The Kumeyaay, also known as
'Iipai-Tiipai or by the historical Spanish name Diegueño, is a tribe of
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
In the Americas, Indigenous peoples comprise the two continents' pre-Columbian inhabitants, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with them in the 15th century, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with the pre-Columbian population of ...
who live at the northern border of
Baja California
Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northwesternmost of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of B ...
in Mexico and the southern border of
California
California () is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States that lies on the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares Mexico–United States border, an ...
in the United States. They are an
Indigenous people of California
Indigenous peoples of California, commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are a diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and afte ...
.
The
Kumeyaay language
Kumeyaay (Kumiai), also known as Central Diegueño, Kamia, 'Iipay Aa, and Campo, is the Native American language spoken by the Kumeyaay people of southern San Diego and Imperial counties in California as well as five Kumiai communities in Baja ...
belongs to the
Yuman–Cochimí language family. The Kumeyaay consist of three related groups, the
'Iipai,
Tiipai, and Kamia. The
San Diego River loosely divided the 'Iipay and the Tiipai historical homelands, while the Kamia lived in the eastern desert areas. The 'Iipai lived to the north, from
Escondido to
Lake Henshaw
Lake Henshaw is a reservoir in San Diego County, California, at the southeast base of Palomar Mountain, approximately northeast of San Diego and southeast of Los Angeles.
The lake covers approximately and holds of water when full (lowered in ...
, while the Tiipai lived to the south, in lands including the
Laguna Mountains
The Laguna Mountains are a mountain range of the Peninsular Ranges in eastern San Diego County, California. The mountains run in a northwest/southeast alignment for approximately .
The mountains have long been inhabited by the indigenous Kumey ...
,
Ensenada, and
Tecate
Tecate () is a city in Tecate Municipality, Baja California. It is across the Mexico–United States border, Mexico–US border from Tecate, California. As of 2019, the city had a population of 108,860 inhabitants, while the metropolitan area ha ...
. The Kamia lived to the east in an area that included
Mexicali
Mexicali (; ) is the capital city of the States of Mexico, Mexican state of Baja California. The city, which is the seat of the Mexicali Municipality, has a population of 689,775, according to the 2010 census, while the Calexico–Mexicali, Cale ...
and bordered the
Salton Sea
The Salton Sea is a shallow, landlocked, highly salinity, saline endorheic lake in Riverside County, California, Riverside and Imperial County, California, Imperial counties in Southern California. It lies on the San Andreas Fault within the S ...
.
Name
The Kumeyaay or 'Iipai-Tiipai were formerly known as the Diegueños, the former Spanish name applied to the
Mission Indians
Mission Indians was a term used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of California who lived or grew up in the Spanish mission system in California. Today the term is used to refer to their descendants and to specific, contemporary tribal nations ...
living along the
San Diego River. They are referred to as Kumiai in Mexico.
The term ''Kumeyaay'' translates as "People of the west", with the word ''meyaay'' meaning "steep" or "cliff".
Language
All languages and dialects spoken by the Kumeyaay belong to the Delta–California branch of the
Yuman language family, to which several other linguistically distinct, but related, groups also belong (including the
Cocopa,
Quechan
The Quechan ( Quechan: ''Kwatsáan'' 'those who descended'), or Yuma, are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California just north of the Mexican border. Despite ...
,
Paipai, and
Kiliwa). Native speakers contend that, within their territory, all Kumeyaay ('Iipay/Tiipay) can understand and speak to each other, if even after a brief familiarization.
Nomenclature and tribal distinctions are not widely agreed upon. According to
Margaret Langdon
Margaret Langdon (c. 1926 in Louvain, Belgium – October 25, 2005) was a US linguist who studied and documented many languages of the American Southwest and California, including Kumeyaay, Northern Diegueño ( Ipai), and Luiseño.
Academic car ...
, who is credited with doing much of the early work on documenting the language, the general scholarly consensus recognized three separate languages:
*
'Iipai (Northern Digueño)
*
Kumeyaay proper (Kamia)
*
Tiipay (Southern Digueño) in northern Baja California
Katherine Luomala considered that the wide range of dialect variations reflected only two distinct languages, 'Iipai and Tiipai, a view mostly supported by other researchers.
History
Pre-European contact
Evidence of the settlement in what is today considered Kumeyaay territory may go back twelve millennia. Circa 7000 B.C. marked the emergence of two cultural traditions: the California Coast and Valley tradition and the Desert tradition. The Kumeyaay had land along the Pacific Ocean from present
Oceanside, California
Oceanside is a beach city in the North County (San Diego area), North County area of San Diego County, California, United States. The city had a population of 174,068 at the 2020 United States census, making it the most populous city in the Nort ...
, in the north to south of
Ensenada, Mexico, and extending east to the
Colorado River
The Colorado River () is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The river, the List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem), 5th longest in the United St ...
. The
Cuyamaca complex, a late
Holocene
The Holocene () is the current geologic time scale, geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene to ...
complex in
San Diego County
San Diego County (), officially the County of San Diego, is a county in the southwest corner of the U.S. state of California, north to its border with Mexico. As of the 2020 census, the population was 3,298,634; it is the second-most populous ...
is related to the Kumeyaay peoples.
The Kumeyaay tribe also used to inhabit what is now a popular state park, known as
Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve
Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve is a coastal state park in San Diego, California. The reserve is one of the wildest stretches of land on the Southern California coast, covering . It is bordered immediately to the south by Torrey Pines Golf Co ...
.
One view holds that historic 'Iipai-Tiipai emerged around one millennium ago, though a "proto-'Iipai-Tiipai culture" had been established by about 5000 B.C. Katherine Luomola suggests that the "nucleus of later Tipai-Ipai groups" came together around A.D. 1000. The Kumeyaay themselves traditionally hold that they have lived in San Diego since 10,000 B.C.
At the time of European contact, Kumeyaay comprised several autonomous bands with thirty patrilineal clans.
Spanish exploration and colonization
The first European to visit the region was
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo
Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo (; 1497 – January 3, 1543) was a Portuguese maritime explorer best known for investigations of the west coast of North America, undertaken on behalf of the Spanish Empire. He was the first European to explore presen ...
in 1542. He had initially met with the Kumeyaay, but this did not lead to any colonial settlement.
Sebastián Vizcaíno
Sebastián Vizcaíno (c. 1548–1624) was a Spanish soldier, entrepreneur, explorer, and diplomat whose varied roles took him to New Spain, the Baja California peninsula, the California coast and Asia.
Early career
Vizcaíno was born in ...
also visited in 1602 and met with a band of Kumeyaay during the feast of ''San Diego de Alcalá'', thus giving the region of San Diego its name; however, this also did not lead to colonial settlement.
Missionization period
In 1769, the
Portolá expedition
thumbnail, 250px, Point of San Francisco Bay Discovery
The Portolá expedition was a Spanish voyage of exploration in 1769–1770 that was the first recorded European exploration of the interior of the present-day California. It was led by Gas ...
anchored in San Diego Bay and, once on land, traveled to the Kumeyaay village of
Cosoy (Kosa'aay) to recover and resupply. After their recovery, the Spanish established a
presidio
A presidio (''jail, fortification'') was a fortified base established by the Spanish Empire mainly between the 16th and 18th centuries in areas under their control or influence. The term is derived from the Latin word ''praesidium'' meaning ''pr ...
over the village and the
Misión San Diego de Alcalá, incorporating the village into the settlement of San Diego. In 1769, under the Spanish Mission system, bands living near Misión San Diego de Alcalá (overlooking the San Diego River, in present-day Mission Valley), were called Diegueños; later bands, living near
Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, were called the Luiseño. The Spaniards brought with them new, non-native, invasive flora and domestic animals, which brought about some level of degradation to local ecology. This included grazing and foraging livestock animals such as pigs, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, donkeys, and various birds, like chickens, pheasants and ducks; the latter dirtying local water sources considerably.
After years of sexual assaults from the Spanish soldiers in the Presidio, and physical torture of
Mission Indians
Mission Indians was a term used to refer to the Indigenous peoples of California who lived or grew up in the Spanish mission system in California. Today the term is used to refer to their descendants and to specific, contemporary tribal nations ...
using metal-tipped whips (by Mission staff), the Tiipay-Kumeyaay villages led a revolt against the Spanish, burning down Mission San Diego and killing Father
Luis Jayme along with two others. Missionaries and church leaders “apologized” and forgave the Kumeyaay, rebuilding their mission closer to the Kumeyaay village of Nipaquay or ''Nipawai''. Ultimately, the Spanish solidified their control over the area until the end of the mission era.
Colorado River conflict
In the east, the Kamia-Kumeyaay were engaged in an armed regional conflict in the
Colorado River
The Colorado River () is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The river, the List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem), 5th longest in the United St ...
region against a coalition of
Yuman speaking tribes east of the Colorado River and the
Cahuilla
The Cahuilla, also known as ʔívil̃uqaletem or Ivilyuqaletem, are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the inland areas of southern California.[ ...]
led by the
Maricopa. The Kumeyaay aligned with
Quechan
The Quechan ( Quechan: ''Kwatsáan'' 'those who descended'), or Yuma, are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California just north of the Mexican border. Despite ...
-led coalition, along with the
Mohave,
Yavapai
The Yavapai ( ) are a Native American tribe in Arizona. Their Yavapai language belongs to the Upland Yuman branch of the proposed Hokan language family.
Today Yavapai people are enrolled in the following federally recognized tribes:
* Fort ...
,
Chemehuevi
The Chemehuevi ( ) are an indigenous people of the Great Basin. They are the southernmost branch of Southern Paiute. Today, Chemehuevi people are enrolled in the following federally recognized tribes:
* Colorado River Indian Tribes
* Cheme ...
, and other smaller groups on the Colorado River. The Spanish mediated peace talks between the two warring factions in the mid-1770s, largely siding with the Quechan-aligned alliance. However, increased tensions between the Spanish and the Quechan led to resumed conflict in 1781, but with the Spanish being denied overland access to Alta California and siding with the Maricopa-aligned coalition. The Spanish would then refocus their attention westwards to secure their maritime access to Alta California on 'Iipay-Tiipay-Kumeyaay lands.
Early Mexican rancho era
First Mexican Empire and First Mexican Republic period
The
Mexican Empire Mexican Empire may refer to:
* First Mexican Empire
The Mexican Empire (, ) was a constitutional monarchy and the first independent government of Mexico. It was also the only former viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy af ...
assumed ownership of Kumeyaay lands after defeating Spain in the
Mexican War of Independence
The Mexican War of Independence (, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from the Spanish Empire. It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional ...
in 1821. The following year, Mexican troops confiscated all coastal lands from the Kumeyaay in 1822, granting much of the land to Mexican settlers, who became known as
Californios
Californios (singular Californio) are Californians of Spaniards, Spanish descent, especially those descended from settlers of the 17th through 19th centuries before California was annexed by the United States. California's Spanish language in C ...
, to develop the land for agriculture, beginning the California rancho era.
Kumeyaay fell victim to smallpox and malaria epidemics in 1827 and 1832, reducing their population.
Various disputes culminated to a skirmish between the Kumeyaay and Mexican soldiers stationed in San Diego in 1826, killing 26 Kumeyaay.
[ This provoked Lt. Juan M. Ibarra to lead several attacks on Kumeyaay-controlled lands, and killed 28 people in his attack on Santa Ysabel on April 5th of that year.] In retaliation, the Kamia-Kumeyaay attacked Fort Romualdo Pacheco on April 26th with the support of the Quechan, resulting in three dead Mexican soldiers and a fort that would never return to service.
After decades of debates and delays, the missions in Alta California
Alta California (, ), also known as Nueva California () among other names, was a province of New Spain formally established in 1804. Along with the Baja California peninsula, it had previously comprised the province of , but was made a separat ...
were secularized in 1833, and Ipai and Tipais lost their lands; band members had to choose between becoming serf
Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery. It developed du ...
s, trespassers, rebels, or fugitives. This increased tensions between the Kumeyaay and the Mexican settlers as the economic instability threatened the security of Mexican and American merchants transiting through the area.
Centralist Republic of Mexico period
Under territorial governor José Figueroa, some of the Kumeyaay from Mission San Diego were allowed to resettle and establish San Pasqual pueblo in 1835, who would later become the San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians. The Kumeyaay pueblo fought against hostile bands and protected Mexican settlers, with a decisive victory over an anti-Christian uprising and capturing its leader, Claudio.
With conditions worsening, the Kumeyaay led an attack on Rancho Tecate Rancho Tecate, or Rancho Cañada de Tecate was a land grant made to Juan Bandini in 1829, by the Mexican governor of Alta California, José María de Echeandía. He granted 4,439 acres (18 km2) of land in the valley of Tecate. A grant to Juan Band ...
in 1836, forcing the alcalde of San Diego to send an expedition to suppress the Kumeyaay, but returned unsuccessfully. Because of the failed venture, Mexico failed to adequately suppress talk of Californian secession from American settlers in northern Alta California.[
Further Kumeyaay raids on El Cajon (1836) and Rancho Jamul (1837) threatened the security of San Diego, as many residents of San Diego fled the city. The Kumeyaay were able to attack San Diego in the late 1830s. Kumeyaay advancements into Rancho Bernardo in the north and San Ysidro and Tijuana to the south at the end of the decade threatened to cut off San Diego from the rest of the Centralist Republic of Mexico. The Kumeyaay made preparations to lay siege on San Diego in the early 1840s and launched a second attack on San Diego in June 1842. However, San Diego managed to defend itself once more. While the siege failed, the Kumeyaay managed to control much of the south, east, and most of the north of the settlement, with the town becoming dependent on sea access maintain connections to the rest of Mexico. Together with ]Quechan
The Quechan ( Quechan: ''Kwatsáan'' 'those who descended'), or Yuma, are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California just north of the Mexican border. Despite ...
resistance in the east, the Kumeyaay cut off Alta California of all land routes to the rest of the Mexican republic between the Colorado River
The Colorado River () is one of the principal rivers (along with the Rio Grande) in the Southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The river, the List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem), 5th longest in the United St ...
and the Pacific Ocean up until the Mexican–American War, further threatening Mexican control of the southern Alta California coast. The Kumeyaay prevented Mexican usage of the ranchos around San Diego and evicted most of the Californios in the area by 1844, and continued launching raids deep into the Mexican controlled coast up until the start of the Mexican–American War.[ The Mexican settlers became refugees on ]Point Loma
Point Loma ( Spanish: ''Punta de la Loma'', meaning "Hill Point"; Kumeyaay: ''Amat Kunyily'', meaning "Black Earth") is a seaside community in San Diego, California, United States. Geographically it is a hilly peninsula that is bordered on the ...
as they waited for ships, hoping to evacuate from San Diego as Kumeyaay victories challenged their ability to hold the pueblo.
Mexican-American War
During the Mexican–American War, the Kumeyaay were initially neutral. The Kumeyaay of the San Pasqual pueblo were evacuated as the Americans approached the town. The Mexicans and the Californios
Californios (singular Californio) are Californians of Spaniards, Spanish descent, especially those descended from settlers of the 17th through 19th centuries before California was annexed by the United States. California's Spanish language in C ...
were victorious over the Americans at the Battle of San Pasqual
The Battle of San Pasqual, also spelled San Pascual, was a military encounter that occurred during the Mexican–American War in what is now the San Pasqual Valley, San Diego, California, San Pasqual Valley community in the county of San Diego, ...
. A Kumeyaay leader, Panto, called on the Mexicans to cease hostilities with the Americans so that the Kumeyaay could tend to the wounded Americans, to which provided Panto and the San Pasqual Kumeyaay resupplied the Americans and helped ensure the American capture of the Pueblo de Los Ángeles
El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula, shortened to the Pueblo de los Ángeles, was the Spanish colonial pueblos and villas in North America, Spanish civilian ''pueblo'' settled in 1781, which became the ...
and San Diego.[
]
Late modern era
After the Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War (Spanish language, Spanish: ''guerra de Estados Unidos-México, guerra mexicano-estadounidense''), also known in the United States as the Mexican War, and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico, ...
, Kumeyaay lands were split between the U.S. and Mexico through the Mexican Cession
The Mexican Cession () is the region in the modern-day Western United States that Mexico
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United S ...
resulting from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo officially ended the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). It was signed on 2 February 1848 in the town of Villa de Guadalupe, Mexico City, Guadalupe Hidalgo.
After the defeat of its army and the fall of the cap ...
.
Yuma War and California genocide
In 1851, San Diego County unilaterally charged property taxes on Native American tribes in the county and threatened to confiscate land and property should they fail to pay up. This led to the San Diego Tax Rebellion of 1851 or "Garra's Revolt", with the destruction of Warner's Ranch led by the Cupeño
The Cupeño (or Kuupangaxwichem) are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American tribe of Southern California.
They traditionally lived about inland and north of the modern day Mexico–United States border in the Peninsular Rang ...
, opening up a new western front of the Yuma War
The Yuma War was the name given to a series of United States military operations conducted in Southern California and what is today southwestern Arizona from 1850 to 1853. The Quechan (also known as Yuma) were the primary opponent of the Unite ...
. The Kumeyaay agreed to join the revolt alongside Cahuilla
The Cahuilla, also known as ʔívil̃uqaletem or Ivilyuqaletem, are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the inland areas of southern California.[ ...]
, Cocopah
The Cocopah ( Cocopah: Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay) are Native Americans who live in Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.
In the United States, Cocopah people belong to the federally recognized Cocopah Tribe of Arizona.
Name
The ...
, and Quechan
The Quechan ( Quechan: ''Kwatsáan'' 'those who descended'), or Yuma, are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California just north of the Mexican border. Despite ...
warriors, but made no military commitments to attack San Diego or capture Fort Yuma.
However, not all Kumeyaay bands fought on the same side of the Yuma war; the San Pasqual Band of Kumeyaay fought against the Quechan
The Quechan ( Quechan: ''Kwatsáan'' 'those who descended'), or Yuma, are a Native American tribe who live on the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation on the lower Colorado River in Arizona and California just north of the Mexican border. Despite ...
campaign to attack San Diego and defeated the Quechan in the San Pasqual Valley.
The Kumeyaay withdrew from the war after the capitulation of the Cahuilla to the US and the failed attempt to capture Fort Yuma.
Compared to other California tribes, the Kumeyaay did not face the same magnitude of destruction and exploitation under the California genocide
The California genocide was a series of genocidal massacres of the indigenous peoples of California by United States soldiers and settlers during the 19th century. It began following the American conquest of California in the Mexican–Americ ...
. This was due to the strategic positioning of the Kumeyaay and the lack of gold in the mountains. Additionally, Mexican officials in Baja California Territory
Baja California Territory (Territorio de Baja California) was a federal territory of Mexico that existed from 1824 to 1853, and 1854 to 1931; it encompassed the Baja California peninsula of present-day northwestern part of the country. It re ...
threatened to intervene in the conflict if they committed any atrocities on tribes along the border, due to a mix of Mexican sympathies towards the Native Californians and a fear of refugees coming across the border.
Establishment of Kumeyaay reservations in the U.S.
On January 7, 1852, representatives of a number of Kumeyaay clans, including Panto, met with Commissioner Oliver M. Wozencraft and negotiated the Treaty of Santa Ysabel. The agreement was part of the "18 Treaties" of California, negotiated to protect Indian land rights. After the 18 Treaties were completed, the documents were sent to the United States Senate for approval. Under pressure from white settlers and the California Senate delegation, the treaties were all rejected.
From 1870 to 1910, American settlers seized lands, including arable and native gathering lands. In 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was the 18th president of the United States, serving from 1869 to 1877. In 1865, as Commanding General of the United States Army, commanding general, Grant led the Uni ...
created reservations in the area, and additional lands were placed under trust patent status after the passage of the 1891 Act for the Relief of Mission Indians. The reservations tended to be small and lacked adequate water supplies. The situation was made worse during the famine of 1880–1881, which forced many Kumeyaay to survive by accepting charity from whites, as they faced diseases, starvation and attacks from white settlers.
Some Kumeyaay chose not to establish a reservation inland and sought work in San Diego, many of whom migrated to the Kumeyaay village in what is now Balboa Park led by the Florida Canyon Kumeyaay Band. The village experienced growth after receiving immigrants from other Kumeyaay bands as well as from other Indigenous Californian and Bajeno tribes, who sought work in the city, transforming the village into a neighborhood integrated into the city fabric. The village was then demolished in the early 1900s in preparation for the 1915 Panama–California Exposition
The Panama–California Exposition was a World's fair, world exposition held in San Diego, California, between January 1, 1915, and January 1, 1917. The exposition celebrated the opening of the Panama Canal, and was meant to tout San Diego as t ...
, displacing the residents of the village.
In 1932, the Coapan Kumeyaay living and farming on the San Diego River were removed to make way for El Capitan Dam
El Capitan Dam is an embankment dam or hydraulic fill dam on the San Diego River in San Diego County, California. The dam forms the El Capitan Reservoir and serves mainly to supply water to the city of San Diego, California, San Diego as well as ...
and El Capitan Reservoir
El Capitan Reservoir is a reservoir (water), reservoir in central San Diego County, California. It is in the Cuyamaca Mountains, about northeast of the city of San Diego, California, San Diego and two miles northwest of the town of Alpine, Califo ...
and relocated their inhabitants at the Barona Reservation and the Viejas Reservation, further cutting down the agricultural capacity of the Kumeyaay reservations.[
]
Kumeyaay in the Mexican Revolution (1910–1911)
During the Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution () was an extended sequence of armed regional conflicts in Mexico from 20 November 1910 to 1 December 1920. It has been called "the defining event of modern Mexican history". It saw the destruction of the Federal Army, its ...
, the Magonistas gained the support of the Kumeyaay with an enthusiastic base, particularly in the Tecate region; many Kumeyaay from both sides of the border were enticed by their anarcho-syndicalist
Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade unions as both ...
message of Indigenous liberation from the Mexican and American colonial nation-states starting with the end of the Porfirio Díaz
José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori (; ; 15 September 1830 – 2 July 1915) was a General (Mexico), Mexican general and politician who was the dictator of Mexico from 1876 until Mexican Revolution, his overthrow in 1911 seizing power in a Plan ...
dictatorship. The Kumeyaay supported the Magonistas as guides throughout the land, whose aid allowed them to control Mexicali, Tecate, and Tijuana during the Magonista rebellion of 1911. However, the Kumeyaay did not participate in much of the active fighting in the Magonista Rebellion, and did not participate with Cocopah
The Cocopah ( Cocopah: Xawiƚƚ Kwñchawaay) are Native Americans who live in Baja California, Mexico, and Arizona, United States.
In the United States, Cocopah people belong to the federally recognized Cocopah Tribe of Arizona.
Name
The ...
, Kiliwa, and Paipai tribes in raiding on small towns or looting Chinese-Mexican businesses in the region, and may have even smuggled Chinese-Mexican refugees to the American side of the border. By the end of June, the rebellion was suppressed by the Madero administration.
After the revolution, the ban on Ejido
An ''ejido'' (, from Latin ''exitum'') is an area of communal land used for agriculture in which community members have usufruct rights, which in Mexico is not held by the Mexican state. People awarded ejidos in the modern era farm them indiv ...
s and other forms of communal living were lifted and the Kumeyaay were able to resume their traditional communal way of life legitimately with their communities in Valle de Las Palmas, Peña Blanca, and their five other reservations.
Contemporary era
Kumeyaay-American economy and casino industry
Kumeyaay people supported themselves by farming and agricultural wage labor; however, a 20-year drought in the mid-20th century crippled the region's dry farming economy. For their common welfare, several reservations in the US formed the non-profit Kumeyaay, Inc.
Cuts in Native American welfare programs under the Reagan and Bush Sr. administrations forced the reservation to find other means of income and capitalize on industries not possible off-reservation.
In 1982, the Barona Band won its case in ''Barona Group of the Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians v. Duffy'' (1982) to operate high-stakes bingo games, leading to the expansion of many Kumeyaay bingo operators into the casino industry. This helped establish Las Vegas-style gaming operations in the reservations in the region, evaporating reservation unemployment and poverty in a short time. In total, the Kumeyaay operate six casinos: Barona Valley Ranch Resort and Casino, Sycuan Resort and Casino, Viejas Casino & Resort, Valley View Casino and Hotel, Golden Acorn Casino and Travel Center, and Jamul Casino.[
In response to the casino construction boom, the San Diego County government maintained a policy of opposition to any growth in tribal expansion under any circumstance in fears that land would be used to build more casinos, which broke down relations between the County and the Kumeyaay, Payomkawichum (Luiseño), and Kuupangaxwichem (Cupeño) tribal reservation governments. This San Diego County Board of Supervisors repealed these policies in May 2021.
The relative success of gaming operations on many reservations has allowed them to buy naming rights of infrastructure around the San Diego region, such as the Sycuan Green Line of the ]San Diego Trolley
The San Diego Trolley is a light rail system serving San Diego County, California. The trolley's operator, San Diego Trolley, Inc. , is a subsidiary of the San Diego Metropolitan Transit System (MTS). The trolley operates as a critical componen ...
and the SDSU
San Diego State University (SDSU) is a Public university, public research university in San Diego, California, United States. Founded in 1897, it is the third-oldest university and southernmost in the 23-member California State University (CS ...
Viejas Arena. Some reservations have also diversified their economic profile such as Campo Reservation-based Muht Hei inc which oversees the reservation's wind farm or Sycuan Band's acquisition of the U.S. Grant Hotel. Additionally, Sycuan also became the first Native American tribe to own part of a professional soccer franchise by becoming the co-owner of San Diego FC, a Major League Soccer
Major League Soccer (MLS) is a professional Association football, soccer league in North America and the highest level of the United States soccer league system. It comprises 30 teams, with 27 in the United States and 3 in Canada, and is sanc ...
expansion team, and the second to have an ownership stake in any professional sports team.
Kumeyaay-Mexican economy and the wine tourism industry
On the Mexican side of the border, Kumeyaay communities manufacture traditional craftwork to sell on the American side of the border with partnering Kumeyaay souvenir gift shops and casinos.
Many Kumeyaay there have moved into urban areas to seek better employment opportunities compared to their agrarian employment on the communities. The depopulation of their villages has allowed neighboring non-native Ejidos to encroach on their lands.
The Kumeyaay communities on the Mexican side of the border have largely retained their traditional heritage. Some villages faced water shortages, making it difficult to continue agricultural operation, which they portray in their film Kumeyaay Land. This led many communities to enter wine-tasting and tourism industries in the Guadalupe Valley. Many bands began launching wine tours and festivals to attract tourists and foreign visitors from southern California and cruise passengers stopping at the Port of Ensenada
The Port of Ensenada is a marine freight and cruise terminal in Ensenada, Baja California. This deepwater port lies in Bahia de Todos Santos.
Ships arrive from major ports in Asia, North America, and South America. The port accommodates cruise ...
.[
]
Kumeyaay and the US-Mexican border
In 1998, the Kumeyaay established the Kumeyaay Border task force to work with federal immigration officials to secure free passage of Baja Kumeyaay bands to visit the US Kumeyaay bands and ensure their rights to protected graves and artifacts protected by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Pub. L. 101-601, 25 U.S.C. 3001 et seq., 104 Stat. 3048, is a United States federal law enacted on November 16, 1990.
The Act includes three major sets of provisions. The "re ...
of 1990.[
However, border wall construction accelerated in 2020 and Kumeyaay representatives at the border to protect and preserve Kumeyaay artifacts were turned away from the construction area. This sparked protests among the bands and Kumeyaay women organized to lead a protest at the border in July. The La Posta Band filed a lawsuit in August against the Trump administration seeking to block further construction of the border wall through their sacred cemetery (burial sites).
]
Society
Social structure
Prior to Western assimilation, the Kumeyaay were organized into bands or clans called ''sibs'' or ''shiimull,'' which were grounded in family lineages with each sib home for 5 to 15 families. Each sib had their own territory and had the right to enforce land property rights in punishing thieves and trespassers. However, Kumeyaay did recognize the right to water and were also obligated to share food with visitors.
The Kumeyaay had a patriarchal society where the position of chief, or ''Kwaapaay'', was inherited from the father to son, although widows were sometimes permitted to assume the position. It was the Kwaapaay's role to protect traditions, hold ceremonies, and resolve disputes and was responsible for political, religious, and economic activities of the sib. Future Kwaapaays were often selected by a Kwaapaay of another with no family relations to ensure impartiality.[
Kwaapaays were also accompanied by assistants and had a council of ''Kuseyaays''. ''Kuseyaays'' were made up of male or female priests, doctors, and other specialists in the fields of health, ecology, resource management, tradition, and religion. Kuseyaays could be called by the kwaapaay to provide information or to make decisions for the sib's welfare. Each family in the sib was allowed to follow and participate in the decision making, or could leave the sib and pursue their own decision.][
The Kumeyaay practiced arranged marriage made by parents of different sibs. The future husband was expected to demonstrate his ability to hunt and needed to present the future bride the game he had killed. The bride would move into the husband's sib once they were married. Marriage relations were also made between sibs and other neighboring tribal groups as a gesture of peace between warring groups or as part of a trade relationship.]
Shelter
Kumeyaay generally lived in dome-shaped homes made from branches and covered with leaves of willow or tule, called 'ewaa. These structures had a hole at the top to let smoke out and rocks along its base to keep out wind and small animals.[ Some Kumeyaay who lived in the mountains made their home out of slabs of bark.
These structures were often temporary. When families moved or if someone died in the house, they were often burned down.][
]
Clothing
During warm seasons, men wore nothing except for a hide breechcloth to hold tools while women wore an apron or a skirt made from willow or elderberry bark. In the colder months, they would wear blankets made from willow bark or rabbit skins.
They wore agave sandals made from yucca and agave fibers when going over long distances, over sharp rocks, or hot sand. Some would wear bead necklaces as jewelry, with beads made of clam, abalone, or olivella shells. Additionally, men could get their nose pierced and women might have their chins tattooed.
The Kumeyaay started to abandon much of their traditional clothing after coming in contact with the Spanish, and adopted European-style clothing, wearing clothes that were normal in Latin America.[
]
Diet
Acorns were a staple of the Kumeyaay diet, and made acorn mush they called '' shawii,'' which could be used in dough to make bread by grinding with a mano and a metate
A metate (or mealing stone) is a type or variety of quern, a ground stone tool used for processing grain and seeds. In traditional Mesoamerican cultures, metates are typically used by women who would grind nixtamalized maize and other organi ...
. Other grains like pinon nuts or chia seeds were also stone-ground and consumed. The Kumeyaay stored these grains in basket granaries made of willow leaves. They also consumed the leaves and fruits of the prickly pear and copal cactus, as well as cherries, plums, elderberries, and Manzanita berries. They also fermented many of these plants with water and honey to create alcohol.
They hunted for animals such as birds, rabbits, squirrels, and woodrat
A pack rat or packrat, also called a woodrat or trade rat, are any species in the North and Central American rodent genus ''Neotoma''. Pack rats have a rat-like appearance, with long tails, large ears, and large, black eyes. Pack rats are notice ...
s, as well as larger animals like antelope, deer, and mountain sheep. The Kumeyaay also ate more nutrient-rich insects such as crickets, grubs and grasshoppers.[
Kamia Kumeyaay in the Imperial Valley practiced some forms of agriculture, producing maize, beans, and teparies. Like other Kumeyaay, though, they largely relied on gathering.
]
Economy and communication
The Ipai-Tipai Kumeyaay traded with the Kamia Kumeyaay to obtain obsidian
Obsidian ( ) is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock. Produced from felsic lava, obsidian is rich in the lighter element ...
from an area south of the Salton Sea. Within the Tipai-Ipai, the coastal Kumeyaay traded salt, seaweed, and abalone shells for acorns, agave, mesquite beans, and gourds from the mountain Kumeyaay. They also traded along the Pacific coast to obtain Olivella shell beads from the Chumash, as well as tribes along the Gulf of California and in the American Southwest as far east as to trade with the Zuni. Granite was also plentiful in Kumeyaay lands, which was used to trade for pestles, steatite, eagle feathers, and colored minerals for paint.
The Kumeyaay's maritime economy relied on shell fishing, and they built fishing boats, either balsa rafts made of reeds or dugout canoes. To support their maritime economy, they manufactured fishing spears, hooks, and nets made of agave fiber.[
Upon Spanish arrival, woven baskets were highly prized by the Europeans, as these baskets were so well made that they could hold water and it was possible to cook food with these baskets in an open fire. The strong demand for Californian woven baskets in Mexican and European markets strengthened the basket weaving economy among the Kumeyaay.
The Kumeyaay had a system of trail runners who carried messages and announcements between bands, which notified the presence of the Spaniards prior to Cabrillo's arrival in San Diego.
]
Weaponry
The Kumeyaay used archery in order to hunt prey. The arrows were made of wood, reeds, or cane, as well as chamise or greasewood plant for larger animals. Bows were made of mesquite or ash, as well as animal hides. They also equipped with throwing sticks better known as rabbit sticks, which were used to knock out small animals and were sometimes used in war.[
]
Culture
The Kumeyaay has a continuous song and dance culture, of which many are still passed on to the next generation during special occasions. Occasions like the mourning of an important figure was honored by an Eagle Dance, and a War Dance accompanied those heading for battle. Men often sang songs with a rattle, while women supported the song through dance. Through the Mission, the Kumeyaay picked up skills in Western musical instruments, and joined the Mission choirs and orchestras.[
They also had animal companions and domesticated ]mockingbird
Mockingbirds are a group of New World passerine birds from the family (biology), family Mimidae. They are best known for the habit of some species Mimicry, mimicking the songs of other birds and the sounds of insects and amphibians, often loudly ...
s and roadrunners as pets.
Stories
One Kumeyaay creation story involves the original state of the world as being covered with salt water and tule, without land. The older brother Tuchaipa (also known as Tu-chai-pai, Tcaipakomat) and the younger twin brother Yokomatis (Yo-ko-mat-is) make the world. Tuchaipa rubs tobacco in his hand and blows it three times, causing the heavens to rise up and form the sky. He draws a line from east to west, named Y-nak and A-uk. He draws a line from north to south, named Ka-tulk and Ya-wak. He tells Yo-ko-mat-is that from the east three or four men are coming from the east, and from the east three or four Indians are coming, and he makes hills and valleys with hollows of water so the humans will not die of dehydration. He makes forests so humans will not die of cold. Then he makes humans out of mud, who can walk but never get tired, and tells them that they must walk to the east towards the light. When the humans reach the Sun, he makes the Moon, and tells the men they must run races when the Moon is small. Later, when there is less food and water, Tuchaipa calls together the men without the women and gives them three choices; to die forever; to live for a time and return; or to live forever. The men are divided over what to choose, and talk and talk without knowing what to do. Then the fly comes and says to choose to die forever, and so the men choose to be done with life and die forever. This is the reason why the fly rubs his hands together, to beg the forgiveness of humans.
In another story, Tcaipakomat and Yokomatis have their eyes closed from the blinding salt water. Yokomatis tries to see atop the water, but opens his eyes and is blinded. Tcaipakomat goes on top of the water and sees nothing, so he makes little red ants (miskiluiw, ciracir) which fill the water with their bodies to make land. Then Tcaipakomat makes a type of black bird with a flat bill (xanyil) to come into being, but they were lost without their roosts, so Tcaipakomat takes red clay, yellow clay, and black clay to make a round flat object, and throws it into the sky to make a dimly-shining moon (halya). Tcaipakomat tries again with another piece of clay to make the brighter sun (inyau). Then he takes a light colored piece of clay (mutakwic), and splits it up, making a man, and the a woman (Sinyaxau, First Woman). The children of this man and this woman are people (ipai).
Reservation era Kumeyaay institutions
The Kumeyaay Community College was created by the Sycuan Band to serve the Kumeyaay-Diegueño Nation, and describes its mission as "to support cultural identity, sovereignty, and self-determination while meeting the needs of native and non-native students". The college's focus is on "Kumeyaay History, Kumeyaay Ethnobotany and traditional Indigenous arts" It "serves and relies on resources from the thirteen reservations of the Kumeyaay Nation situated in San Diego county". In the fall of 2016, Cuyamaca College began offering an associate degree
An associate degree or associate's degree is an undergraduate degree awarded after a course of post-secondary study lasting two to three years. It is a level of academic qualification above a high school diploma and below a bachelor's degree ...
in Kumeyaay Studies with courses at its Rancho San Diego campus, as well as at Kumeyaay Community College on the Sycuan reservation.
The Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming was also established at SDSU
San Diego State University (SDSU) is a Public university, public research university in San Diego, California, United States. Founded in 1897, it is the third-oldest university and southernmost in the 23-member California State University (CS ...
by the Sycuan Band with the focus on research and policy related to the tribal gaming industry.
Population
Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. In 1925, Alfred L. Kroeber proposed that the population of the Kumeyaay in the San Diego region in 1770 had been about 3,000. More recently, Katharine Luomala points out that this estimate depended on calculations of rates of baptisms at the Mission, and as such "ignores the unbaptized". She suggests that the region could have supported 6,000–9,000 people. Florence C. Shipek goes further, estimating 16,000–19,000 inhabitants.
In the late eighteenth century, it is estimated that the Kumeyaay population was between 3,000 and 9,000. In 1828, 1,711 Kumeyaay were recorded by the missions. The 1860 federal census recorded 1,571 Kumeyaay living in 24 villages. The Bureau of Indian Affairs recorded 1,322 Kumeyaay in 1968, with 435 living on reservations. By 1990, an estimated 1,200 lived on reservation lands, while 2,000 lived elsewhere.
Tribes and reservations
Villages
Present-day cities with Kumeyaay village origins
* Kosa'aay ''(Cosoy)'' (San Diego
San Diego ( , ) is a city on the Pacific coast of Southern California, adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a population of over 1.4 million, it is the List of United States cities by population, eighth-most populous city in t ...
)
* Pa-tai (Ensenada)
* Pawai (Poway)
* Sinyweche (Santee)
* Tecate
Tecate () is a city in Tecate Municipality, Baja California. It is across the Mexico–United States border, Mexico–US border from Tecate, California. As of 2019, the city had a population of 108,860 inhabitants, while the metropolitan area ha ...
* Tecuan (Tijuana)
Other former villages in the US
In Tepacul Watai ''(City of San Diego'' ''in 'Iipay Kumeyaay)'':
*Nyip 'ewai (Nipaquay) (Mission Valley
Mission Valley is a wide river valley trending east–west in San Diego, California, United States, through which the San Diego River flows to the Pacific Ocean. For planning purposes the City of San Diego divides it into two neighborhoods: Mi ...
)
*Matt Xtaat (Choyas) ( Barrio Logan)
*Utay ( Otay Mesa)
*Jamo ( Pacific Beach)
*'Iilh Taawaa (Ystagua) ( Sorrento Valley)
*Milh Ixox (Melijo) ( Tijuana River Valley)
*Onap ( San Clemente Canyon)
*Tisirr (Downtown San Diego
Downtown San Diego is the central business district of San Diego, California, the eighth largest city in the United States. It houses the major local headquarters of the city, county, state, and federal governments. The area comprises seven d ...
)
*Totakamalam (Point Loma
Point Loma ( Spanish: ''Punta de la Loma'', meaning "Hill Point"; Kumeyaay: ''Amat Kunyily'', meaning "Black Earth") is a seaside community in San Diego, California, United States. Geographically it is a hilly peninsula that is bordered on the ...
)
*Sinyau-Pichkara (Rancho Bernardo
Rancho Bernardo is a master-planned community in the northern hills of San Diego County, California.
Geography
The topography of Rancho Bernardo consists of canyons and rolling hills that have large bedrock outcroppings. The major floral biomes ...
)
*Awil-Nyawa ( Rancho Penasquitos)
*Ahwell-ewa ( North City, San Diego)
*Hatam's Village (within the former Native American neighborhood in San Diego) ( Balboa Park)
In the County of San Diego
*Chaip/Chayp (Chula Vista
Chula Vista ( ; , ) is a city in San Diego County, California, United States. It is the second-most populous city in the San Diego metropolitan area, the seventh-most populous city in Southern California, the 15th-most populous city in the ...
)
*Meti ( National City, California)
*Neti (Spring Valley, San Diego County, California
Spring Valley is a census-designated place (CDP) in the East County region of San Diego County, California. The population was 30,998 at the 2020 census, up from 28,205 at the 2010 census.
From 1970 through 1990, Spring Valley included what i ...
)
*'Aa Kuskilly (Apusquel) (Bonita, California
Bonita (Spanish language, Spanish for "Beautiful") is a census-designated place (CDP) in southern San Diego County, California, nestled between the cities of Chula Vista, California, Chula Vista, National City, California, National City, and San ...
)
*Tapin/Jacunmat ( El Cajon)
*Matt Tumau (Matamo) ( El Cajon near Dehesa, California)
*Milh 'Ewa (Michegua) (Sycramore Canyon, Santee, California)
*Alyshuhwi (Imperial Beach
Imperial Beach is a beach city in San Diego County, California, United States, with a population of 26,137 as of the 2020 census. It is in the South Bay area of San Diego County, south of downtown San Diego and northwest of downtown Tiju ...
)
*Hayal/Jayal ( Olivenhain, Encinitas
Encinitas (Spanish language, Spanish for "Small Oaks") is a beach city in the North County (San Diego area), North County area of San Diego County, California, United States. Located in Southern California, it is approximately north of San Di ...
)
*Hakutl (Encinitas
Encinitas (Spanish language, Spanish for "Small Oaks") is a beach city in the North County (San Diego area), North County area of San Diego County, California, United States. Located in Southern California, it is approximately north of San Di ...
)
*Kulaumai (Solana Beach
Solana Beach (''Solana'', Spanish for "sunny side") is a beach city in San Diego County, California, on the South Coast. Its population was at 12,940 at the 2020 U.S. census, up from 12,867 at the 2010 census.
History
The area was first set ...
)
*Tehayiiw/Ajopunquile ( La Costa)
*Hamashaw ( Jamacha)
*Canapu (Ramona, California
Ramona is a census-designated place (CDP) in San Diego County, California. The population was 21,468 at the 2020 census, up from 20,292 at the 2010 census.
The name ''Ramona'' also refers to an unincorporated community of San Diego (with so ...
)
*Shpank/Epegam ( Ballena, California)
*Hapatul
*Cojuat
*Hakwa ( Anza-Borrego)
*Hortluke (near Ranchita)
*Winal (near Ocotillo Wells)
*Wi-i (near Ocotillo Wells)
In Imperial County
*Kwpol (Imperial, California
Imperial is a city in Imperial County, California, north of El Centro.
As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 14,758. It is part of the El Centro metropolitan area. In 2016, Imperial was the fourth fastest-growing city in the ...
)
*Sitcarknyewa (near Brawley, California)
*Matakal (near Rockwood, California)
*Hacamikalau
Other former villages in Mexico
In the Municipality of Tijuana[
*Kwa-kwa (Cuero de Venado)
*Wanya pu:wam (Cerro de Bonifacia)
*We-ilmex (near Presa El Carrizo)
*Mat g'tay
*Mat Hasil Ewik Kakap ( Islas Coronado)
In the Municipality of Tecate
*Mat'haina:l (Villareal de San José)
*Cikaú (Tanama)
*Mat'kwoho:l (Cañon Manteca)
*Uap 'cu:l uit (Cañon Manteca)
*Ja-kwak-wak (Las Juntas)
*Hacamum/Ha'kumum (Agua Tule)
*Metot'tai ( Valle de las Palmas)
*Kwat' Kunšapax (Las Calabazas)
*Cukwapa:l (El Compadre)
*'Ui'ha'tumer
*Mutu Cata (Cañon del Cansio)
*Jat'ám (Santa Clara)
*Ha'mat'tai (Jamatay)
*Ha'kume (Ejido Jacume)
In the Municipality of Mexicali
*Hwat Nyaknyuma (Ejido Lázaro Cárdenas)
*Wekwilul
*Hakwisiay
In the Municipality of Ensenada
*Jhlumúk ( Valle de Guadalupe)
*Jiurr-jiurr (Agua Escondida)
*Kwar Nuwa (El Sauzal)
*'Ui'cikwar (Real del Castillo)
*Yiu kwiñi:l (Ojos Negros)
*Ha'cur (San Salvador)
*Hispap
*Matnuk
*Hakwisay
*Hacukpin
*Hameskiny
]
See also
* Kumeyaay traditional narratives
* Kumeyaay astronomy
* O. M. Wozencraft negotiated the Treaty of Santa Ysabel on January 7, 1852.
* Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University
* Viejas Arena at San Diego State University
San Diego State University (SDSU) is a Public university, public research university in San Diego, California, United States. Founded in 1897, it is the third-oldest university and southernmost in the 23-member California State University (CS ...
* Viejas Casino
Viejas Casino & Resort is a casino hotel and outlet center owned by the Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians in Alpine, California. The casino has over 2,000 slot machines, up to 86 table games, three restaurants, a Delicatessen, deli, Bingo (America ...
References
Bibliography
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* Master's Thesis.
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Further reading
* Du Bois, Constance Goddard. 1904–1906. "Mythology of the Mission Indians: The Mythology of the Luiseño
The Luiseño or Payómkawichum are an Indigenous people of California who, at the time of the first contacts with the Spanish in the 16th century, inhabited the coastal area of southern California, ranging from the present-day southern part of ...
and Diegueño Indians of Southern California." ''The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society'', Vol. XVII, No. LXVI. p. 185-8 904 Vol. XIX. No. LXXII pp. 52–60 and LXXIII. pp. 145–64. 906
__NOTOC__
Year 906 ( CMVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* February 27 – Battle of Fritzlar: The Conradines defeat the Babenberg counts, to establish themselves as duke ...
* Miskwish, Michael C. ''Kumeyaay: A History Book''. El Cajon, CA: Sycuan Press, 2007.
* Miskwish, Michael C, and Joel Zwink. ''Sycuan: Our People, Our Culture, Our History: Honoring the Past, Building the Future''. El Cajon, Calif.: Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2006.
External links
Kumeyaay.info: The Kumeyaay Tribes Guide — Tribal Bands of the Kumeyaay Nation (Diegueño)
— in San Diego County, California + Baja California state, México
Kumeyaay Information Village
with educational materials for teachers
Kumeyaay.com
information website of Larry Banegas, Barona Reservation
Kumeyaay Indian Language and Culture by Sam Brown
Kumeyaay Community College
and its
Kumeyaay Studies Program in conjunction with Cuyamaca College
Kumeyaay Department at Cuyamaca College
* ttp://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/languages/kumeyaay.php Kumeyaay (Diegueño) languageoverview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
The Survey of California and Other Indian Languages (originally the Survey of California Indian Languages) at the University of California at Berkeley documents, catalogs, and archives the indigenous languages of the Americas. The survey also hosts ...
A.R. Royo, "The Kumeyaay: San Diego County and Baja
by Margaret Field from the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America
The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America (AILLA) is a digital repository housed in LLILAS Benson Latin American Studies and Collections at the University of Texas at Austin. AILLA is a digital language archive dedicated to the digi ...
, containing digital audio and hi-definition video from four Baja Kumiai communities: San Jose de la Zorra, La Huerta, Alamo-Neji, Necua and San Jose Tecate
*
* Samuel Brown recounts (2010)
{{Authority control
Mission Indians
History of San Diego
History of San Diego County, California
History of Baja California
Indigenous peoples of California
Indigenous peoples in Mexico