Constantius II (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
: ''Flavius Julius Constantius''; grc-gre, Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was
Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the
Sasanian Empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...
and
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples were historical groups of people that once occupied Central Europe and Scandinavia during antiquity and into the early Middle Ages. Since the 19th century, they have traditionally been defined by the use of ancient and ear ...
, while internally the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Medite ...
went through repeated civil wars, court intrigues, and
usurpations. His religious policies inflamed domestic conflicts that would continue after his death.
Constantius was a son of
Constantine the Great
Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...
, who elevated him to the imperial rank of ''
Caesar'' on 8 November 324 and after whose death Constantius became ''
Augustus'' together with his brothers,
Constantine II and
Constans on 9 September 337. He promptly oversaw the massacre of his
father-in-law, an
uncle, and several cousins, consolidating his hold on power. The brothers divided the empire among themselves, with Constantius receiving
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wit ...
,
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...
, the Asian provinces, and
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Med ...
in the east. For the following decade a costly and inconclusive
war against
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkme ...
took most of Constantius's time and attention. In the meantime, his brothers Constantine and Constans warred over the western provinces of the empire, leaving the former dead in 340 and the latter as sole ruler of the west. The two remaining brothers maintained an uneasy peace with each other until, in 350, Constans was overthrown and assassinated by the usurper
Magnentius.
Unwilling to accept Magnentius as co-ruler, Constantius waged a
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government polic ...
against the usurper, defeating him at the battles of
Mursa Major in 351 and
Mons Seleucus in 353. Magnentius committed suicide after the latter battle, leaving Constantius as sole ruler of the empire. In 351, Constantius elevated his cousin
Constantius Gallus to the subordinate rank of ''Caesar'' to rule in the east, but had him executed three years later after receiving scathing reports of his violent and corrupt nature. Shortly thereafter, in 355, Constantius promoted his last surviving cousin, Gallus' younger half-brother
Julian
Julian may refer to:
People
* Julian (emperor) (331–363), Roman emperor from 361 to 363
* Julian (Rome), referring to the Roman gens Julia, with imperial dynasty offshoots
* Saint Julian (disambiguation), several Christian saints
* Julian (give ...
, to the rank of ''Caesar''.
As emperor, Constantius promoted
Arian heresy
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
, banned pagan sacrifices, and issued laws against
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
. His military campaigns against Germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the
Alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , ...
against the
Quadi
The Quadi were a Germanic
*
*
*
people who lived approximately in the area of modern Moravia in the time of the Roman Empire. The only surviving contemporary reports about the Germanic tribe are those of the Romans, whose empire had its bord ...
and
Sarmatians in 357. The war against the Sasanians, which had been in a lull since 350, erupted with renewed intensity in 359 and Constantius travelled to the east in 360 to restore stability after the loss of several border fortresses. However, Julian claimed the rank of ''Augustus'' in 360, leading to war between the two after Constantius' attempts to persuade Julian to back down failed. No battle was fought, as Constantius became ill and died of fever on 3 November 361 in
Mopsuestia, allegedly naming Julian as his rightful successor before his death.
Early life
Constantius was born in 317 at
Sirmium,
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
. He was the third son of
Constantine the Great
Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to convert to Christianity. Born in Naissus, Dacia Mediterran ...
, and second by his second wife
Fausta, the daughter of
Maximian
Maximian ( la, Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus; c. 250 – c. July 310), nicknamed ''Herculius'', was Roman emperor from 286 to 305. He was ''Caesar'' from 285 to 286, then ''Augustus'' from 286 to 305. He shared the latter title with his ...
. Constantius was made ''caesar'' by his father on 8 November 324. In 336, religious unrest in
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ...
and tense relations between Constantine and king
Shapur II caused war to break out between Rome and
Sassanid Persia.
[Dodgeon, M.H. and Lieu, N.C. ''The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, AD 226–363''. pp. 152–153] Though he made initial preparations for the war, Constantine fell ill and sent Constantius east to take command of the eastern frontier.
Before Constantius arrived, the Persian general Narses, who was possibly the king's brother, overran
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
and captured
Amida. Constantius promptly attacked Narses, and after suffering minor setbacks defeated and killed Narses at the Battle of Narasara. Constantius captured Amida and initiated a major refortification of the city, enhancing the city's circuit walls and constructing large towers. He also built a new stronghold in the hinterland nearby, naming it ''Antinopolis''.
Augustus in the East
In early 337, Constantius hurried to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth ( Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
after receiving news that his father was near death. After Constantine died, Constantius buried him with lavish ceremony in the
Church of the Holy Apostles. Soon after his father's death Constantius supposedly ordered a massacre of his relatives descended from the second marriage of his paternal grandfather
Constantius Chlorus (also known as Constantius I), though the details are unclear.
Eutropius, writing between 350 and 370, states that Constantius merely sanctioned “''the act, rather than commanding it''”.
[ Eutropius, ''Historiae Romanae Breviarium'' X.9] The massacre killed two of Constantius' uncles and six of his cousins, including
Hannibalianus and
Dalmatius, rulers of
Pontus and
Moesia
Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; el, Μοισία, Moisía) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Alban ...
respectively. The massacre left Constantius, his older brother
Constantine II, his younger brother
Constans, and three cousins
Gallus,
Julian
Julian may refer to:
People
* Julian (emperor) (331–363), Roman emperor from 361 to 363
* Julian (Rome), referring to the Roman gens Julia, with imperial dynasty offshoots
* Saint Julian (disambiguation), several Christian saints
* Julian (give ...
and
Nepotianus as the only surviving male relatives of Constantine the Great.
Soon after, Constantius met his brothers in
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
at
Sirmium to formalize the partition of the empire. Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople,
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...
,
Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The ...
,
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country lo ...
,
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Med ...
, and
Cyrenaica; Constantine received
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Gr ...
,
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only durin ...
,
Hispania, and
Mauretania
Mauretania (; ) is the Latin name for a region in the ancient Maghreb. It stretched from central present-day Algeria westwards to the Atlantic, covering northern present-day Morocco, and southward to the Atlas Mountains. Its native inhabitants, ...
; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
,
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
,
Illyricum,
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
,
Macedonia
Macedonia most commonly refers to:
* North Macedonia, a country in southeastern Europe, known until 2019 as the Republic of Macedonia
* Macedonia (ancient kingdom), a kingdom in Greek antiquity
* Macedonia (Greece), a traditional geographic reg ...
, and
Achaea.
Constantius then hurried east to
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
to resume the
war with Persia.
[Theodoret, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' II, 30, 1–14, GCS] While Constantius was away from the eastern frontier in early 337, King
Shapur II assembled a large army, which included war elephants, and launched an attack on Roman territory, laying waste to Mesopotamia and putting the city of Nisibis under siege. Despite initial success, Shapur lifted his siege after his army missed an opportunity to exploit a collapsed wall.
When Constantius learned of Shapur's withdrawal from Roman territory, he prepared his army for a counter-attack.
Constantius repeatedly defended the eastern border against invasions by the aggressive
Sassanid Empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
under Shapur. These conflicts were mainly limited to Sassanid sieges of the major fortresses of
Roman Mesopotamia, including
Nisibis (
Nusaybin),
Singara, and
Amida (
Diyarbakir). Although Shapur seems to have been victorious in most of these confrontations, the Sassanids were able to achieve little.
[ Festus, ''Brevarium'' XXVII][Dignas, B. & Winter, E., ''Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity'' (2007), p. 89] However, the Romans won a decisive victory at the Battle of Narasara, killing Shapur's brother, Narses.
Ultimately, Constantius was able to push back the invasion, and Shapur failed to make any significant gains.
Meanwhile, Constantine II desired to retain control of Constans' realm, leading the brothers into open conflict. Constantine was killed in 340 near
Aquileia during an ambush.
As a result, Constans took control of his deceased brother's realms and became sole ruler of the Western two-thirds of the empire. This division lasted until 350, when Constans was assassinated by forces loyal to the
usurper Magnentius.
War against Magnentius
As the only surviving son of Constantine the Great, Constantius felt that the position of emperor was his alone,
[Zosimus, ''New History'' II.60] and he determined to march west to fight the usurper,
Magnentius. However, feeling that the east still required some sort of imperial presence, he elevated his cousin
Constantius Gallus to ''caesar'' of the eastern provinces. As an extra measure to ensure the loyalty of his cousin, he married the elder of his two sisters,
Constantina, to him.
Before facing Magnentius, Constantius first came to terms with
Vetranio, a loyal general in
Illyricum who had recently been acclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Vetranio immediately sent letters to Constantius pledging his loyalty, which Constantius may have accepted simply in order to stop Magnentius from gaining more support. These events may have been spurred by the action of Constantina, who had since traveled east to marry Gallus. Constantius subsequently sent Vetranio the imperial diadem and acknowledged the general's new position as ''augustus''. However, when Constantius arrived, Vetranio willingly resigned his position and accepted Constantius’ offer of a comfortable retirement in
Bithynia.
In 351, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
with a large army. The ensuing
Battle of Mursa Major was one of the largest and bloodiest battles ever between two Roman armies. The result was a victory for Constantius, but a costly one. Magnentius survived the battle and, determined to fight on, withdrew into northern Italy. Rather than pursuing his opponent, however, Constantius turned his attention to securing the Danubian border, where he spent the early months of 352 campaigning against the
Sarmatians along the middle
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , ...
. After achieving his aims, Constantius advanced on Magnentius in Italy. This action led the cities of Italy to switch their allegiance to him and eject the usurper's garrisons. Again, Magnentius withdrew, this time to southern
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only durin ...
.
[Potter, D.S., ''The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395'' (2004), p. 474]
In 353, Constantius and Magnentius met for the final time at the
Battle of Mons Seleucus in southern Gaul, and again Constantius emerged the victor.
Magnentius, realizing the futility of continuing his position, committed suicide on 10 August 353.
Sole ruler of the empire
Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the
Alamanni on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus. Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to
Mediolanum (
Milan
Milan ( , , Lombard language, Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the List of cities in Italy, second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4  ...
).
In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned
Ursicinus, Gallus’ ''
magister equitum
The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nomi ...
'', for reasons that remain unclear. Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina.
[ Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.6] Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in
Bithynia,
Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius’ agents, Gallus continued his journey west, passing through
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth ( Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis ( ...
and
Thrace
Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to ...
to
Poetovio (
Ptuj
Ptuj (; german: Pettau, ; la, Poetovium/Poetovio) is a town in northeastern Slovenia that is the seat of the Municipality of Ptuj. Ptuj, the oldest recorded city in Slovenia, has been inhabited since the late Stone Age and developed from a Roman ...
) in
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
.
In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of
Barbatio. Gallus was then moved to
Pola and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces. This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus' execution. He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order. Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by
Eusebius
Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilus (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμφίλου), was a Greek historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christ ...
, one of Constantius' eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.
Religious issues
Paganism
Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan
sacrifice
Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly ex ...
s, and for the worshipping of
idols.
[Kirsch, J. (2004) ''God against the Gods'', pp.200-1, Viking Compass][''The Codex Theodosianus On Religion'', 16.10.2][Theodosian Code 16.10.6] Pagan temples were shut down,
and the
Altar of Victory
The Altar of Victory () was located in the Roman Senate House (the Curia) and bore a gold statue of the goddess Victory. The altar was established by Octavian (later Augustus) in 29 BC to commemorate the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battl ...
was removed from the Senate meeting house.
[Sheridan, J.J. (1966) ''The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle.'' in L'Antiquite Classique 35 : 186-187.] There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.
[ Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'' 22.4.3][Theodosian Code 16.10.3][Theodosian Code 9.17.2]
Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates.
["A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter ]
[ Ammianus Marcellinus ''Res Gestae'' 9.10, 19.12. quote summary: Ammianus describes Pagan sacrifices and worship taking place openly in ]Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandr ...
and Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
. The Roman Calendar
The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. The term often includes the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the Roman dictator, dictator Julius Caesar and Roman emperor, emperor Augustus in the ...
of 354 cites many Pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed. See also the descriptions of Pagan worship in the following works: Firmicius Maternus De Errore Profanorum Religionum; Vetus Orbis Descriptio Graeci Scriptoris sub Constantio.[Bowder, D. (1978) ''The Age of Constantine and Julian'']
In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the
Vestal Virgins. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.
[Vasiliev, A.A, ''History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453'' (1958), p. 68] Also, he remained
pontifex maximus and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of
Gratian, that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.
Christianity
Although often considered an
Arian, Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between
Arianism and the
Nicene Creed
The original Nicene Creed (; grc-gre, Σύμβολον τῆς Νικαίας; la, Symbolum Nicaenum) was first adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. In 381, it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople. The amended form is a ...
, retrospectively called
Semi-Arianism. During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian
A.H.M. Jones
Arnold Hugh Martin Jones FBA (9 March 1904 – 9 April 1970) (known as A. H. M. Jones or Hugo Jones) was a prominent 20th-century British historian of classical antiquity, particularly of the later Roman Empire.
Biography
Jones's best-known w ...
. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned
ecumenical in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church."
[Jones, A.H.M, ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), p. 118.]
Judaism
Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.
[Schäfer, P., ''The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World'' (2003), pp. 180–1] This included edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people
[ Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2] and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women.
Later edicts sought to discourage conversions from Christianity to Judaism by confiscating the
apostate's property.
[ Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7] However, Constantius' actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.
Further crises
On 11 August 355, the ''
magister militum
(Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, ...
''
Claudius Silvanus revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the
Battle of Mursa Major. Constantius had made him ''magister militum'' in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius' court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt.
Ursicinus, who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed.
Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355, he elevated his last remaining male relative,
Julian
Julian may refer to:
People
* Julian (emperor) (331–363), Roman emperor from 361 to 363
* Julian (Rome), referring to the Roman gens Julia, with imperial dynasty offshoots
* Saint Julian (disambiguation), several Christian saints
* Julian (give ...
, to the rank of ''caesar''. A few days later, Julian was married to
Helena
Helena may refer to:
People
*Helena (given name), a given name (including a list of people and characters with the name)
*Katri Helena (born 1945), Finnish singer
*Helena, mother of Constantine I
Places
Greece
* Helena (island)
Guyana
* ...
, the last surviving sister of Constantius.
[ Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' XV.8.18] Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul.
Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In 357 he visited
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced
Sarmatian and
Quadi
The Quadi were a Germanic
*
*
*
people who lived approximately in the area of modern Moravia in the time of the Roman Empire. The only surviving contemporary reports about the Germanic tribe are those of the Romans, whose empire had its bord ...
invaders out of Pannonia and
Moesia Inferior
Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; el, Μοισία, Moisía) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River, which included most of the territory of modern eastern Serbia, Kosovo, north-eastern Alban ...
, then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.
In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from
Shapur II who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by
Narseh. Despite rejecting these terms, Constantius tried to avert war with the
Sassanid Empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
by sending two embassies to Shapur II. Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed
Singara (
Sinjar), and taken
Kiphas (
Hasankeyf), Amida (Diyarbakır), and Ad Tigris (
Cizre), he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat.
Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east
In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the
Alamanni, who had once again invaded
Roman Gaul. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian ''augustus''.
On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of ''augustus'' and be satisfied with that of ''caesar''. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the
Sassanids remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris. After a time he had withdrawn to
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with
Shapur II. The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.
[Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., ''Coinage and History of the Roman Empire'' (2001), p. 508]
Death
Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached
Mopsuestia in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the
Semi-Arian bishop of
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
, and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.
Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.
Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the
Church of the Holy Apostles, in a
porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the ''
De Ceremoniis''.
Marriages and children
Constantius II was married three times:
First to a
daughter of his half-uncle
Julius Constantius, whose name is unknown. She was a full-sister of Gallus and a half-sister of Julian. She died c. 352/3.
Second, to
Eusebia, a woman of
Macedonian
Macedonian most often refers to someone or something from or related to Macedonia.
Macedonian(s) may specifically refer to:
People Modern
* Macedonians (ethnic group), a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with North M ...
origin, originally from the city of
Thessalonica, whom Constantius married before his defeat of Magnentius in 353. She died in 360.
Third and lastly, in 360, to
Faustina, who gave birth to Constantius' only child, a posthumous daughter named
Flavia Maxima Constantia, who later married Emperor
Gratian.
Family tree
Emperors are shown with a rounded-corner border with their dates as
Augusti
''Augustus'' (plural ''Augusti''; , ; "majestic", "great" or "venerable") was an ancient Roman title given as both name and title to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (often referred to simply as Augustus), Rome's first Emperor. On his death, it ...
, names with a thicker border appear in both sections
1: Constantine's parents and half-siblings
2: Constantine's children
Reputation
Constantius II is a particularly difficult figure to judge properly due to the hostility of most sources toward him. A. H. M. Jones writes that Constantius "appears in the pages of
Ammianus as a conscientious emperor but a vain and stupid man, an easy prey to flatterers. He was timid and suspicious, and interested persons could easily play on his fears for their own advantage." However, Kent and M. and A. Hirmer suggest that Constantius "has suffered at the hands of unsympathetic authors, ecclesiastical and civil alike. To orthodox churchmen he was a bigoted supporter of the Arian heresy, to
Julian the Apostate
Julian ( la, Flavius Claudius Julianus; grc-gre, Ἰουλιανός ; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplato ...
and the many who have subsequently taken his part he was a murderer, a tyrant and inept as a ruler". They go on to add, "Most contemporaries seem in fact to have held him in high esteem, and he certainly inspired loyalty in a way his brother could not".
[Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. ''Roman Coins'' (1978), p. 54]
See also
*
Persian wars of Constantius II
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of ...
*
Itineraries of the Roman emperors, 337–363
This article chronicles the attested movements of the fourth-century Roman emperors Constantine II (referred to here as Constantinus), Constantius II (referred to here as Constantius), Constans, Gallus, and Julian the Apostate from 337 to 361 ...
References
Sources
Ancient sources
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**Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''History''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
**Hamilton, Walter, trans. ''The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354–378)''. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.
bridged edition
Bridging may refer to:
Construction
* Building of bridges across a gap
* Cross bracing used between joists to stabilize them
Electronics and computing
* In electronics, using a low source impedance to drive a large load impedance for maximum vo ...
*Athanasius of Alexandria.
**''Festal Index''.
***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''Festal Letters''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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**''Epistula encyclica'' (''Encyclical letter''). Summer 339.
***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''Encyclical letter''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
an
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**''Apologia Contra Arianos'' (''Defense against the Arians''). 349.
***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''Apologia Contra Arianos''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 14 August 2009.
**''Apologia ad Constantium'' (''Defense before Constantius''). 353.
***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''Apologia ad Constantium''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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**''Historia Arianorum'' (''History of the Arians''). 357.
***Atkinson, M., and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''Historia Arianorum''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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**''De Synodis'' (''On the Councils of Arminium and Seleucia''). Autumn 359.
***Newman, John Henry and Archibald Robertson, trans. ''De Synodis''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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**''Historia acephala''. 368 – c. 420.
***Robertson, Archibald, trans. ''Historia Acephala''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
an
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*''Chronica minora'' 1, 2.
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*''Codex Theodosianus''.
**Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. ''Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes''
2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann,
905
__NOTOC__
Year 905 ( CMV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Europe
* Spring – King Berengar I of Italy arranges a truce with the Hungarians, on p ...
1954. Complied by Nicholas Palmer, revised by
Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R.W.B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online a
University College Londonand th
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**Unknown edition (in Latin). Online a
AncientRome.ru Accessed 15 August 2009.
*''Codex Justinianus''.
**Scott, Samuel P., trans. ''The Code of Justinian'', in ''The Civil Law''. 17 vols. 1932. Online at th
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*Ephraem the Syrian. ''Carmina Nisibena'' (''Songs of Nisibis'').
**Stopford, J.T. Sarsfield, trans. ''The Nisibene Hymns''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 13. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 16 August 2009.
**Bickell, Gustav, trans. ''S. Ephraemi Syri Carmina Nisibena: additis prolegomenis et supplemento lexicorum Syriacorum'' (in Latin). Lipetsk: Brockhaus, 1866. Online a
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*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online a
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*Eunapius. ''Lives of the Sophists''.
*Eusebius of Caesarea.
**''Oratio de Laudibus Constantini'' (''Oration in Praise of Constantine'', sometimes the ''Tricennial Oration'').
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Oration in Praise of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 16 August 2009.
**''Vita Constantini'' (''Life of Constantine'').
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 25 August 2009.
*
Eutropius. ''Historiae Romanae Breviarium''.
**Watson, John Selby, trans. ''Abridgment of Roman History''. London: George Bell & Sons, 1886. Revised and edited for Tertullian by Roger Pearse, 2003. Online a
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*Festus. ''Breviarium''.
**Banchich, Thomas M., and Jennifer A. Meka, trans. ''Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the Roman People''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 2. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2001. Online a
. Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Firmicus Maternus. ''De errore profanarum religionum'' (''On the error of profane religions'').
**Baluzii and Rigaltii, eds. ''Divi Cæcilii Cypriani, Carthaginensis Episcopi, Opera Omnia; accessit J. Firmici Materni, Viri Clarissimi, De Errore Profanarum Religionum'' (in Latin). Paris: Gauthier Brothers and the Society of Booksellers, 1836. Online a
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*Hilary of Poitiers. ''Ad Constantium'' (''To Constantius'').
**Feder, Alfred Leonhard, ed. ''S. Hilarii episcopi Pictaviensis Tractatus mysteriorum. Collectanea Antiariana Parisina (fragmenta historica) cum appendice (liber I Ad Constantium). Liber ad Constantium imperatorem (Liber II ad Constantium). Hymni. Fragmenta minora. Spuria'' (in Latin). In the ''Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum'', Vol. 65. Vienna: Tempsky, 1916.
*''Itinerarium Alexandri'' (''Itinerary of Alexander'').
**Mai, Angelo, ed. ''Itinerarium Alexandri ad Constantium Augustum, Constantini M. Filium'' (in Latin). Regiis Typis, 1818. Online a
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**Davies, Iolo, trans. ''Itinerary of Alexander''. 2009. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Jerome.
**''Chronicon'' (''Chronicle'').
***Pearse, Roger, ''et al.'', trans. ''The Chronicle of St. Jerome'', in ''Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts''. Tertullian, 2005. Online a
Accessed 14 August 2009.
**''de Viris Illustribus'' (''On Illustrious Men'').
***Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men)''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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*Julian.
**
Wright, Wilmer Cave, trans. ''Works of the Emperor Julian''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1913. Online at the Internet Archive
Vol. 123
*Libanius. ''Oratio'' 59 (''Oration'' 59).
**M.H. Dodgeon, trans. ''The Sons of Constantine: Libanius Or. LIX''. In ''From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A Source History'', edited by S.N.C. Lieu and
Dominic Montserrat, 164–205. London: Routledge, 1996.
*''Origo Constantini Imperatoris''.
**Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''Excerpta Valesiana'', in vol. 3 of Rolfe's translation of Ammianus Marcellinus' ''History''. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1952. Online a
LacusCurtius Accessed 16 August 2009.
*''
Papyri Abinnaeus''.
**''The Abinnaeus Archive: Papers of a Roman Officer in the Reign of Constantius II'' (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online a
Perseusand th
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*''Papyri Laurentius''.
**''Dai Papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana'' (in Greek). Duke Data Bank of Documentary Papyri. Online a
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Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Philostorgius. ''Historia Ecclesiastica''.
**Walford, Edward, trans. ''Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius, Compiled by Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople''. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Socrates. ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').
**Zenos, A.C., trans. ''Ecclesiastical History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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*Sozomen. ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').
**Hartranft, Chester D. ''Ecclesiastical History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 2. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
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*Sulpicius Severus. ''Sacred History''.
**Roberts, Alexander, trans. ''Sacred History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 11. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1894. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 14 August 2009.
*Theodoret. ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''History of the Church'').
**Jackson, Blomfield, trans. ''Ecclesiastical History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Themistius. ''Orationes'' (''Orations'').
*
Theophanes. ''Chronicle''.
*
Zonaras. ''Extracts of History''.
*Zosimus. ''Historia Nova'' (''New History'').
**Unknown trans. ''The History of Count Zosimus''. London: Green and Champlin, 1814. Online a
Tertullian Accessed 15 August 2009.
n unsatisfactory edition.
N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''.
History
...
**Unknown trans. ''Histoire Nouvelle'' and ''ΖΩΣΙΜΟΥ ΚΟΜΙΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΑΠΟΦΙΣΚΟΣΥΝΗΓΟΡΟΥ'' (in French and Greek). Online at th
Catholic University of Louvain Accessed 16 November 2009.
Modern sources
* Baker-Brian, N. and Tougher, S., ''The Sons of Constantine, AD 337-361: In the Shadows of Constantine and Julian'' (Palgrave MacMillan, 2020)
* Banchich, T.M., 'DIR-Gallus' from ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'
* Dignas, B. & Winter, E., ''Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007)
* DiMaio, M., and Frakes, R.
from ''
De Imperatoribus Romanis''
* Gaddis, M., ''There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ'' (University of California Press, 2005).„
* Hunt, ''Constantius II in the Ecclesiastical Historians'', Ph.D. diss. (Fordham University, 2010), AAT 3431914.
* Jones, A.H.M, ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: a Social, Economic and Administrative Survey'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986)
*
* Kent, J.P.C., Hirmer, M. & Hirmer, A. ''Roman Coins'' (Thames and Hudson, 1978)
* Moser, Muriel. 2018. Emperor and Senators in the Reign of Constantius II. Cambridge University Press.
* Odahl, C.M., ''Constantine and the Christian Empire'' (Routledge, 2004)
* Pelikan, J.J., ''The Christian Tradition'' (University of Chicago, 1989)
* Potter, D.S., ''The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395'' (Routledge, 2004)
* Salzman, M.R., ''The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire'' (Harvard University Press, 2002)
* Schäfer, P., ''The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World'' (Routledge, 2003)
*
* Vagi, D.L. & Coquand, T., ''Coinage and History of the Roman Empire'' (Taylor & Francis, 2001)
* Vasiliev, A.A., ''History of the Byzantine Empire 324–1453'' (University of Wisconsin Press, 1958)
External links
* Thi
list of Roman laws of the fourth centuryshows laws passed by Constantius II relating to Christianity.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Constantius 2
317 births
361 deaths
4th-century Christians
4th-century Roman emperors
4th-century Roman consuls
Arian Christians
Constantinian dynasty
Flavii
Illyrian people
Imperial Roman consuls
Infectious disease deaths in Turkey
Julii
People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
People from Sirmium
Sons of Roman emperors
Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles
Illyrian emperors