The Cuvier's beaked whale, goose-beaked whale, or ziphius (''Ziphius cavirostris'') is the most widely distributed of all beaked whales in the family
Ziphiidae
Beaked whales (systematic name Ziphiidae) are a family of cetaceans noted as being one of the least known groups of mammals because of their deep-sea habitat and apparent low abundance. Only three or four of the 24 species are reasonably well-kn ...
.
It is smaller than most
baleen whale
Baleen whales (systematic name Mysticeti), also known as whalebone whales, are a parvorder of carnivorous marine mammals of the infraorder Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises) which use keratinaceous baleen plates (or "whalebone") in their ...
s yet large among beaked whales. Cuvier's beaked whale is
pelagic
The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be further divided into regions by depth (as illustrated on the right). The word ''pelagic'' is derived . The pelagic zone can be thought of as an imaginary cylinder or wa ...
, inhabiting waters deeper than . It has the deepest and longest recorded dives among whales at and 222 minutes respectively, though the frequency and reasons for these extraordinary dives are unclear.
Despite its deep water habitat, it is one of the most frequently spotted beached whales.
The species was named ''Ziphius cavirostris'' by
Georges Cuvier
Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, Baron Cuvier (; 23 August 1769 – 13 May 1832), known as Georges Cuvier, was a French natural history, naturalist and zoology, zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier ...
, based on a skull fragment which he believed to be a fossil from an extinct species.
He reused the genus name ''Ziphius'' from an undetermined species mentioned by historical sources.
The species name ''cavirostris'' from Latin ' "hollow" and ' "beak", refers to a bony structure (cavity) anterior of the nares (the bones of the nose), now known as the prenarial basin. It is now known to be unique to males of this species.
Taxonomy
French naturalist and
zoologist
Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the Animal, animal kingdom, including the anatomy, structure, embryology, evolution, Biological clas ...
Georges Cuvier
Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, Baron Cuvier (; 23 August 1769 – 13 May 1832), known as Georges Cuvier, was a French natural history, naturalist and zoology, zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuvier ...
first described the species in ''Recherches sur les ossements fossiles'' ("Research on Fossil Bones", 1823)
based on a skull collected on the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
coast of
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
at
Fos-sur-mer
Fos-sur-Mer (, literally ''Fos on Sea''; Provençal: ''Fòs'') is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in southern France.
Geography
Fos-sur-Mer is situated about north west of Marseille, on the Mediterranean coast, and to the west ...
, Bouches de Rhone in 1804. He named it ''Ziphius cavirostris'' from the Latin ''cavus'' for "hollow" or "concave", referring to the prenarial basin, a deep hollow in the skull which is now known to be found only in males of this species.
Cuvier believed the skull represented the remains of an
extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
species, and chose the genus name ''Ziphius'' to reflect an undetermined species mentioned by historical authors.
Later, in 1850, paleontologist and zoologist
Paul Gervais
Paul Gervais full name François Louis Paul Gervais (26 September 1816 – 10 February 1879) was a French palaeontologist and entomologist.
Biography
Gervais was born in Paris, where he obtained the diplomas of doctor of science and of medicine ...
found the skull to be identical with that of a whale carcass more recently stranded on a beach.
Cuvier's beaked whale is one of 22 species in the family
Ziphiidae
Beaked whales (systematic name Ziphiidae) are a family of cetaceans noted as being one of the least known groups of mammals because of their deep-sea habitat and apparent low abundance. Only three or four of the 24 species are reasonably well-kn ...
and the
only member of the genus ''Ziphius''.
No other ziphiid develops the dense
rostral ossification of the prenarial basin.
Description
![Ziphius cavirostris skeleton Museum de Genève](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Ziphius_cavirostris_skeleton_Museum_de_Gen%C3%A8ve.JPG)
The body of Cuvier's beaked whale is robust and cigar-shaped, similar to those of other beaked whales, and can be difficult to distinguish from many of the
mesoplodont whale
Mesoplodont whales are 16 species of toothed whale in the genus ''Mesoplodon'', making it the largest genus in the cetacean order (biology), order. Two species were described as recently as 1991 (pygmy beaked whale) and 2002 (Perrin's beaked wha ...
s at sea.
Males and females tend to be similar in size.
The body of adult males is typically a dark gray, with their head being distinctly lighter, or even white. This light coloration extends along the posterior. Females vary in color from dark gray to a reddish-brown. The skin lightens on female's head to a lesser extent than in males, and does not extend along the posterior.
Sex determination in Cuvier’s beaked whales can be determined on the basis of genetics, observation of the genital area, the presence or absence of erupted teeth in adults, or presence of a calf. Pigmentation patterns can also give indications of gender. Adult males show a contrasted uniform white cape which usually extends to the dorsal fin zone. Individual coloration in adult males varies from dark to almost white. However, over 1 of 3 adult females shows "sharp" pigmentation patterns similar to adult males. Therefore males and females of this pattern cannot be distinguished using pigmentation pattern alone. The majority of adult females show a “soft” cluster of pigmentation features characterized by a brownish coloration and a shorter contrasting white cape. However, similar patterns have been observed in subadult animals of both sexes, so a "soft" pigmentation pattern alone is insufficient evidence to conclude that an animal is female.
Cuvier's beaked whales are usually born weighing about and between and slightly over long. Calves are black or dark blue with a white belly. Females reach maturity at an average of long and the males at , weighing about 2 to 3.5 tons.
Cuvier's beaked whale is an ''
odontocete
The toothed whales (also called odontocetes, systematic name Odontoceti) are a parvorder of cetaceans that includes dolphins, porpoises, and all other whales possessing teeth, such as the beaked whales and sperm whales. Seventy-three species of t ...
'' — or toothed whale. Erupted teeth are only present in the adult males.
Males also develop two tusks in the right and left corners of their lower jaw. The tusks are possibly used for dueling between the males, though it has not been observed, but may also be used for fighting off threats such as orcas. Adults have many scars along their sides which can be used to identify individuals. The scars are thought, by researchers, to be from battles with males, predators, fights with squid, or
cookiecutter shark
The cookiecutter shark (''Isistius brasiliensis''), also called the cigar shark, is a species of small squaliform shark in the family Dalatiidae. This shark occurs in warm, oceanic waters worldwide, particularly near islands, and has been rec ...
s, which may score them or punch holes directly in their sides.
The frequency of scarring is higher in males than in females, and tends to increase with age.
Their head is short and blunt, with a gradually sloping forehead, a small, poorly defined beak, and a slight
melon
A melon is any of various plants of the family Cucurbitaceae with sweet, edible, and fleshy fruit. The word "melon" can refer to either the plant or specifically to the fruit. Botanically, a melon is a kind of berry, specifically a "pepo". The ...
. All the beaked whales have this general appearance, but Cuvier's beaked whale has a blunt shorter beak that distinguishes the Cuvier's beaked whale from others in the family ''Ziphiidae''. In profile, their small, softly defined
rostrum
Rostrum may refer to:
* Any kind of a platform for a speaker:
**dais
**pulpit
* Rostrum (anatomy), a beak, or anatomical structure resembling a beak, as in the mouthparts of many sucking insects
* Rostrum (ship), a form of bow on naval ships
* Ros ...
gives them the nickname or alternative name of goose-beaked whale.
Ecology
Diving
Satellite-linked tags have been used to track and study whale movement. Data indicates that Cuvier's beaked whales follow a stereotypical dive pattern in which a deep dive of greater than is followed by several shorter, shallow dives. Cuvier's beaked whales typically display very short surface intervals (2 to 8 min), but infrequently spend extended intervals at the surface (30 to 310 min). Diving behavior shows little
diel variation.
Cuvier's beaked whales hold the records for both the deepest dive ever documented for any mammal and the longest dive ever documented for any mammal.
In 2014, scientists reported that a Cuvier's beaked whale off the coast of California dove up to below the ocean surface, the deepest dive documented for any mammal.
A study in 2020 reported a Cuvier's beaked whale making a dive that lasted 222 minutes, the longest dive ever documented for any mammal. Supervising scientist Nicola Hodgkins noted that "the recorded dive-time of more than three hours is likely not typical, and instead the result of an individual pushed to its absolute limits".[
It is possible that Cuvier's beaked whales have developed alterations in metabolism and behavior that enable them to make deep dives beyond their predicted aerobic capacity.]
Considering Cuvier beaked whale's ability to dive to almost and remain underwater for hours, there are suggestions that they may be able to collapse their rib cage and possibly lungs. They are observed to make a leaping flourish when entering a dive into the pelagic depths.
During shallow dives, Cuvier's beaked whales tend to be silent, possibly to avoid predators. Below they use echolocation as part of foraging.
Exposure to high noise levels from anthropogenic sources, such as Navy sonar, appears to disrupt their behavior and has been linked to multiple mass stranding events affecting beaked whales.[
]
Food and foraging
Relatively little is known of the diving and feeding behavior of Cuvier’s beaked whales. There is evidence that Cuvier's beaked whales make highly coordinated foraging dives in small social groups. Such behavior may reduce predation risk; it does not appear to affect the whales' foraging success.
It appears that Cuvier's beaked whale prefers diving deep and using a suction process to acquire fish. Diving deep to catch prey, Cuvier's beaked whales open their jaws, expand their throat and move their tongue in a way that creates a pressure change and sucks their prey, like squid and deep sea fish, directly into their mouths. Grooves between their throat tissues enable the whale to expand this region. Its jaw structure gives it a smiling appearance.
The "melon" of the whale, the bump on top of its head, contains its organ for echolocation. This means the whale can use sound waves to locate potential sources of food, which is helpful in the deep sea, where there is no sunlight. This deep diving with echolocation seems to help Cuvier's beaked whales avoid competition for their prey.
Scientists have used beached specimens to study the whale's eating habits via stomach analysis. Examining Pacific Ocean whales, they found that cephalopods
A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda (Greek plural , ; "head-feet") such as a squid, octopus, cuttlefish, or nautilus. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, an ...
made up 98.0% (by number) and 87.7% (by mass) of the Cuvier's beaked whale diet. Among these were at least 37 varieties of squid, of many different sizes, with both ''mesopelagic
The mesopelagic zone (Greek μέσον, middle), also known as the middle pelagic or twilight zone, is the part of the pelagic zone that lies between the photic epipelagic and the aphotic bathypelagic zones. It is defined by light, and begins ...
'' and ''bathypelagic'' squid. Prey of Cuvier’s beaked whales include Cranchiidae, Onychoteuthidae
The hooked squid, family Onychoteuthidae, currently comprise about 20–25 species (several known from only single life stages and thus unconfirmed), in six or seven genera. They range in mature mantle length from 7 cm to a suggested length ...
, Brachioteuthidae
Brachioteuthidae is a family
Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of ...
, Enoploteuthidae
The Enoploteuthidea are a family of squid comprising approximately 40 species in four genera. Most species have a mantle length ranging from 3–13 cm. Hooks are present on all arms and tentacles. The family is best known for the large arr ...
, Octopoteuthidae
The Octopoteuthidae are a family of squid comprising two genera. The family is characterized by tentacles which cease to grow after the paralarval stage, and the use of a penis, instead of a hectocotylus
A hectocotylus (plural: ''hectocotyli' ...
, and Histioteuthidae
Histioteuthidae is a family of Oegopsid squid. The family was previously considered to be monotypic but the World Register of Marine Species assigns two genera to this family.
The species classified under Histioteuthidae are mostly weakly musc ...
, as well as deep-sea fish.
Comparing the stomachs of the whales found in the Pacific Ocean to those found in the Mediterranean found that the Mediterranean whales predominantly ate squid from a 1,000 to 2,000-foot level, whereas in the Pacific, the whales found in Monterey, California in 2015, Taiwan in 1995, Alaska, and Baja California had access to much deeper water.
As well as catching prey in the benthopelagic
The demersal zone is the part of the sea or ocean (or deep lake) consisting of the part of the water column near to (and significantly affected by) the seabed and the benthos. The demersal zone is just above the benthic zone and forms a layer of ...
zone, they consumed a mixture of crustaceans and cephalopods further down in the bathypelagic zone. Molluscs and octopus only found in these deep-sea regions are also sometimes eaten in the bathypelagic zone.
A whale retrieved in Monterey in 2015 was observed to have eaten 200 squids, five fish, and one very deep-sea shrimp. The shrimp and most of the squid were seemingly ''bathypelagic,'' and the fish were giant grenadier
''Albatrossia pectoralis'', the giant grenadier or giant rattail, is a very large rattail, and the only member of the genus ''Albatrossia''. It is found in the north Pacific from northern Japan to the Okhotsk and Bering Seas, east to the Gulf of ...
s off the ''benthopelagic'' ocean bottoms.
Range and habitat
Cuvier's has a cosmopolitan distribution
In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all or most of the world in appropriate habitats. Such a taxon, usually a species, is said to exhibit cosmopolitanism or cosmopolitism. The ext ...
in deep, offshore waters from the tropics
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
to the cool, temperate seas. In the North Pacific
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the continen ...
, it occurs as far north as the Aleutians
The Aleutian Islands (; ; ale, Unangam Tanangin,”Land of the Aleuts", possibly from Chukchi ''aliat'', "island"), also called the Aleut Islands or Aleutic Islands and known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, are a chain of 14 large vo ...
and in the North Atlantic
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the "Old World" of Africa, Europe and ...
as far north as Atlantic Canada
Atlantic Canada, also called the Atlantic provinces (french: provinces de l'Atlantique), is the region of Eastern Canada comprising the provinces located on the Atlantic coast, excluding Quebec. The four provinces are New Brunswick, Newfoundlan ...
in the west to the Shetland
Shetland, also called the Shetland Islands and formerly Zetland, is a subarctic archipelago in Scotland lying between Orkney, the Faroe Islands and Norway. It is the northernmost region of the United Kingdom.
The islands lie about to the no ...
s in the east. In the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs as far south as Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego (, ; Spanish for "Land of the Fire", rarely also Fireland in English) is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the main island, Isla G ...
, South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
, southern Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
, and the Chatham Islands
The Chatham Islands ( ) (Moriori: ''Rēkohu'', 'Misty Sun'; mi, Wharekauri) are an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about east of New Zealand's South Island. They are administered as part of New Zealand. The archipelago consists of about te ...
. It also frequents such inland bodies of waters as the Gulfs of Mexico
A gulf is a large inlet from the ocean into the landmass, typically with a narrower opening than a bay, but that is not observable in all geographic areas so named. The term gulf was traditionally used for large highly-indented navigable bodies ...
and the Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
and Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
s. The Mediterranean population might be genetically distinct from the North Atlantic population(s).[D.
Holcer D.. Fortuna M.C.. Mackelworth C. P.. 2014]
Status and Conservation of Cetaceans in the Adriatic Sea
(pdf). United Nations Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
. Mediterranean Action Plan. Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas. Retrieved on September 04, 2017
Cuvier's beaked whale may be one of the most common and abundant of the beaked whales, with a worldwide population likely well over 100,000. An estimated 80,000 are in the eastern tropical Pacific, nearly 1,900 are off the west coast of the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
(excluding Alaska
Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...
), and more than 15,000 are off Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
. The population in the Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico ( es, Golfo de México) is an oceanic basin, ocean basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of ...
is extremely small and appeals have been made to have them made a protected species in this area. this was rejected on the basis that there was insufficient scientific evidence to consider them a distinct population segment (DPS) under the Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Interactions with humans
Whaling and fishing
Before 1955, it is estimated that Japanese whalers caught anywhere from 3 to 35 Cuvier's every year. From 1955 until the 1990s, more than 4,000 Cuvier's beaked whales were reportedly caught. The species has reportedly been caught incidentally in fisheries in Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
, in the Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
swordfish
Swordfish (''Xiphias gladius''), also known as broadbills in some countries, are large, highly migratory predatory fish characterized by a long, flat, pointed bill. They are a popular sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordfis ...
fishery, and in a drift gillnet fishery off California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
and Oregon
Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
on the U.S. west coast, where between 22 and 44 individuals died each year from 1992 to 1995.[ Cuvier's beaked whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (]ASCOBANS
Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas, often abbreviated to ASCOBANS, is a regional agreement on the protection of small cetaceans that was concluded as the Agreement on the Con ...
) and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area ( ACCOBAMS). The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia ( Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region ( Pacific Cetaceans MoU).
Sonar and military maneuvers
Cuvier's beaked whale seems to have a bad reaction to sonar
Sonar (sound navigation and ranging or sonic navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigation, navigate, measure distances (ranging), communicate with or detect o ...
. Strandings and beachings often occur near naval bases where sonar may have been in use. Cuvier's beaked whale has been observed in Hawaii avoiding diving for food or avoiding an area where sonar is in use. A higher incidence of strandings has been recorded in noisy seas such as the Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
and multiple mass strandings have occurred following operations by the Spanish Navy
The Spanish Navy or officially, the Armada, is the maritime branch of the Spanish Armed Forces and one of the oldest active naval forces in the world. The Spanish Navy was responsible for a number of major historic achievements in navigation, ...
in the Canary Islands
The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocc ...
. In 2019, a review of evidence on the mass strandings of beaked whales linked to naval exercises where sonar was used concluded the effects of mid-frequency active sonar are strongest on Cuvier's beaked whales but vary among individuals or populations, and the strength of the whales' response may depend on whether the individuals had prior exposure to sonar. The report considered the most plausible explanation of the symptoms of decompression sickness
Decompression sickness (abbreviated DCS; also called divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, and caisson disease) is a medical condition caused by dissolved gases emerging from solution as bubbles inside the body tissues during decompressio ...
such as gas embolism
An air embolism, also known as a gas embolism, is a blood vessel blockage caused by one or more bubbles of air or other gas in the circulatory system. Air can be introduced into the circulation during surgical procedures, lung over-expansion i ...
found in stranded whales to be the whales' response to sonar. It noted no more mass strandings had occurred in the Canary Islands once naval exercises using sonar were banned there, and recommended the ban be extended to other areas such as the Mediterranean, where mass strandings continue to occur.
See also
*List of cetaceans
Cetacea is an infraorder that comprises the 94 species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises. It is divided into toothed whales (Odontoceti) and baleen whales (Mysticeti), which diverged from each other in the Eocene some 50 mya (unit), million years ...
References
Further reading
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External links
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{{Taxonbar, from1=Q623173, from2=Q2880357
Mammals described in 1823
Taxa named by Georges Cuvier
Cetaceans of the Indian Ocean
Cetaceans of the Pacific Ocean
Cetaceans of Europe
Mammals of Southeast Asia
Ziphiids
Cetaceans of the Atlantic Ocean