Discrimination Based On Skin Color

Discrimination based on skin color, also known as colorism, or shadeism, is a form of prejudice and/or discrimination in which people who share similar ethnicity traits or perceived race are treated differently based on the social implications that come with the cultural meanings that are attached to skin color.

Research has found extensive evidence of discrimination based on skin color in criminal justice, business, the economy, housing, health care, media, and politics in the United States and Europe. Lighter skin tones are seen as preferable in many countries in Africa, Asia and South America.

Worldwide

Racism affects almost every aspect of people's daily lives. Research shows that people of color are offered fewer opportunities in higher education and employment than white people are offered. Black people are treated more strictly and less politely than white people are treated. As romantic partners, they are considered less desirable and white people are considered more desirable. They also receive compromised medical treatment.

Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North American and European labor markets. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies done in OECD countries in 1990-2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination within both the European and North American hiring process. Equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications than majority candidates to be invited for an interview. Recent research in the U.S. shows that socioeconomic and health inequality among African Americans along the color-continuum is often similar or even larger in magnitude than what exists between whites and African Americans.

Asia

East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia

In East, South and Southeast Asia, a preference for lighter skin is prevalent, especially in countries such as China, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Vietnam, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and Japan.

The history of skin whitening in East Asia dates back to ancient times. In the ancient dynastic eras, to be light in an area where the sun was harsh implied wealth and nobility because those individuals were able to stay indoors while servants had to labor outside. Ancient Asian cultures also associated light skin with feminine beauty. "Jade" white skin in Korea is known to have been the ideal as far back as the Gojoseon era. Japan's Edo period saw the start of a trend of women whitening their faces with rice powder as a "moral duty". Chinese women valued a "milk white" complexion and swallowed powdered pearls towards that end. Four out of ten women surveyed in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines, and South Korea use a skin whitening cream. In many Asian cultures, colorism is taught to children in the form of fairy tales; just as the Grimms' fairy tales featured light-skinned princesses or maidens, Asian mythological protagonists are typically fair and depict virtue, purity, and goodness . A light complexion is equated with feminine beauty, racial superiority, and power, and continues to have strong influences on marital prospects, employment, status, and income.

Globalized East Asia still retains these biases, but they are compounded by the influence of Westernized beauty ideals and media that equate whiteness with modern and urban wealth and success.

China and Japan

Hiroshi Wagatsuma writes in ''Daedalus'' that Japanese culture has long associated skin color with other physical characteristics that signify degrees of spiritual refinement or degrees of primitiveness.

The scholar repeats an old Japanese proverb: "white skin makes up for seven defects." More specifically for a woman, very light skin allows people to overlook her lack of other desirable physical characteristics. Skin color influenced and continues to influence people's standards of attractiveness, socioeconomic status and capability.

Westerners have long called East Asians, specifically Chinese and Japanese people, "yellow", but the Chinese and Japanese seldom describe their skin color in that way. The Japanese traditionally used the word ''shiroi'' – meaning "white" – to describe the lighter shades of skin in their society.

During the Nara period which lasted from 710 to 793 AD, the court ladies of Japan applied a lot of white powder to their faces and added red rosy cheeks. Many references to plump women with white skin appear in drawings and writings from 794 to 1186 AD. In literature, note for example '' The Tale of Genji'' (written 1000–1012) by Lady Murasaki.

Malaysia

A survey concluded that three quarters of Malaysian men thought their partners would be more attractive if they had lighter skin complexions.

In certain Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, a common beauty ideal is the " Eurasian look". Locally known as the "pan-Asian look", in Malaysia, it is an ideal that stems from the beauty ideal of fair skin, which Eurasians tend to naturally possess. The overuse of pan-Asian faces on billboards and on television screens has been a controversial issue in the country. The issue was highlighted in 2009 when Zainuddin Maidin, a Malaysian politician, called for the reduction of pan-Asian faces which he claimed dominate TV and billboards and instead increase the number of Malay, Chinese and Indian faces on local television. Despite the controversy surrounding the preference for Malaysians who are of mixed Asian (Malay, Chinese or Indian) and European descent who possess features such as fair skin, some experts in the industry have said that the use of pan-Asian faces can be used to promote the racial diversity of Malaysians. They can also be used to promote a product towards a diverse racial demographic because of their mixed appearance, which the Minister of Information had suggested in 1993.

India

The implications of colorism in India have been apparent since the nation's conception. The legacies of Mughal, Northern and European colonial rule on the Indian subcontinent have influenced modern relations between light skin and power dynamics. Multiple studies have concluded that preference for lighter skin in India is historically linked to both the caste system and Persian, Mughal and European rule. Hinduism's influence also must be considered. The Hindu social hierarchy emphasized that those in higher castes typically had lighter skin than those in lower castes. So, they are at an advantage. Colorism in India was also fed by the attitudes of Europeans, who favored lighter-skinned people for administrative positions and other prominent social positions; so power was conceptually intertwined with light skin. Rich Indians often tend to be light-skinned due to less exposure to sun. Also, individuals were judged by their occupation; and being born into a lineage of, say, farmers, would typically make one unable to leave said lineage. Migration between occupations was rare, and though the caste system's legality was altered in 1948, the practice is still common in many parts of the country. As these factors generated the caste system, it grew to include both economic standing and societal positioning. Existing prejudices also influenced European officials. This sentiment remains. Colorism has societal implications, many of which severely harm socioeconomic mobility of darker-skinned Indians. These can play out in gender stereotyping and regional discrimination. Studies of melanin index (MI) in individuals across regions show that there are variations in skin color, which contribute to the level of discrimination darker-skinned individuals face in these respective regions. In India, especially some regions, dark-skinned people are often seen as "dirty" and of lower status than lighter-skinned ones. In Maharashtra state, a group of young tribal girls trained to be flight crew through a government scholarship program that aimed to empower women; however, the program seems to have actually disempowered darker-skinned women. Most of the girls were denied employment due to their darker skin tone. A few of them got jobs, but only as out-of-sight ground crew. This inherent racism further fuels the notion that light skin is often associated with improved living conditions and a higher standard of living. This notion typically affects Indian women more than men; this notion is backed by gender rights in India, which are not very progressive and they often harm upward mobility of individuals in professional settings and impose restrictions on their social lives based on their gender. This is a case where two cleavages fuel one another (see Intersectionality). Men with darker skin often can, in a societally-accepted manner, marry women with lighter skin. But darker women do not have the same privileges as darker men; largely due to the patriarchal institutions that riddle India to this day.

Other forms of colorism in India can be seen in the cosmetic industry, where "fairness" creams meant to lighten skin are popular, and in the Indian film and media industry, where most hires are light-skinned, and actresses are often photoshopped to look lighter. Skin lightening is shown to have significant detrimental effects on both mental and physical health, especially for women, who are more heavily burdened by men in relation to this issue. It is a burden on one's mental health in a societal setting; users of skin creams, on average, remain dissatisfied with their complexion even after using the product. Unregulated products can contain harmful chemicals which can cause dermatitis, chemical burns, and in severe cases, increase the likelihood of skin cancer and melanoma. As these mechanisms interplay with the presence of existent capitalistic institutions that control much of today's world, it is no secret that the skin-lightening industry benefits this system through the exploitation of vulnerable individuals.

In the wake of the murder of George Floyd that led to protests worldwide, the debate about colorism and skin tone in India has been discussed in several media outlets, and as part of the general critique a big Indian matchmaking website, Shaadi.com, removed a filter where one could mark skin color preferences for their potential partner. Outside of India, dark-skinned individuals and immigrants are typically treated with the same low level of social respect and acceptance, similar to experiences they endure within their country.

Pakistan

Pakistanis are largely known for their susceptibility to colorism. It is considered extremely normal to use skin whitening creams because they are very popular among the people of Pakistan, they are especially popular among Pakistani women.

Pakistan is imbued with post-colonial racist attitudes. Pakistan is also home to the largest African diaspora in South Asia, the Sheedis, who are often discriminated, marginalised and left in poverty.

The media is a major influence on how they view themselves and they have learned to favor lighter skin over darker skin. After being exposed to constant ads for skin whitening creams (such as Fair and Lovely), and after seeing Bollywood actors with light skin being portrayed as good role models and after seeing dark skinned actors being portrayed as poor role models, many people from Pakistan have been heavily affected into achieving a fair complexion, which includes staying out of the sunlight as much as possible.The popular YouTube web series, ''Conversations with Kanwal'', produced by Kanwal Ahmed, covered colorism and its effect on women and their marital prospects in season 1, episode 7.

Sri Lanka

Fair skin is a beauty ideal in contemporary Sri Lankan society but has its roots in ancient Sri Lankan beauty ideals. Fairness products and other products that include whitening agents are commonly sold in Sri Lanka and are popular among females. Fair skinned actors and actresses feature prominently in Bollywood films and Korean dramas both of which are widely popular and influential in Sri Lanka.

United Arab Emirates

In many places, people with white skin get better treatment and salaries.

Africa

During the European colonial period, travelers in Africa emphasized and added to a European discourse of black womanhood that attributed a big body to all black women. This was a symbol of 'otherness', their inferior phenotype, and backward culture and intellect.

Although, today the thick Black female body is celebrated but it does not negate the fact of white colonialist views and the prevalence of white beauty standards. "The voluptuous black female body is still perceived as unattractive, ugly, and grotesque—the opposite of beautiful—when seen through the prism of white supremacy."

In some parts of Africa, women with lighter skin are thought to be more beautiful and likely to find more success than women with darker skin tones. Often this barrier leads to women turning to skin lightening treatments, many of which are harmful to the body.

Historically, the cause of skin lightening dates back to European colonialism, where individuals with lighter skin received greater privilege than those of darker tones. This built a racial hierarchy and color ranking within colonized African nations, leaving psychological effects on many of the darker skinned individuals.

Colorism affects both women and men in African countries, but it has taken hold of the beauty standards associated with a woman's ability to find success and marriage. The number of women across African countries using bleaching products have gone up with 77% of Nigerian women, 52% of Senegalese women, and 25% of Malian women using lightening products. ''Der Spiegel'' reports that in Ghana, "When You Are Light-Skinned, You Earn More" and that, "Some pregnant women take tablets in the hopes that it will lead their child to be born with fair skin. Some apply bleaching lotion... to their babies, in the hopes that it will improve their child's chances."

Europe

Research reveals that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas which are populated by minorities and in-group bias may cause disproportionately high numbers of crime suspects among racial minorities in Europe. Research also suggests there may be discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.

Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North American and European labor markets. A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies done in OECD countries in 1990-2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America. Equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.

A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial and ethnic discrimination in the housing market of several European countries. These include being discriminated against in the rental market, a lack of ability to successfully integrate into society, discrimination based on foreign origin, and preferential hiring based upon being a native citizen.

A 2017 experimental study found that the Dutch discriminate against non-Western immigrants in trust games. A 2021 study found discrimination against parents with Muslim names in the Danish education system.

Latin America

Brazil

Brazil has the world's largest population of African descent outside Africa. Racially mixed individuals with lighter skin generally have higher rates of social mobility than racially mixed people with darker skin. There is a disproportionately higher number of people among the mostly European descended elites than there is among those elites whose members are of visible African descent. There are large health, education and income disparities between the races in Brazil. A recent study even finds that skin color is a stronger predictor of social inequality in Brazil than 'race' (i.e. 'race-color' categories used on the Brazilian census); and highlights that socially perceived skin color and 'race' are not the same thing. Even though browns/ mixeds and blacks comprise more than 50 percent of the population, they comprise less than 25 percent of all of the elected politicians.

A 2016 study, using twins as a control for neighborhood and family characteristics, found that the nonwhite twin is disadvantaged in the educational system. A 2015 study on racial bias in teacher evaluations in Brazil found that Brazilian math teachers gave better grading assessments of white students than equally proficient and equivalently well-behaved black students.

A 2018 paper found that discriminatory hiring and retention policies accounted for 6-8% of the overall racial wage gap.

Chile

In Chile, there is a wide range of diversity from other cultures and ethnic backgrounds. The diversity in Chile sees colorism through social-economic status, accommodating the preexisting notion that darker skin complexions are less valued. A 2016 study found that Chilean schoolteachers expected less from their dark-skinned students (''morenos'') than they expected from their light-skinned students (''blancos''). Even the differences between being dark and being tanned carry different types of status, being tanned means that people have more money because they have time to go to the beach and buy tanning products, but due to the history of colonization, being darker skinned means that people are automatically considered members of the lower classes. Current studies have revealed that many Chileans want to have a lighter pigmentation and they even consider themselves White despite the fact that they have a mixture of skin tones.

Mexico

A 2017 study revealed a 45% gap in educational achievement between the darkest- and lightest-skinned White Mexicans and that wealth in the country similarly correlated to skin color.

United States

History

European colonizers created a system of racial hierarchy and a race-based ideology, which led to the formation of a structural system of oppression that benefited individuals of European descent over individuals of African descent. Biological differences in skin color were used to justify the enslavement and oppression of Africans and Native Americans, leading to the development of a social hierarchy that placed people of European descent at the top and placed people of African descent at the bottom. Enslaved people with lighter complexions (usually stemming from the sexual assault of enslaved African women), were allowed to perform less strenuous tasks, like domestic duties, while darker-skinned enslaved people were forced to engage in hard labor, which was usually performed outdoors.

African-Americans with greater European ancestry and a lighter skin color were considered smarter than and therefore superior to their darker-skinned counterparts. As a result, they were given greater opportunities for education and the acquisition of land and property. Colorism was a device used by European colonists, to create division between enslaved Africans and further the idea that being as close to white as possible was the ideal image. One of the first forms of colorism was slave owners deciding that only light-skinned enslaved people would work in the house while the darker-skinned ones were subjected to the harsh conditions of the fields. This practice led to a clear division between the slaves, undermining their solidarity against the slave owners.

A variety of specific cutoff tests for skin color emerged, the most famous one was the brown paper bag test. If people's skins were darker than the color of a brown paper bag, they were considered "too dark". While the origin of this test is unclear, it is best attested to in 20th-century Black culture. During the time when African Americans were forced into slavery, slave owners would use the "paper bag test", which compared their skin color to a paper bag to distinguish whether their complexion was too dark to work inside of the house. African Americans' desire for lighter complexions and European features goes back to slavery. Enslaved people that had lighter complexions would have the privilege of working indoors while enslaved people with darker skin were required to work outside in the fields. The complexions of African American slaves reflected how they got treated and the severity of their punishments if they did not comply to the lifestyle that they were forced into. The access to and resources to purchase skincare products or services impacted the notions of colorism among African American women, since enslaved and impoverished black women were more limited in their grooming, which affected the way they were treated by their masters. For example, light-skinned black women were marketed as "Negroes fit for domestic service" in their masters' homes.

In addition to the bag test, the comb test and the door test were also used. The comb test was used to measure the kinkiness of a person's hair. The objective was for the comb to be able to pass through the hair without stopping. The door test was popular in some African American clubs and churches. The people who were in charge of those clubs and churches would paint their doors a certain shade of brown, similar to the brown paper bag test, and if people's skins were darker than the color of the doors, they were not admitted into the establishments. These tests were used to measure what level of "blackness" was and was not acceptable in the world. Due to lighter-skinned slaves being allowed to work in the house, they were more likely to be educated than darker slaves were. Hence the stereotype that dark people were stupid and ignorant. Scholars predict that in the future, the preferred color of beauty will not be black or white, but mixed. Scholars also predict that the United States will adopt a "multicultural matrix" which will help bridge the racial gap in efforts to achieve racial harmony, termed by some a coming " Browning of America". The matrix has four components: the mixed race will help fix racial issues, it serves as a sign of racial progress, it suggests that racism is a thing and it also suggests that the focus on race is racist due to the lack of racial neutrality. At the same time, some Americans view this "browning" as a sort of demographic replacement, which has led to anxiety among some white Americans who feel that their identity and culture are under attack and will be displaced without changes to the US immigration system. Eric Peter Kaufmann explored these views among American whites and internationally in the 2018 book ''Whiteshift: Populism, Immigration and the Future of White Majorities''.

A parallel as well as an opposite critique of this theory is made by black scholars, who state that racial neutrality will not eliminate discrimination based on skin color as long as some races continue to be negatively perceived and unfairly treated. As such, racial "browning" would just be another way to erase dark skin without correcting the bad way in which it is perceived. From this point of view, racial harmonization is not a valid response to racism at all. In his 2008 book ''The Browning of America and the Evasion of Social Justice'', Ronald R. Sundstrom writes,

Business

A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products. A 1995 study found that car dealers "quoted significantly lower prices to white males than to black or female test buyers using identical, scripted bargaining strategies." A 2013 study found that eBay sellers of iPods received 21 percent more offers if a white hand held the iPod in the photo than a black hand.

A 2014 study in the ''Journal of Economic Growth

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