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Corinthian bronze, also named Corinthian brass or aes Corinthiacum, was a highly valuable
metal A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...
alloy An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, ...
in
classical antiquity Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
. It is thought to be an alloy of
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
with
gold Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
or
silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
(or both), although it has also been contended that it was simply a very high grade of
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such ...
, or a kind of bronze that was manufactured in
Corinth Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part o ...
. It is referred to in various ancient texts, but no certain examples of Corinthian bronze exist today. However, it has been increasingly suggested that a number of artefacts previously described as
niello Niello is a black mixture, usually of sulphur, copper, silver, and lead, used as an inlay on engraved or etched metal, especially silver. It is added as a powder or paste, then fired until it melts or at least softens, and flows or is pushed ...
in fact use a technique of
patina Patina ( or ) is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of copper, brass, bronze and similar metals and metal alloys (tarnish produced by oxidation or other chemical processes) or certain stones and wooden furniture (sheen produced b ...
ted metal that may be the same as Corinthian bronze and is similar to the Japanese
Shakudō ''Shakudō'' (赤銅) is a Japanese billon of gold and copper (typically 4–10% gold, 96–90% copper), one of the ''irogane'' class of colored metals, which can be treated to develop a black, or sometimes indigo, patina, resembling lacquer. Un ...
. Its composition was long a mystery, but contemporary thinking is that Corinthian bronze was "a patinated alloy of copper with some gold and silver", perhaps the same as the ''hesmen kem'' or "black copper" of
Ancient Egyptian art Ancient Egyptian art refers to art produced in ancient Egypt between the 6th millennium BC and the 4th century AD, spanning from Prehistoric Egypt until the Christianization of Roman Egypt. It includes paintings, sculptu ...
. This is shown by ancient texts to be a prestigious material, and apparently survives in a number of statuettes of "distinctive black-patinated, inlaid metal", of which scientific analysis shows "that some have a highly unusual composition containing small amounts of gold, silver and arsenic in the alloy", and are broadly similar to Shakudō.Craddock


Classical antiquity

Of the known types of bronze or
brass Brass is an alloy of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), in proportions which can be varied to achieve different mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties. It is a substitutional alloy: atoms of the two constituents may replace each other with ...
, not distinguished in classical antiquity and interchangeably known in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
as ''aes'' and in
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
as χαλκός, Corinthian bronze was the most valuable. Statues, vases and vessels, or other objects formed of this metal were priceless, of greater value than if they had been made of silver or gold. Brewer, E. Cobham.
Corinthian Brass
" '' Dictionary of Phrase & Fable.'' 1898.
Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...
distinguished it into three kinds, depending on the metal that is added to the copper base: in the first, gold is added ('' luteum''); in the second, silver ('' candidum''); in the third, gold, silver, and copper are equally blended.Pliny's chapter on Corinthian Brass
from '' Natural History''. English translation.
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
and
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
both comment that Corinthian bronze, unlike many other copper alloys, is resistant to tarnishing. Pliny also refers to a fourth, dark alloy, known as
hepatizon ''Hepatizon'' (Greek etymology: , English translation: "liver"), also known as black Corinthian bronze, was a highly valuable metal alloy in classical antiquity. It is thought to be an alloy of copper with the addition of a small proportion of g ...
.
Petronius Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
According to legend, Corinthian bronze was first created by accident, during the burning of Corinth by
Lucius Mummius Achaicus Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC), was a Roman statesman and general. He was consul in the year 146 BC along with Scipio Aemilianus. Mummius was the first of his family to rise to the rank of consul thereby making him a novus homo. He received the ...
in 146 BC, when the city's immense quantities of gold, silver, and copper melted together. Pliny however, remarked that this story is unbelievable, because most of the creators of the highly valued works in Corinthian bronze in
Ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
lived at a much earlier period than second century BC. According to Pliny, the method of making it had been lost for a long time,Yeo, Richard (1999). "Brass", p. 435 in ''
The Edinburgh Encyclopedia ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
''. . although some sources describe the process by which it is created, involving
heat treatment Heat treating (or heat treatment) is a group of industrial, thermal and metalworking processes used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also ...
,
quenching In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a workpiece in water, oil, polymer, air, or other fluids to obtain certain material properties. A type of heat treating, quenching prevents undesired low-temperature processes, such as pha ...
,
leaching Leaching is the loss or extraction of certain materials from a carrier into a liquid (usually, but not always a solvent). and may refer to: * Leaching (agriculture), the loss of water-soluble plant nutrients from the soil; or applying a small amou ...
, and burnishing, in a process similar to
depletion gilding Depletion gilding is a method for producing a layer of nearly pure gold on an object made of gold alloy by removing the other metals from its surface. It is sometimes referred to as a "surface enrichment" process. Process Most gilding methods are a ...
. The lost ability to give an object made from bronze the appearance of gold or silver may be one strand behind the later
alchemical Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
quest to turn
base metal A base metal is a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to a precious metal such as gold or silver. In numismatics, coins often derived their value from the precious metal content; however, base metals have also been used in coins in the past ...
s into
precious metal Precious metals are rare, naturally occurring metallic chemical elements of high economic value. Chemically, the precious metals tend to be less reactive than most elements (see noble metal). They are usually ductile and have a high lustre. ...
s.


Outside classical antiquity

Articles made of Corinthian bronze are mentioned in the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
. The Beautiful Gate (or Nicanor Gate) of the
Second Temple The Second Temple (, , ), later known as Herod's Temple, was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem between and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple, which had been built at the same location in the United Kingdom of Israel before being inherited ...
in
Jerusalem Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, mentioned in the
Book of Acts The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message ...
3:2–10, was a large, 18 metre (60 feet) wide structure said to be either solid, or covered in plates of, Corinthian brass. Another Biblical reference, in
Book of Ezra The Book of Ezra is a book of the Hebrew Bible; which formerly included the Book of Nehemiah in a single book, commonly distinguished in scholarship as Ezra–Nehemiah. The two became separated with the first printed rabbinic bibles of the earl ...
8:27, is usually translated "fine copper
r bronze R, or r, is the eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ar'' (pronounced ), plural ''ars'', or in Irelan ...
precious as gold". Similar alloys are found outside Europe. The Hông-hee vases (1426) of China were said to be made of a similarly mixed metal allegedly formed when the Imperial palace was burnt to the ground. These vessels are of priceless value. An alloy of gold and copper, known as
tumbaga ''Tumbaga'' is the name for a non-specific alloy of gold and copper given by Spanish Conquistadors to metals composed of these elements found in widespread use in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica in North America and South America. The term is believe ...
was in widespread use in
Pre-columbian In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
, and has an essentially identical composition to Corinthian brass. A similar
metallurgical Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the sc ...
process for "the colouration hrôsisof gold" is described in the 15th recipe in the
Leyden papyrus X The Leyden papyrus X (P. Leyden X) is a papyrus codex written in Greek at about the end of the 3rd century A.D.E.R.Caley, ''The Leyden Paprus X: An English Translation with Brief Notes''p.1149 "These two papyri have, however, upon the basis of unqu ...
, from Thebes in
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
, dated to the 4th century AD.


Quotations


See also

*
electrum Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, with trace amounts of copper and other metals. Its color ranges from pale to bright yellow, depending on the proportions of gold and silver. It has been produced artificially, and ...
– a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, often with trace amounts of copper, often used in antiquity *
hepatizon ''Hepatizon'' (Greek etymology: , English translation: "liver"), also known as black Corinthian bronze, was a highly valuable metal alloy in classical antiquity. It is thought to be an alloy of copper with the addition of a small proportion of g ...
– a similar bronze alloy with a dark patina, also known in classical antiquity and sometimes identified as a sub-type of Corinthian bronze *
orichalcum Orichalcum or aurichalcum is a metal mentioned in several ancient writings, including the story of Atlantis in the ''Critias'' of Plato. Within the dialogue, Critias (460–403 BC) claims that orichalcum had been considered second only to gol ...
– another metal mentioned in ancient texts, later used to refer to brass *
panchaloha ''Panchaloha'' ( sa, पञ्चलोह), also called ''Pañcadhātu'' ( sa, पञ्चधातु, lit=five metals), is a term for traditional five-metal alloys of sacred significance, used for making Hinduism, Hindu temple ''murti'' and j ...
*
thokcha ''Thokcha'' (; also alternatively ) are tektites and meteorites which serve as amulets. Typically high in iron content, these are traditionally believed to contain a magical, protective power comparable to Tibetan dzi beads. Most ''thokcha'' ...
, also known as "thunderbolt iron" –
meteoric iron Meteoric iron, sometimes meteoritic iron, is a native metal and early-universe protoplanetary-disk remnant found in meteorites and made from the elements iron and nickel, mainly in the form of the mineral phases kamacite and taenite. Meteoric iro ...
, ancient small metal objects made from this material, or made from an alloy including this material, or imitations of same; of religious significance in
Tibetan culture Tibet developed a distinct culture due to its geographic and climatic conditions. While influenced by neighboring cultures from China, India, and Nepal, the Himalayan region's remoteness and inaccessibility have preserved distinct local i ...
and culturally-related areas *
tumbaga ''Tumbaga'' is the name for a non-specific alloy of gold and copper given by Spanish Conquistadors to metals composed of these elements found in widespread use in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica in North America and South America. The term is believe ...
*
shakudō ''Shakudō'' (赤銅) is a Japanese billon of gold and copper (typically 4–10% gold, 96–90% copper), one of the ''irogane'' class of colored metals, which can be treated to develop a black, or sometimes indigo, patina, resembling lacquer. Un ...
– a Japanese
billon (alloy) Billon () is an alloy of a precious metal (most commonly silver, but also gold) with a majority base metal content (such as copper). It is used chiefly for making coins, medals, and token coins. The word comes from the French ''bille'', which ...
of gold and copper with a dark blue-purple patina *
shibuichi is a historically Japanese copper alloy, a member of the ''irogane'' class, which is patinated into a range of subtle greys and muted shades of blue, green, and brown, through the use of ''niiro'' processes, involving the ''rokushō'' compound. ...


Notes


References

*Craddock, Paul and Giumlia-Mair, Allessandra, "Hsmn-Km, Corinthian bronze, Shakudo: black patinated bronze in the ancient world", Chapter 9 in ''Metal Plating and Patination: Cultural, technical and historical developments'', Ed. Susan La-Niece, 2013, Elsevier, {{ISBN, 1483292061, 9781483292069
P. T., "Metal" V. 4 and 5, ''Grove Art Online
'', Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 1 Oct. 2017
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External links


Aes
from Harry Thurston Peck, ''Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities'' (1898) Copper alloys Precious metal alloys Corinth Hellenistic and Roman bronzes, * History of metallurgy Ancient Greek metalwork