Caria (; from
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
: Καρία, ''Karia''; tr, Karya) was a region of western
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The ...
extending along the coast from mid-
Ionia (
Mycale
Mycale (). also Mykale and Mykali ( grc, Μυκάλη, ''Mykálē''), called Samsun Dağı and Dilek Dağı (Dilek Peninsula) in modern Turkey, is a mountain on the west coast of central Anatolia in Turkey, north of the mouth of the Maeander an ...
) south to
Lycia and east to
Phrygia. The
Ionian and
Dorian Greeks colonized the west of it and joined the Carian population in forming Greek-dominated states there.
Carians were described by
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society ...
as being of
Minoan descent,
[''The Histories'', Book I Section 171.] while he reports that the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in
seafaring
Seamanship is the Art (skill), art, knowledge and Competence (human resources), competence of operating a ship, boat or other craft on water. The'' Oxford Dictionary of English, Oxford Dictionary'' states that seamanship is "The skill, techniques ...
and were akin to the
Mysians
Mysians ( la, Mysi; grc, Μυσοί, ''Mysoí'') were the inhabitants of Mysia, a region in northwestern Asia Minor.
Origins according to ancient authors
Their first mention is by Homer, in his list of Trojans allies in the Iliad, and accordin ...
and the
Lydians.
The Carians spoke
Carian
The Carian language is an extinct language of the Luwic subgroup of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family. The Carian language was spoken in Caria, a region of western Anatolia between the ancient regions of Lycia and Lydia, ...
, a native
Anatolian language
The Anatolian languages are an extinct branch of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Anatolia, part of present-day Turkey. The best known Anatolian language is Hittite, which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language.
...
closely related to
Luwian
The Luwians were a group of Anatolian peoples who lived in central, western, and southern Anatolia, in present-day Turkey, during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. They spoke the Luwian language, an Indo-European language of the Anatolian sub-fam ...
. Also closely associated with the Carians were the
Leleges
The Leleges (; grc-gre, Λέλεγες) were an aboriginal people of the Aegean region, before the Greeks arrived. They were distinct from another pre-Hellenic people of the region, the Pelasgians. The exact areas to which they were native are u ...
, which could be an earlier name for Carians.
Municipalities of Caria
Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in
classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization.
Coastal Caria
Coastal Caria begins with
Didyma south of
Miletus, but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Greek Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus (
Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of
Iassus and
Bargylia, giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which the Carians called
Andanus. After Bargylia is
Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the
Bodrum Peninsula
Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown.
On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus (
Gökova Körfezi). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns."
Halicarnassus, a Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns:
Theangela,
Sibde
Side ( grc, Σίδη). also known as Sibde (Σίβδη), was a town of ancient Caria. According to Pliny the Elder, Alexander the Great united in Halicarnassus six cities by synoecism, including Side, next to Theangela, Medmasa, Uranium, Pedasa and ...
,
Medmasa,
Euranium,
Pedasa or Pedasum, and
Telmissus. These with Myndus and Synagela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is
Ceramus and Bargasus.
On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory (
Cape Krio), also called Doris after the
Dorian colony of
Cnidus. At the base of the peninsula (
Datça Peninsula
Datça is a district of Muğla Province in south-west Turkey, and the center town of the district. The center is situated midway through the peninsula which carries the same name as the district and the town ( Datça Peninsula). It was a nahiya of ...
) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city").
South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of
Symi), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius,
Thymnias and Schoenus, the last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island:
Elaeus
Elaeus ( grc, Ἐλαιοῦς ''Elaious'', later ''Elaeus''), the “Olive City”, was an ancient Greek city located in Thrace, on the Thracian Chersonese. Elaeus was located at the southern end of the Hellespont (now the Dardanelles) near th ...
or Elaeussa near
Loryma. On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite
Symi.
South of there is the
Rhodian Peraea, a section of the coast under
Rhodes. It includes
Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus,
Amos
Amos or AMOS may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Amos Records, an independent record label established in Los Angeles, California, in 1968
* Amos (band), an American Christian rock band
* ''Amos'' (album), an album by Michael Ray
* ''Amos' ...
, Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa (
Marmaris
Marmaris () is a port city and tourist resort on the Mediterranean coast, located in Muğla Province, southwest Turkey, along the shoreline of the Turkish Riviera.
Although Marmaris is known for its honey, its main source of income is internationa ...
). Beyond Cressa is the Calbis River (
Dalyan River). On the other side is
Caunus (near Dalyan), with
Pisilis
Pisilis ( grc, Πίσιλις), also known as Panormus or Panormos (Πάνορμος), was a small port town of ancient Caria, between Calynda
Calynda (also Calinda, Calydna, or Karynda; grc, Κάλυνδα) was a city in ancient Caria.
Hist ...
or Pilisis and
Pyrnos between.
Then follow some cities that some assign to Lycia and some to Caria:
Calynda on the Indus River,
Crya
Crya or Krya ( gr, ; also Carya) was a city of ancient Lycia and was a ''polis'' (city-state) and a member of the Delian League.
Its exact location is not known, but it is located near Taşyaka, Asiatic Turkey.
Stephanus of Byzantium quote ...
and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of
Makri), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus.
Inland Caria
At the base of the east end of
Latmus near
Euromus
Euromus or Euromos ( grc, Εὔρωμος and Εὔροωμος) – also, Europus or Europos (Εὐρωπός), Eunomus or Eunomos (Εὔνωμος), Philippi or Philippoi (Φίλιπποι); earlier Kyromus and Hyromus – was an ancien ...
, and near Milas where the current village
Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris (
Stratonicea). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from
Lycia. Its towns are Tauropolis,
Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into
Mylasa
Milas ( grc, Μύλασα, Mylasa) is an ancient city and the seat of the district of the same name in Muğla Province in southwestern Turkey. The city commands a region with an active economy and very rich in history and ancient remains, the ter ...
. Connected to the latter by a sacred way are
Labraunda
Labraunda ( grc, Λάβρανδα ''Labranda'' or Λάβραυνδα ''Labraunda'') is an ancient archaeological site five kilometers west of Ortaköy, Muğla Province, Turkey, in the mountains near the coast of Caria. In ancient times, it was h ...
and
Sinuri
Sinuri ( grc, Σινυρι) was a sanctuary of the god Sinuri in ancient Caria, Anatolia. The ruins of Sinuri are located on the hilltop now called Tarla Tepe, close to the modern village of , Muğla Province, Turkey. It was an active religious ...
. Around Stratonicea is also
Lagina
Lagina ( grc, Λάγινα) or Laginia (Λαγινία) was a town in the territory of Stratonicea, in ancient Caria. It contained an important temple of Hecate, at which every year great festivals were celebrated. Tacitus, when speaking of the ...
as well as
Panamara
Panamara ( grc, Πανάμαρα) was a prominent religious centre in ancient Caria. It was the centre of worship for the local god Zeus Panamaros. It was governed by a '' koinon'' (a 'federation' or 'collective') called ''Panamareis'' (Πανα� ...
,
Tendeba and
Astragon.
Further inland towards
Aydın is
Alabanda
Alabanda ( grc, Ἀλάβανδα) or Antiochia of the Chrysaorians was a city of ancient Caria, Anatolia, the site of which is near Doğanyurt, Çine, Aydın Province, Turkey.
The city is located in the saddle between two heights. The area is ...
, noted for its
marble and its
scorpions, Orthosia,
Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper
Maeander and
Alinda
Alinda ( grc, Ἄλινδα) was an inland city and bishopric in ancient Caria, in Asia Minor ( Anatolia). Modern scholars identify Alinda with the Hellenistic foundation of Alexandria ad Latmum (Ἀλεξάνδρεια πρὸς τῷ Λάτμ� ...
. To the east is the religious centre
Hyllarima
Hyllarima ( grc, Ὑλλάριμα, Carian: 𐊤𐊣𐊠𐊪𐊹 ''yλarmi-'') was an inland town of northeastern ancient Caria. Its site is located near Mesevle in Asiatic Turkey. Hyllarima is the find-site of about 30 inscriptions and is the ...
. At the
confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus is
Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is
Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with
Phrygia, Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near
Geyre
Geyre is a small town in the District of Karacasu, Aydın Province, Turkey. Also known as ''Yeni koy'' (the "new village"), it was relocated around 1960, from over the ancient Greek city of Aphrodisias archeological site to a new location nearby.N ...
. Founded by the
Leleges
The Leleges (; grc-gre, Λέλεγες) were an aboriginal people of the Aegean region, before the Greeks arrived. They were distinct from another pre-Hellenic people of the region, the Pelasgians. The exact areas to which they were native are u ...
and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and
Aphrodisias, sometime capital of Caria.
Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and Plarasa.
Tabae was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of
Cibyra
Cibyra or Kibyra (Greek: ), also referred to as Cibyra Magna, was an Ancient Greek city near the modern town of Gölhisar, in Burdur Province. It lay outside the north-western limits of the ancient province of Lycia and was the chief city of a ...
.
History
Bronze Age
Caria is often identified with the Bronze Age region of ''Karkiya'' (or ''Karkisa'') known from Hittite texts, though this identification is uncertain.
Greek settlement
Caria was settled by Greek immigrants in the
Early Iron Age
The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...
. Their presence is attested by
protogeometric pottery
The Protogeometric style (or "Proto-Geometric") is a style of Ancient Greek pottery led by Athens produced between roughly 1030 and 900 BCE, in the first period of the Greek Dark Ages. After the collapse of the Mycenaean- Minoan Palace culture ...
which appears in the area around 1100 BC, along with other markers of Greek material culture.
The coast of Caria was part of the
Doric hexapolis ("six-cities").
An account also cited that
Aristotle claimed Caria, as a naval empire, occupied
Epidaurus and Hermione and that this was confirmed when the Athenians discovered the graves of the dead from
Delos.
Half of it were identified as Carians based on the characteristics of the weapons they were buried with.
Lydian province
The expansionism of
Lydia under
Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid advance.
Persian satrapy
Caria was then incorporated into the Persian
Achaemenid Empire as a
satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was
Halicarnassus, from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the
Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were
Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus,
Antiochia,
Myndus,
Laodicea,
Alinda
Alinda ( grc, Ἄλινδα) was an inland city and bishopric in ancient Caria, in Asia Minor ( Anatolia). Modern scholars identify Alinda with the Hellenistic foundation of Alexandria ad Latmum (Ἀλεξάνδρεια πρὸς τῷ Λάτμ� ...
and
Alabanda
Alabanda ( grc, Ἀλάβανδα) or Antiochia of the Chrysaorians was a city of ancient Caria, Anatolia, the site of which is near Doğanyurt, Çine, Aydın Province, Turkey.
The city is located in the saddle between two heights. The area is ...
. Caria participated in the
Ionian Revolt
The Ionian Revolt, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus and Caria, were military rebellions by several Greek regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 BC to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisf ...
(499–493 BC) against the Persian rule.
During the
Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC), the cities of Caria were allies of
Xerxes I
Xerxes I ( peo, 𐎧𐏁𐎹𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠 ; grc-gre, Ξέρξης ; – August 465 BC), commonly known as Xerxes the Great, was the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruling from 486 to 465 BC. He was the son and successor of D ...
and they fought at the
Battle of Artemisium
The Battle of Artemisium or Artemision was a series of naval engagements over three days during the second Persian invasion of Greece. The battle took place simultaneously with the land battle at Thermopylae, in August or September 480 BC, off t ...
and the
Battle of Salamis, where the Queen of
Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent of 70 Carian ships.
Themistocles, before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at the battles, but if they were bound down by too strong a compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack. Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias ( el, Φαινίας), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a
Thracian, but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe (), and Neanthes () adds that she was from Halicarnassus in Caria.".
After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria became members of the Athenian-led
Delian League, but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast
Mausolus took control of neighbouring
Lycia, a territory which was still held by
Pixodarus
Pixodarus or Pixodaros (in Lycian 𐊓𐊆𐊜𐊁𐊅𐊀𐊕𐊀 ''Pixedara''; in Greek Πιξώδαρoς; ruled 340–334 BC), was a satrap of Caria, nominally the Achaemenid Empire Satrap, who enjoyed the status of king or dynast by virtue ...
as shown by the
Xanthos trilingual inscription.
The Carians were incorporated into the
Macedonian Empire following the conquests of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and the
Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC.
Halicarnassus was the location of the famed
Mausoleum dedicated to
Mausolus, a
satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife,
Artemisia II of Caria
Artemisia II of Caria (Greek: Ἀρτεμισία; died 350 BC) was a naval strategist, commander and the sister (and later spouse) and the successor of Mausolus, ruler of Caria. Mausolus was a satrap of the Achaemenid Empire, yet enjoyed the s ...
. The monument became one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and from which the Romans named any grand tomb a ''mausoleum.''
Macedonian empire
Caria was conquered by
Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land
Ada of Caria
Ada of Caria ( grc, Ἄδα) (fl. 377 – 326 BC)377 BC is the date of her father's death: was a member of the House of Hecatomnus (the Hecatomnids) and ruler of Caria during the mid-4th century BC, first as Persian Satrap and later as Queen un ...
who had been dethroned by the
Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir.
Roman-Byzantine province
As part of the
Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region but the territory administratively belonged to the province of
Asia. During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia.
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by
St. Paul
Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
, and the only early churches seem to be those of
Laodicea and
Colossae
Colossae (; grc-gre, Κολοσσαί) was an ancient city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, and one of the most celebrated cities of southern Anatolia (modern Turkey). The Epistle to the Colossians, an early Christian text which identifies its autho ...
(
Chonae) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its
pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in
Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria.
Dissolution under the Byzantine Empire and passage to Turkish rule
In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military
theme system was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the
Turks
Turk or Turks may refer to:
Communities and ethnic groups
* Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic languages
* Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
* Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic ...
under the
Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century.
There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions, but the first
Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for the region as a whole, a large
Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
supplemented with a small
Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
community in Milas) as low as one per cent. One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas to the then much smaller
Muğla, which was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the
kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from the islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the
population exchange
Population transfer or resettlement is a type of mass migration, often imposed by state policy or international authority and most frequently on the basis of ethnicity or religion but also due to economic development. Banishment or exile is a ...
.
Archaeology
In July 2021, archaeologists led by Abuzer Kızıl have announced the discovery of two 2,500-year-old
marble statues and an
inscription during excavations at the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in
Euromus
Euromus or Euromos ( grc, Εὔρωμος and Εὔροωμος) – also, Europus or Europos (Εὐρωπός), Eunomus or Eunomos (Εὔνωμος), Philippi or Philippoi (Φίλιπποι); earlier Kyromus and Hyromus – was an ancien ...
. According to Abuzer Kızıl, one of the statues was naked while other was wearing armor made of leather and a short skirt. Both of the statues were depicted with a lion in their hands.
See also
*
Ancient regions of Anatolia
The following is a list of regions of Ancient Anatolia, also known as "Asia Minor," in the present day Anatolia region of Turkey in Western Asia.
Late Bronze Age regions (circa 1200 BC)
* Alasiya / Alashiya (later Cyprus in the Classical Age, ...
*
Carians
*
Carian language
*
Aphrodisias
Notes
Bibliography
*
* Downloadable Google Books.
*
Further reading
* Olivier Henry and Koray Konuk, (eds.), ''KARIA ARKHAIA ; La Carie, des origines à la période pré-hékatomnide'' (Istanbul, 2019). 604 pages. .
* Riet van Bremen and Jan-Mathieu Carbon (ed.),''Hellenistic Karia: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Hellenistic Karia, Oxford, 29 June-2 July 2006'' (Talence: Ausonius Editions, 2010). (Etudes, 28).
* Lars Karlsson and Susanne Carlsson, ''Labraunda and Karia'' (Uppsala, 2011).
External links
Livius.org: History and Culture of Ancient CariaHistoria Numorum Online, Caria: ancient Greek coins from CariaAsia Minor Coins: ancient Greek and Roman coins from Caria Ancient Caria: In the garden of the sun, CANAN KÜÇÜKEREN, Hürriyet Daily News, 28 March 2011
{{Authority control
States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC
Ancient Greek geography
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Carian people
Historical regions of Anatolia
History of Aydın Province
History of Muğla Province
Ionian colonies
Praetorian prefecture of the East
States and territories established in the 11th century BC
Asia (Roman province)
City-states