes slowly. It can be obtained by reduction of glucose, which changes the converted aldehyde group (−CHO) to a primary alcohol g ...

. Polystyrene sulfonates are given by mouth with a meal or rectally by retention enema.

Side effects

Intestinal disturbances are common, including loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and constipation. In rare cases, it has been associated with colonic necrosis. Changes in electrolyte blood levels such as hypomagnesemia, hypocalcemia, and hypokalemia may occur. Polystyrene sulfonates should not be used in people with obstructive bowel disease and in newborns with reduced

gut motility Peristalsis ( , ) is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagate in a wave down a tube, in an anterograde direction. Peristalsis is progression of coordinated contraction of involuntary circular muscles, which ...

. for Kayexalate.

Intestinal injury

A total of 58 cases of intestinal injury including

necrosis Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, or trauma which result in the unregulated dige ...

of the colon have been reported with polystyrene sulfonate as of 2013. Well more cases have been reported when used in combination with sorbitol and other cases have occurred when used alone.

Interactions

Polystyrene sulfonates can bind to various drugs within the digestive tract and thus lower their absorption and effectiveness. Common examples include lithium, thyroxine, and digitalis. In September 2017, the FDA recommended separating the dosing of polystyrene sulfonate from any other oral medications by at least three hours to avoid any potential interactions.

Mechanism of action

Hyperkalemia

Polystyrene sulfonates release sodium or calcium ions in the stomach in exchange for hydrogen ions. When the resin reaches the large intestine the hydrogen ions are exchanged for free potassium ions; the resin is then eliminated in the feces. The net effect is lowering the amount of potassium available for absorption into the blood and increasing the amount that is excreted via the feces. The effect is a reduction of potassium levels in the body, at a capacity of 1 mEq of potassium exchanged per 1 g of resin.

Production and chemical structure

Polystyrene sulfonic acid, the acid whose salts are the polystyrene sulfonates, has the idealized formula (CH₂CHC₆H₄SO₃H)_''n''. The material is prepared by sulfonation of

: :(CH₂CHC₆H₅)_''n'' + ''n'' SO₃ → (CH₂CHC₆H₄SO₃H)_''n'' Several methods exist for this conversion, which can lead to varying degree of sulfonation. Usually the polystyrene is

crosslinked In chemistry and biology a cross-link is a bond or a short sequence of bonds that links one polymer chain to another. These links may take the form of covalent bonds or ionic bonds and the polymers can be either synthetic polymers or natural ...

, which keeps the polymer from dissolving. Since the

sulfonic acid In organic chemistry, sulfonic acid (or sulphonic acid) refers to a member of the class of organosulfur compounds with the general formula , where R is an organic alkyl or aryl group and the group a sulfonyl hydroxide. As a substituent, it is kn ...

group (SO₃H) is strongly acidic, this polymer neutralizes bases. In this way, various salts of the polymer can be prepared, leading to sodium, calcium, and other salts: :(CH₂CHC₆H₄SO₃H)_''n'' + ''n'' NaOH → (CH₂CHC₆H₄SO₃Na)_''n'' + ''n'' H₂O These ion-containing polymers are called ionomers.

Alternative sulfonation methods

Double substitutions of the phenyl rings are known to occur, even with conversions well below 100%. Crosslinking reactions are also found, where condensation of two sulfonic acid groups yields a sulfonyl crosslink. On the other hand, the use of milder conditions such as acetyl sulfate leads to incomplete sulfonation. Recently, the

atom transfer radical polymerization Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) is an example of a reversible-deactivation radical polymerization. Like its counterpart, ATRA, or atom transfer radical addition, ATRP is a means of forming a carbon-carbon bond with a transition metal cat ...

(ATRP) of protected styrene sulfonates has been reported, leading to well defined linear polymers, as well as more complicated molecular architectures.

Chemical uses

Polystyrene sulfonates are useful because of their ion exchange properties. Linear ionic polymers are generally water-soluble, whereas cross-linked materials (called resins) do not dissolve in water. These polymers are classified as

polysalt Polyelectrolytes are polymers whose repeating units bear an electrolyte group. Polycations and polyanions are polyelectrolytes. These groups dissociate in aqueous solutions (water), making the polymers charged. Polyelectrolyte properties are t ...

s and ionomers.

Water softening

Water softening is achieved by percolating hard water through a bed of the sodium form of cross-linked polystyrene sulfonate. The hard ions such as calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) adhere to the sulfonate groups, displacing sodium ions. The resulting solution of sodium ions is softened. CationExchCartoon

Other uses

Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is used as a superplastifier in cement, as a dye improving agent for cotton, and as proton exchange membranes in fuel cell applications. In its acid form, the resin is used as a solid

acid catalyst In acid catalysis and base catalysis, a chemical reaction is catalyzed by an acid or a base. By Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, the acid is the proton (hydrogen ion, H+) donor and the base is the proton acceptor. Typical reactions catalyze ...

organic synthesis Organic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the intentional construction of organic compounds. Organic molecules are often more complex than inorganic compounds, and their synthesis has developed into one o ...

References

{{Drugs for treatment of hyperkalemia and hyperphosphatemia Benzenesulfonates Nephrology procedures Organic polymers Plastics Polyelectrolytes Chelating agents used as drugs Acid catalysts Vinyl polymers Sanofi