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''Cynegeticus'' ( grc-gre, Κυνηγετικός, ''Kynegetikos'' "related to hunting" from κυνηγέω "I hunt"), is a treatise by the
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
philosopher and military leader
Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...
, usually translated as "On Hunting" or "Hunting with Dogs."
It is one of the four works by Xenophon on arts or skills (each ends with -ikos/-icus). The other three are: ''
Hipparchicus'' ("The Skilled Cavalry Commander") ''
Peri Hippikes'' ("On Horsemanship"), ''
Oeconomicus
The ''Oeconomicus'' ( grc-gre, Οἰκονομικός) by Xenophon is a Socratic dialogue principally about household management and agriculture.
''Oeconomicus'' comes from the Ancient Greek words ''oikos'' for home or house and ''nemein'' w ...
'' ("On Estate Management").
Synopsis
Chapter 1
Xenophon begins discussing the importance of hunting and how the gods
Apollo
Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
and
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified wit ...
bestowed game and hounds upon
Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron ( ; also Cheiron or Kheiron; ) was held to be the superlative centaur amongst his brethren since he was called the "wisest and justest of all the centaurs".
Biography
Chiron was notable throughout Greek mythology ...
the gentle centaur who used hunting to teach twenty-one heroes. The heroes mentioned are:
Cephalus Cephalus (; Ancient Greek: Κέφαλος ''Kephalos'' means "head") is a name used both for the hero-figure in Greek mythology and carried as a theophoric name by historical persons.
''Mythological''
* Cephalus, son of Hermes and Herse.
* Ceph ...
,
Asclepius
Asclepius (; grc-gre, Ἀσκληπιός ''Asklēpiós'' ; la, Aesculapius) is a hero and god of medicine in ancient Religion in ancient Greece, Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology. He is the son of Apollo and Coronis (lover of ...
,
Meilanion,
Nestor,
Amphiaraus
In Greek mythology, Amphiaraus or Amphiaraos (; Ancient Greek: Ἀμφιάραος, Ἀμφιάρεως, "very sacred") was the son of Oicles, a seer, and one of the leaders of the Seven against Thebes. Amphiaraus at first refused to go with Adra ...
,
Peleus
In Greek mythology, Peleus (; Ancient Greek: Πηλεύς ''Pēleus'') was a hero, king of Phthia, husband of Thetis and the father of their son Achilles. This myth was already known to the hearers of Homer in the late 8th century BC.
Biogra ...
,
Telamon
In Greek mythology, Telamon (; Ancient Greek: Τελαμών, ''Telamōn'' means "broad strap") was the son of King Aeacus of Aegina, and Endeïs, a mountain nymph. The elder brother of Peleus, Telamon sailed alongside Jason as one of his Argo ...
,
Meleager
In Greek mythology, Meleager (, grc-gre, Μελέαγρος, Meléagros) was a hero venerated in his ''temenos'' at Calydon in Aetolia. He was already famed as the host of the Calydonian boar hunt in the epic tradition that was reworked by Ho ...
,
Theseus
Theseus (, ; grc-gre, Θησεύς ) was the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. The myths surrounding Theseus his journeys, exploits, and friends have provided material for fiction throughout the ages.
Theseus is sometimes describe ...
,
Hippolytus,
Palamedes,
Odysseus
Odysseus ( ; grc-gre, Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσεύς, OdysseúsOdyseús, ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( , ; lat, UlyssesUlixes), is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem the ''Odyssey''. Odysse ...
,
Menestheus
In Greek mythology, Menestheus (; Ancient Greek: Μενεσθεύς) was a legendary king of Athens during the Trojan War. He was set up as king by the twins Castor and Pollux when Theseus travelled to the Underworld after abducting their sister, ...
,
Diomedes
Diomedes (Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. ''Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary''. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.) or Diomede (; grc-gre, Διομήδης, Diomēdēs, "god-like cunning" or "advised by ...
,
Castor,
Polydeuces,
Machaon,
Podaleirius
In Greek mythology, Podalirius or Podaleirius or Podaleirios ( grc, Ποδαλείριος) was a son of Asclepius.
Description
In the account of Dares the Phrygian, Podalirius was illustrated as ". . .sturdy, strong, haughty, and moody."
...
,
Antilochus,
Aeneas
In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (, ; from ) was a Trojan hero, the son of the Trojan prince Anchises and the Greek goddess Aphrodite (equivalent to the Roman Venus). His father was a first cousin of King Priam of Troy (both being grandsons ...
, and
Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus ( grc-gre, Ἀχιλλεύς) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and the central character of Homer's ''Iliad''. He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, k ...
. Xenophon goes on to describe the excellence of each individual "hero," although many of his reasons are rather awkward upon other instances of them in literature. Hunting, Xenophon claims in the conclusion to the chapter, "are the means by which men become good in war and in all things out of which must come excellence in thought and word and deed" (I.18, E. C. Marchant translation).
Chapter 2
Xenophon attends to the young man who is to hunt and his attire with explanation to each item's purpose, and also the net-keeper who is to assist him, including a brief detail of the net required.
Chapter 3
Xenophon writes concerning the two types of hounds to be used: the Castorian and the Vulpine. He gives extremely detailed descriptions of the temperament of various dogs. Some of the defects in the hounds are due to nature, but they can also be due to bad training.
Chapter 4
The physical characteristics of the superior hound are described, as well as the initial training needed in various seasons for the proper hunting of hares.
Chapter 5
The seasons and the difficulties particular to each of them in the pursuit of hares are presented. Also the physical characteristics and the habits of the hare are analyzed at length.
Chapter 6
Xenophon begins with means of restraining hounds before they are off to hunt, but quickly moves into the early morning preparations for the hunt. Xenophon also discusses how the net-keeper is to prepare himself. Once the hunt has begun and the hunting party has reached a place to find a hare they are to offer a “vow to Apollo and Artemis the Huntress” that they will share their prize with them. It is only now that the hound is to be let loose to find the trail of the hare, which it will pursue when it is found. Once the hunt has begun the huntsman should verbally praise the hound. If the hare is caught in the first attempt the hounds should be brought back in and they should search for another. Otherwise the pursuit has really begun, and Xenophon really makes a game of it with constant verbal remarks towards the hounds. Once the dogs are tired from hunting the huntsman should search on his own.
Chapter 7
Discusses the proper breeding and the methods for raising the puppies. Xenophon also lists the proper names for hounds: Psyche, Pluck, Buckler, Spigot, Lance, Lurcher, Watch, Keeper, Brigade, Fencer, Butcher, Blazer, Prowess, Craftsman, Forester, Counsellor, Spoiler, Hurry, Fury, Growler, Riot, Bloomer, Rome, Blossom, Hebe, Hilary, Jollity, Gazer, Eyebright, Much, Force, Trooper, Bustle, Bubbler, Rockdove, Stubborn, Yelp, Killer, Pele-mele, Strongboy, Sky, Sunbeam, Bodkin, Wistful, Gnome, Tracks, Dash. Each of the names are short so they can be said easily.
Xenophon next explains how to have the puppies follow the hounds while hunting and eventually let them catch the hare and let them have her. They are to be fed when they are near the nets, so if they are lost they will return to be fed. Eventually the hounds will regard the hare as enemy and the master will feed them himself when this has been accomplished.
Chapter 8
Describes hunting the hare in the snow.
Chapter 9
Xenophon ends the discussion of hunting hares and begins discussing how to hunt fawns, deer, and calves. He also now suggests using the Indian hound because they are larger, quicker, and more courageous. The first mention of traps is discussed when hunting deer, in particular Xenophon mentions the caltrop and discusses a foot-gin at length.
Chapter 10
The game now gets larger and more difficult, requiring many traps including nets, javelins, spears, and caltrops as well as different species of hounds including Indian, Cretan, Locrian, and Laconian. The net now requires fifteen strand ropes rather than the nine strands used for the hares. The boar requires a great deal more effort, and it will become not only a pursuit but a fight. Only now does Xenophon discuss the deaths of many hounds and the risks involved for the hunter.
Chapter 11
Xenophon moves outside of Greece to other countries discussing how they hunt lions, leopards, lynxes, panthers, bears, and other large beasts. The game are frequently poisoned through food or caught with the use of goat as a lure. This is no longer a pursuit, but merely capture.
Chapter 12
Xenophon ends the discussion on the practical side of hunting and explains the benefits of hunting. First he discusses the health benefits of improved sight and hearing, longevity, and lastly that it is the best training for war.
Once he mentions the military he goes on to discuss the benefits of hunting as war training such as the recovery of fellow troops in a difficult area. Xenophon writes, “For men who are sound in body and mind may always stand on the threshold of success” (XII.5). Hunting also “makes men sober and upright … because they are trained in the school of truth” (XII.7). These men can do whatever honorable employment they desire and make good soldiers and generals because they desire virtue.
Xenophon goes on to defend hunting from those who think it causes them to avoid domestic affairs, however he believes that they will instead protect and assist their fellow citizens. He writes, “Those then, who have given themselves up to continual toil and learning hold for their own portion laborious lessons and exercises, but they hold safety for the cities” (XII.15). Toil is required to discover what is good, without such labor they cannot become pious or wise.
Xenophon again mentions
Chiron
In Greek mythology, Chiron ( ; also Cheiron or Kheiron; ) was held to be the superlative centaur amongst his brethren since he was called the "wisest and justest of all the centaurs".
Biography
Chiron was notable throughout Greek mythology ...
, who he says began teaching lessons in virtue with hunting and it is due to this education that they became honored men. “That all desire Virtue is obvious,” explains Xenophon, “but because they must toil if they are to gain her, the many fall away.” He then turns to the unseen (feminine) form of Virtue who sees all men and honors those who are good to her, “but casts out the bad.”
Chapter 13
Xenophon switches to the discussion of the sophists who teach merely words but not thoughts or deed. (In his
Memorabilia
A souvenir (), memento, keepsake, or token of remembrance is an object a person acquires for the memories the owner associates with it. A souvenir can be any object that can be collected or purchased and transported home by the traveler as a m ...
he stresses how his teacher Socrates turned men to virtue and then to action.) He complains of the sophists' flourished language without any stress upon bringing their students to virtue. He explains his own objective: “It may well be that I fail to express myself in subtle language, 388 nor do I pretend to aim at subtlety; what I do aim at is to express rightly-conceived thoughts such as may serve the need of those who have been nobly disciplined in virtue; for it is not words and names that give instruction, but thoughts and sentiments worthy the name” (XIII.5). He then writes further about his own writing.
He eventually concludes the work stressing that hunting makes men pious and pleases the gods, “For all men who have loved hunting have been good: and not men only, but those women also to whom the goddess
Artemis
In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Artemis (; grc-gre, Ἄρτεμις) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. She was heavily identified wit ...
has given this blessing,
Atalanta
Atalanta (; grc-gre, Ἀταλάντη, Atalantē) meaning "equal in weight", is a heroine in Greek mythology.
There are two versions of the huntress Atalanta: one from Arcadia, whose parents were Iasus and Clymene and who is primarily known ...
and
Procris
In Greek mythology, Procris ( grc, Πρόκρις, ''gen''.: Πρόκριδος) was an Athens, Athenian princess as the third daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens and his wife, Praxithea, daughter of Phrasimus and Cephissus (Boeotia), Diogene ...
and others like them.
Cynegeticon
There is also a much later prose work of the same name by
Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; )
was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...
, written as a supplement to Xenophon's, specifically to describe hunting with sighthound
Arrian On Coursing[.]
and Latin poems on various aspects of hunting predominantly with dogs by
Grattius
Grattius (or Gratius) Faliscus was a Roman poet who flourished during the life of Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD). He is known as the author of a '' Cynegeticon'', a poem on hunting.
Life
The only reference to Grattius in any extant ancient writer i ...
and
Nemesianus
Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus was a Roman poet thought to have been a native of Carthage and flourished about AD 283. He was a popular poet at the court of the Roman emperor Carus ( Historia Augusta, ''Carus'', 11).
Works
The works be ...
.
This genre of literature, generally about breeding and the care and use of dogs and horses, is known as Cynegeticon or Cynegetica.
References
Translations
*William Blane and William Somerville.'' Cynegetica; Or, Essays on Sporting: Consisting of Observations on Hare Hunting &c. &c., To Which Is Added, The Chase: a Poem.'' London: Printed for J. Stockdale, 1788. Extracts: Xenophon, §5-7; Arrian §1-22
Google Books
*William Dansey. ''Arrian on Coursing. The Cynegeticus of the Younger Xenophon, Translated from the Greek, with Classical and Practical Annotations, and a Brief Sketch of the Life and Writings of the Author. To Which Is Added an Appendix, Containing Some Account of the Canes Venatici of Classical Antiquity.'' London: J. Bohn, 1831
archive link*E. C. Marchant. ''Xenophon. Scripta Minora.''
Loeb Classical Library
The Loeb Classical Library (LCL; named after James Loeb; , ) is a series of books originally published by Heinemann in London, but is currently published by Harvard University Press. The library contains important works of ancient Greek and L ...
. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press. 1925. Xenophon only, with other works. Greek and English
Perseus link*Denison Bingham Hull. ''Hounds and Hunting in Ancient Greece.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964. Contains both Xenophon and Arrian.
*A. A. Phillips and Malcolm M. Willcock. ''Xenophon & Arrian, On hunting (Kynēgetikos).'' Warminster, Eng: Aris & Phillips, 1999. Greek and English.
External links
*
{{Authority control
Ancient Greek works
Works by Xenophon
Hunting literature