The Crucifix by Cimabue at Santa Croce () is a very large wooden
crucifix
A crucifix (from Latin ''cruci fixus'' meaning "(one) fixed to a cross") is a cross with an image of Jesus on it, as distinct from a bare cross. The representation of Jesus himself on the cross is referred to in English as the ''corpus'' (Lati ...
, painted in
distemper, attributed to the
Florentine painter and
mosaic
A mosaic is a pattern or image made of small regular or irregular pieces of colored stone, glass or ceramic, held in place by plaster/mortar, and covering a surface. Mosaics are often used as floor and wall decoration, and were particularly pop ...
ist
Cimabue
Cimabue (; ; – 1302), Translated with an introduction and notes by J.C. and P Bondanella. Oxford: Oxford University Press (Oxford World’s Classics), 1991, pp. 7–14. . also known as Cenni di Pepo or Cenni di Pepi, was an Italian painter a ...
, one of two large crucifixes attributed to him. The work was commissioned by the
Franciscan friars
The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
of
Santa Croce and is built from a complex arrangement of five main and eight ancillary
timber boards. It is one of the first
Italian art
Since ancient times, Greeks, Etruscans and Celts have inhabited the south, centre and north of the Italian peninsula respectively. The very numerous rock drawings in Valcamonica are as old as 8,000 BC, and there are rich remains of Etruscan ar ...
works to break from the late medieval
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
style and is renowned for its technical innovations and
humanistic
Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry.
The meaning of the term "humani ...
iconography.
The
gilding
Gilding is a decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold over solid surfaces such as metal (most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as "gilt". Where metal is gilded, the metal below was tradi ...
and monumentality of the cross link it to the Byzantine tradition.
Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, names and titles), was ...
's static pose is reflective of this style, while the work overall incorporates newer, more
naturalistic aspects. The work presents a lifelike and physically
imposing depiction of the
passion at Calvary. Christ is shown nearly naked: his eyes are closed, his face lifeless and defeated. His body slumps in a position contorted by prolonged agony. A graphic portrayal of human suffering, the painting is of seminal importance in art history and has influenced painters from
Michelangelo
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was insp ...
,
Caravaggio
Michelangelo Merisi (Michele Angelo Merigi or Amerighi) da Caravaggio, known as simply Caravaggio (, , ; 29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610), was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. During the final four years of hi ...
and
Velázquez to
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626), also known as Lord Verulam, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Bacon led the advancement of both ...
.
The work has been in the
Basilica di Santa Croce
The (Italian for 'Basilica of the Holy Cross') is the principal Franciscan church in Florence, Italy, and a minor basilica of the Roman Catholic Church. It is situated on the Piazza di Santa Croce, about 800 meters south-east of the Duomo. The ...
in
Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico an ...
since the late thirteenth century, and at the Museo dell'Opera Santa Croce since restoration following
flooding of the Arno in 1966. It remains in poor condition despite
conservation
Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws.
Conservation may also refer to:
Environment and natural resources
* Nature conservation, the protection and manageme ...
efforts.
Commission
Both of Cimabue's surviving crucifixes were commissioned by the
Franciscan order
, image = FrancescoCoA PioM.svg
, image_size = 200px
, caption = A cross, Christ's arm and Saint Francis's arm, a universal symbol of the Franciscans
, abbreviation = OFM
, predecessor =
, ...
. Founded by Saint
Francis of Assisi
Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, better known as Saint Francis of Assisi ( it, Francesco d'Assisi; – 3 October 1226), was a mystic Italian Catholic friar, founder of the Franciscans, and one of the most venerated figures in Christianit ...
, their reformist, religious and social views had a profound effect on the visual arts in the century after his death. The son of a wealthy cloth merchant, Francis abandoned his inheritance to take up preaching in his mid-twenties. He venerated poverty and developed a deep appreciation for the beauty of nature. Byzantine depictions tended to show Christ as invincible, even in death. Imagery based on Franciscan ideals in the thirteenth century generally reinforce his veneration of simplicity and naturalism, infusing the paintings with the new values of humanism.
[Kleinhenz, 224][Paolettii, 49]
The church at Santa Croce was the third that the Franciscans constructed at the site. The first was begun in 1295, and is where Cimabue's ''Crucifix'' probably hung, given its large size, above the
rood screen
The rood screen (also choir screen, chancel screen, or jubé) is a common feature in late medieval church architecture. It is typically an ornate partition between the chancel and nave, of more or less open tracery constructed of wood, stone, or ...
.
It was later positioned at the north
transept
A transept (with two semitransepts) is a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the building. In cruciform churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform ("cross-shaped") building withi ...
, in the
sacristy
A sacristy, also known as a vestry or preparation room, is a room in Christian churches for the keeping of vestments (such as the alb and chasuble) and other church furnishings, sacred vessels, and parish records.
The sacristy is usually located ...
and by the
entrance on the southern flank.
Description
Cimabue achieves a masterful handling of colour; medieval churches tended to be extremely colourful, with
fresco
Fresco (plural ''frescos'' or ''frescoes'') is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaste ...
ed walls, painted
capitals
Capital may refer to:
Common uses
* Capital city, a municipality of primary status
** List of national capital cities
* Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences
* Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used f ...
, and
gold leaf paintings.
[Chiellini, 8] Pale tonalities dominate, with the main contrast found in the dark areas of Christ's hair and beard, which are utilised to make the features of his face stand out more, and position his head as the focal point.
[Chiellini, 15]
Crucifixion
Compared to earlier works of this type, Christ's body is more physically corporeal, depicted as a real object, and his anatomy more
closely rendered. His hands and feet seem to extend beyond the pictorial space, which is delineated by the flat, coloured borders of the cross,
in turn made up of at least six boards. Both his body and semi-circular
nimbus
Nimbus, from the Latin for "dark cloud", is an outdated term for the type of cloud now classified as the nimbostratus cloud. Nimbus also may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Halo (religious iconography), also known as ''Nimbus'', a ring of ligh ...
are placed at angles which rise outwards and above the level of the cross.
His body arches, forcing his torso to raise against the cross. Blood pours from the wounds in his hands as his head falls to the side from fatigue and the physical reality of approaching death.
[Larson, Kay. "Survival of the Greatest". ''New York'', 27 September 1982] His body is naked except for a sheer and transparent
loincloth
A loincloth is a one-piece garment, either wrapped around itself or kept in place by a belt. It covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks. Loincloths which are held up by belts or strings are specifically known as breechcloth or ...
that only just covers his thighs and buttocks. The choice of a white, veil-like loincloth, dramatically more modest than the red garment in the
Arezzo
Arezzo ( , , ) , also ; ett, 𐌀𐌓𐌉𐌕𐌉𐌌, Aritim. is a city and ''comune'' in Italy and the capital of the province of the same name located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about southeast of Florence at an elevation of above sea level. ...
work, may be influenced by earlier crucifixions by
Giunta Pisano
Giunta Pisano (also named Giunta da Pisa or Giunta Capitini) was an Italian painter. He is the earliest Italian painter whose name is found inscribed on an extant work. He is best known for his crucifixes.
Works
He is said to have exercised hi ...
.
[Gibbs, Robert.]
Cimabue
. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press. Retrieved 30 October 2016 His nakedness highlights his vulnerability and suffering. It seems influenced by a thirteenth-century Franciscan ''Meditation'' on Christ that emphasised pathos and human interest in the suffering of the Passion; "Turn your eyes away from His divinity for a little while and consider Him purely as a man".
![Giunta Pisano - Crucifix - WGA09628](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Giunta_Pisano_-_Crucifix_-_WGA09628.jpg)
His eyes are open, and his skin is unblemished. The cross is painted with deep blue paint, perhaps evoking an eternal or timeless sky. This evocation, not present in the main crucified figure, was known as the ''
Christus triumphans'' ("Triumphant Christ"), and for contemporary – especially Franciscan – taste lacked verisimilitude, as it bore little relation to the actual suffering likely endured during a crucifixion, and overly distanced the divine from the human aspect of Christ.
[Thompson, 61][Paolettii, 50] From about 1240, painters favoured the ''
Christus patiens'' ("Suffering Christ") style: a saviour who shared the burden and pain of humanity. The Santa Croce ''Crucifix'' is one of the earliest and best known examples of the type.
The work surpasses Cimabue's c. 1268 Arezzo crucifix in several ways. It is more human and less reliant on idealised facial types,
[Paolettii, 52] and the anatomy is more convincing. Christ's face is longer and narrower, and his nose less idealised. These features, according to art historian Robert Gibbs, give him "a coarser but more personal expression".
A similar approach is taken with the cloth in the background of the cross itself, which although highly ornamented, lacks the lavish ornamentation of the equivalent cloth in the Arezzo cross.
His head hangs in exhaustion, and his hands bleed from the puncture wounds suffered during his nailing to the cross.
His arms are placed higher above his head and strain to carry the weight of his body, which visibly slumps.
His body takes on a dramatic, almost feminine curve, the result of the contortions forced upon a body nailed to a vertical support.
[Paolettii, 51]
The painting contains elements typical of Cimabue's representations of Christ, including the illusionism of the drapery folds, the large halo, long flowing hair, dark, angular faces and dramatic expressions. But in other respects it conforms to the then strict iconography of the thirteenth century. Typical of depictions of the crucified Christ of this era, with his outstretched arms he is as wide as he is long, conforming to prevalent ideals of proportions.
[Chiellini, 11]
Saints
Representations of
the Virgin and
John the Evangelist
John the Evangelist ( grc-gre, Ἰωάννης, Iōánnēs; Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ; ar, يوحنا الإنجيلي, la, Ioannes, he, יוחנן cop, ⲓⲱⲁⲛⲛⲏⲥ or ⲓⲱ̅ⲁ) is the name traditionally given t ...
flank Christ in small rectangular panels at either end of his outstretched arms. Both are dark-skinned, and bear agonised and sorrowful expressions as they rest their heads on their hands and face inwards towards Christ. In keeping with the Franciscan idea, the
gilding
Gilding is a decorative technique for applying a very thin coating of gold over solid surfaces such as metal (most common), wood, porcelain, or stone. A gilded object is also described as "gilt". Where metal is gilded, the metal below was tradi ...
surrounding the mourning saints is kept to a minimum. The size and positions of the figures are reduced compared to usual Byzantine iconography
to maintain sole focus on the passion of Christ.
[Hourihane, 229]
Their cloaks are simpler and lack the lavish gilding of the Arezzo crucifixion.
The Virgin wears a red dress. Her robe was originally blue, but has darkened.
Carpentry
The crucifix measures 448 cm x 390 cm and consists of five basic physical components; a
vertical board reaching from the base to the
cymatium
Cymatium, the uppermost molding at the top of the cornice in the classical order, is made of the s-shaped cyma molding (either ''cyma recta'' or ''cyma reversa''), combining a concave cavetto with a convex ovolo. It is characteristic of Ionic colu ...
onto which Christ is nailed, two horizontal cross-arms, and two vertical pieces acting as
aprons
An apron is a garment that is worn over other clothing to cover the front of the body. The word comes from old French ''napron'' meaning a small piece of cloth, however over time "a napron" became "an apron", through a linguistics process cal ...
adjacent to the central board. There are another eight minor pieces; mostly terminals, bases or framing devices.
[Brink, 646] The structure is reinforced by two full length vertical
batten
A batten is most commonly a strip of solid material, historically wood but can also be of plastic, metal, or fiberglass. Battens are variously used in construction, sailing, and other fields.
In the lighting industry, battens refer to linea ...
s. The horizontal cross-arms extend the full width of his outstretched body and are slotted into ridges in the vertical supports. The timber would have been cut and arranged by carpenters before Cimabue applied his design and paintwork.
Its dimensions are highly symmetrical and proportionate, probably influenced by the geometric ideals, ratios and rules of design of the ancient Greeks. The balance of measurements, especially between the width and height of the cross, seem derived from the sides and diagonals of squares, and
dynamic rectangle A dynamic rectangle is a right-angled, four-sided figure (a rectangle) with dynamic symmetry which, in this case, means that aspect ratio (width divided by height) is a distinguished value in dynamic symmetry, a proportioning system and natural des ...
s.
[Brink, 647] Cimabue was not rigid in his placement, however, and to accommodate the sway of Christ's body, altered the positioning of some of the boards on the lower half.
[Brink, 651]
Attribution
Due to lack of surviving documentation, it is difficult to attribute unsigned works from the period with any degree of certainty. The origin of the ''Crucifix'' has often been contested, but is generally thought to be by Cimabue based on stylistic traits and mentions by both
Vasari
Giorgio Vasari (, also , ; 30 July 1511 – 27 June 1574) was an Italian Renaissance Master, who worked as a painter, architect, engineer, writer, and historian, who is best known for his work ''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculpt ...
and
Nicolò Albertini
Nicolò Albertini, O.P. (c. 1250 – 27 April 1321), was an Italian Dominican friar, statesman, and cardinal.
Early life
Albertini was born about 1250 in the city of Prato, then in the County of Prato, part of the Holy Roman Empire, to parents ...
.
[Magill, 272] It is relatively primitive compared to his 1290s works and is thus believed to date from his early period. According to Vasari, the crucifix's success led to the commissions at
Pisa
Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the cit ...
,
Tuscany
Tuscany ( ; it, Toscana ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence (''Firenze'').
Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, art ...
that established his reputation.
Rejecting these views,
Joseph Archer Crowe
Sir Joseph Archer Crowe (25 October 1825, London – 6 September 1896, Werbach, Gamburg an der Tauber, today Werbach, Germany) was an England, English journalist, consular official and art historian, whose volumes of the ''History of Painti ...
and
Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle
Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle (22 January 1819 – 31 October 1897) was an Italian writer and art critic, best known as part of "Crowe and Cavalcaselle", for the many works in English on art history he co-authored with Joseph Archer Crowe. T ...
in 1903 concluded that the Santa Croce crucifix "in technical examination...makes some approach to the Florentine master, but it is rather of its time than by the master himself."
[Crowe; Cavalcaselle, 207]
1966 damage and restoration
![Cimabue Kruzifix ca](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Cimabue_Kruzifix_ca._1266_Santa_Croce_Florenz-1.jpg)
The crucifix was installed in the church of Santa Croce at the end of the thirteenth century. The church flooded in 1333 and 1557, but only experienced serious
flood damage in 1966 when the banks of the
Arno
The Arno is a river in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the most important river of central Italy after the Tiber.
Source and route
The river originates on Monte Falterona in the Casentino area of the Apennines, and initially takes a s ...
river
burst and flooded Florence. During the event thousands of artworks were damaged or destroyed and the ''Crucifix'' lost 60% of its paint. By 1966 it was returned to display at the lower Museo dell' Opera, which is at a lower elevation and closer to the waterline than the Santa Croce church, where it had been located during earlier floods. The water level reached the height of Christ's
halo
Halo, halos or haloes usually refer to:
* Halo (optical phenomenon)
* Halo (religious iconography), a ring of light around the image of a head
HALO, halo, halos or haloes may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment Video games
* ''Halo'' (franch ...
and took large tracts of paint when it retreated. The water deposited oil, mud and
naphtha
Naphtha ( or ) is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture.
Mixtures labelled ''naphtha'' have been produced from natural gas condensates, petroleum distillates, and the distillation of coal tar and peat. In different industries and regions ''n ...
on the wood frame,
[Brink, 645] which further swelled from soakage, forcing the panel to expand and bend, cracking the paint-work.
![Firenze (6276238939)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Firenze_%286276238939%29.jpg)
A team of
restorers led by conservators
Umberto Baldini
Umberto Baldini (November 9, 1921 – August 16, 2006) was an art historian and specialist in the theory of art restoration.
He earned a degree in art history with professor Mario Salmi, entered into service as inspector of the Soprintendenza of ...
and Ornella Casazza at the "Laboratario del Restauro" in Florence
[Messina, 3] spent ten years reapplying paint. Utilising computer modelling, they worked in an almost
pointillist
Pointillism (, ) is a technique of painting in which small, distinct dots of color are applied in patterns to form an image.
Georges Seurat and Paul Signac developed the technique in 1886, branching from Impressionism. The term "Pointillism" wa ...
manner. The tiny specks of pigment floating around the piece were recovered with pliers by staff wading in the water after the torrents had subsided.
The wooden frame had significantly weakened, and it was necessary to separate it from both the
gesso
Gesso (; "chalk", from the la, gypsum, from el, γύψος) is a white paint mixture consisting of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these. It is used in painting as a preparation for any number of substrates suc ...
and canvas to prevent
buckling
In structural engineering, buckling is the sudden change in shape (deformation) of a structural component under load, such as the bowing of a column under compression or the wrinkling of a plate under shear. If a structure is subjected to a gr ...
as the reapplied paint dried.
The Crucifix was put back on public display in 1976.
The restoration was covered by the international press.
Since restoration the work has been lent to galleries outside Italy, the first time it had left Florence since its creation. According to the critic
Waldemar Januszczak
Waldemar Januszczak (born 12 January 1954) is an English art critic and television documentary producer and presenter. Formerly the art critic of ''The Guardian'', he took the same role at ''The Sunday Times'' in 1992, and has twice won the Cr ...
, it was brought "around the globe in a curious, post-restoration state—part original artwork, part masterpiece of modern science... a thirteenth century—twentieth-century hybrid."
[Januszczak, 175-76]
References
Notes
Sources
* Bologna, Ferdinando. "The Crowning Disc of a Duecento 'Crucifixion' and Other Points Relevant to Duccio's Relationship to Cimabue". ''The Burlington Magazine'', Volume 125, No. 963, June 1983
* Brink, Joel. "Carpentry and Symmetry in Cimabue's Santa Croce Crucifix". ''The Burlington Magazine'', Volume 120, No. 907, October 1978
* Cecchi, Alessandro. In: ''The Uffizi: History of Italian Painting''. Cologne: Taschen, 2000.
* Cole, Bruce. ''Italian Art, 1250–1550: The Relation of Renaissance Art to Life and Society''. New York: Harper & Row, 1987
* Chiellini, Monica. ''Cimabue''. London: Scala Books, 1988.
*
Crowe, Joseph Archer;
Cavalcaselle, Giovanni Battista. "A History of Painting in Italy, Umbria, Florence and Sienna, from the Second to the Sixteenth Century". London: J. Murray, 1903
* Emmerson, Richard. ''Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia''. London: Routledge, 2006.
* Farthing, Stephen. ''1000 Paintings You Must See Before You Die''. London: Cassell Illustrated, 2011.
* Gibbs, Robert.
Cimabue. Grove Art Online, Oxford University Press.
* Hourihane, Colum. ''The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture, Volume 2''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
* Jacks, Philip (ed). In: ''
Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects
''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'' ( it, Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori), often simply known as ''The Lives'' ( it, Le Vite), is a series of artist biographies written by 16th-ce ...
''. Modern Library, 2007. ASIN: B000XU4UR6
*
Januszczak, Waldemar. ''Sayonara, Michelangelo: The Sistine Chapel Restored and Repackaged''. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990
* Kleinhenz, Christopher (ed). ''Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia''. Volume I: A-K. New York; London: Routledge, 2003.
* Magill, Frank. ''The Middle Ages: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 2: Middle Ages Vol 2''. London: Routledge, 1998.
* Messina, Isaac, "A New Approach to the Restoration of Cimabue's Santa Croce Crucifix". New York: Syracuse University Honors Program Capstone Projects, 2014
*
Osborne, Harold (ed). ''The Oxford Companion to Art''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.
* Paoletti, John; Radke, Gary M. ''Art in Renaissance Italy''. London: Laurence King, 2005.
*
Sylvester, David. ''Interviews with Francis Bacon''. London: Pantheon Books, 1975.
* Thompson, Nancy. "The Franciscans and the True Cross: The Decoration of the Cappella Maggiore of Santa Croce in Florence". ''Gesta'', Volume 43, No. 1, 2004
* Viladesau, Richard. ''The Beauty of the Cross: The Passion of Christ in Theology and the Arts, from the Catacombs to the Eve of the Renaissance''. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Crucifix (Cimabue, Santa Croce)
1260s paintings
Cimabue
Cimabue (; ; – 1302), Translated with an introduction and notes by J.C. and P Bondanella. Oxford: Oxford University Press (Oxford World’s Classics), 1991, pp. 7–14. . also known as Cenni di Pepo or Cenni di Pepi, was an Italian painter a ...
Paintings by Cimabue
Paintings in Florence
Paintings of the Virgin Mary
Rood crosses
Paintings depicting John the Apostle