''Dux'' (; plural: ''ducēs'') is
Latin for "leader" (from the noun ''dux, ducis'', "leader, general") and later for
duke and its variant forms (
doge,
duce, etc.). During the
Roman Republic and for the first centuries of the
Roman Empire, ''dux'' could refer to anyone who commanded troops, both Roman generals and foreign leaders, but was not a formal military rank.
Roman Empire
Original usage
Until the 3rd century, ''dux'' was not a formal expression of rank within the Roman military or administrative hierarchy.
In the
Roman army
The Roman army (Latin: ) was the armed forces deployed by the Romans throughout the duration of Ancient Rome, from the Roman Kingdom (c. 500 BC) to the Roman Republic (500–31 BC) and the Roman Empire (31 BC–395 AD), and its medieval continu ...
, a ''dux'' would be a general in charge of two or more legions. While the title of ''dux'' could refer to a
consul or
imperator
The Latin word ''imperator'' derives from the stem of the verb la, imperare, label=none, meaning 'to order, to command'. It was originally employed as a title roughly equivalent to ''commander'' under the Roman Republic. Later it became a part o ...
, it usually refers to the
Roman governor of the
provinces. As the governor, the dux was both the highest civil official as well as the commander-in-chief of the
legions garrisoned within the province.
In writing his
commentaries on the
Gallic Wars,
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
uses the term only for
Celt
The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient ...
ic generals, with one exception for a Roman commander who held no official rank.
Change in usage
By the mid-3rd century AD, it had acquired a more precise connotation defining the commander of an expeditionary force, usually made up of detachments (i.e., ''
vexillationes'') from one or more of the regular military formations. Such appointments were made to deal with specific military situations when the threat to be countered seemed beyond the capabilities of the province-based military command structure that had characterised the Roman army of the High Empire.
From the time of
Gallienus onwards for more than a century were invariably ''Viri Perfectissimi'', i.e., members of the second class of the
equestrian order. Thus, they would have out-ranked the commanders of provincial legions, who were usually ''Viri Egregii'' – equestrians of the third class.
''Duces'' differed from ''
praesides
''Praeses'' (Latin ''praesides'') is a Latin word meaning "placed before" or "at the head". In antiquity, notably under the Roman Dominate, it was used to refer to Roman governors; it continues to see some use for various modern positions.
...
'' who were the supreme civil as well as military authority within their provinces in that the function of the former was purely military. However, the military authority of a ''dux'' was not necessarily confined to a single province and they do not seem to have been subject to the authority of the governor of the province in which they happened to be operating. It was not until the end of the 3rd century that the term ''dux'' emerged as a regular military rank held by a senior officer of ''
limitanei'' – i.e. frontier troops as opposed those attached to an Imperial field-army (''
comitatenses'') – with a defined geographic area of responsibility.
The office under the Dominate
During the time of the
Dominate, the powers of a ''dux'' were split from the role of the governor and were given to a new office called ''dux''. The dux was now the highest military office within the province and commanded the legions, but the governor had to authorize the use of the ''duxs powers. However, once those powers were authorized, the ''dux'' could act independently from the governor and handle all military matters. The ''
Dux Belgicae secundae'' ("commander of the second Belgic province") is an example of this office.
After Diocletian's
Tetrarchy reform, the provinces were organized into
dioceses with each dioceses administered by a
vicarius. As with the governors, the vicarius was assisted by a ''dux''. This ''dux'' was superior to all other ''duces'' within the dioceses—when the vicarius called the legions of the dioceses into action, all of the legions were at the command of the ''dux''. The office of ''dux'' was, in turn, made subject to the
magister militum of his respective
praetorian prefecture, and above him to the
emperor. The ''Dux per Gallias'', ''dux'' of the diocese of
Gaul, is an example of this office.
Later developments
In the
Byzantine era of the Roman Empire, the position of dux survived (
Byzantine Greek
Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman co ...
: "δούξ", ''doux'', plural "δούκες", ''doukes'') as a rank equivalent to a general (''
strategos
''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'', Linguistic Latinisation, Latinized ''strategus'', ( el, στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί; Doric Greek: στραταγός, ''stratagos''; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek language, Greek to ...
''). In the late 10th and early 11th centuries, a ''doux'' or ''
katepano'' was in charge of large circumscriptions consisting of several smaller ''
themata'' and of the professional regiments (''
tagmata'') of the
Byzantine army (as opposed to the largely militia-like forces of most ''themata''). In the
Komnenian period, the title of ''doux'' replaced altogether the ''strategos'' in designating the military official in charge of a ''thema''. In the
Byzantine navy
The Byzantine navy was the naval force of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Like the empire it served, it was a direct continuation from its Imperial Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than ...
, ''doukes'' of the fleet appear in the 1070s, and the office of ''
megas doux'' ("grand duke") was created in the 1090s as the commander-in-chief of the entire
navy.
The title also gave rise to a family name, the aristocratic
Doukas clan, which in the 9th–11th centuries provided several Byzantine emperors and generals, while later bearers of the name (maternally descended from the original family) founded the
Despotate of Epirus
The Despotate of Epirus ( gkm, Δεσποτᾶτον τῆς Ἠπείρου) was one of the Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire established in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 by a branch of the Angelos dynasty. It claim ...
in northwestern Greece.
Post-Roman uses
King Arthur
King Arthur ( cy, Brenin Arthur, kw, Arthur Gernow, br, Roue Arzhur) is a legendary king of Britain, and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain.
In the earliest traditions, Arthur appears as a ...
, in one of his earliest literary appearances, is described as ''dux bellorum'' ("''dux'' of battles") among the kings of the
Romano-Britons
The Romano-British culture arose in Britain under the Roman Empire following the Roman conquest in AD 43 and the creation of the province of Britannia. It arose as a fusion of the imported Roman culture with that of the indigenous Britons, a ...
in their wars against the
Anglo-Saxons. A chronicle from St Martin's monastery in
Cologne states that the monastery had been pillaged by the
Saxons in 778, but that it was rebuilt by an "Olgerus, dux Daniæ" (who may have been the historical person around whom the myth of
Ogier the Dane formed), with the help of
Charlemagne.
''Dux'' is also the root of various high feudal noble titles of peerage rank, such as the English ''
duke'', the French ''duc'', the Spanish and Portuguese ''duque'', the
Venetian
Venetian often means from or related to:
* Venice, a city in Italy
* Veneto, a region of Italy
* Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area
Venetian and the like may also refer to:
* Venetian language, a Romance language s ...
''
doge'', the Italian ''
duca'' and ''
duce'', and the
Byzantine Greek
Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the Ottoman co ...
''dukas'' or ''doukas'' (Gr. δούκας) (see
Doukas).
Italian Fascist dictator
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
used the title of ''dux'' (and ''
duce'' in Italian) to represent his leadership. One fascist motto was "DVX MEA LVX", Latin for "
heDuce
smy light" or "
heLeader
smy light".
In pre-revolutionary Russia, the
Dux Factory built
bicycle
A bicycle, also called a pedal cycle, bike or cycle, is a human-powered or motor-powered assisted, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A is called a cyclist, or bicyclist.
Bic ...
s,
automobiles and
aircraft in
Moscow.
Education
* In Hong Kong, Scotland, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand ''dux'' is a modern title given to the highest-ranking student in academic, arts or sporting achievement (''
Dux Litterarum'', ''Dux Artium'' and ''Dux Ludorum'' respectively) in each graduating year. This can lead to scholarships at universities. The
runner-up may be given the title ''
proxime accessit'' (meaning "he/she came next") or ''semidux''.
* In
Portuguese universities the
Dux is the most senior of students, usually in charge of overseeing the
praxe (
initiation
Initiation is a rite of passage marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society. It could also be a formal admission to adulthood in a community or one of its formal components. In an extended sense, it can also signify a transformation ...
rituals for the
freshmen).
See also
*
Valedictorian
*
Salutatorian
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
* ''
Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft'' (''Pauly–Wissowa'')
External links
*
{{Authority control
Ancient Roman titles
Latin words and phrases
Military ranks of ancient Rome
Late Roman military ranks