Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

s of the

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

''Chrysanthemum'' in the

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...

. They are

native Native may refer to: People * Jus soli, citizenship by right of birth * Indigenous peoples, peoples with a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory ** Native Americans (disambiguation) In arts and entert ...

East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both Geography, geographical and culture, ethno-cultural terms. The modern State (polity), states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. ...

and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center of diversity is in China.Liu, P. L., et al. (2012)
Phylogeny of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' L.: Evidence from single-copy nuclear gene and chloroplast DNA sequences.
''PLOS One'' 7(11), e48970. . Countless horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.

Description

The

''Chrysanthemum'' are

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wid ...

herbaceous

s, sometimes subshrubs. The leaves are alternate, divided into leaflets and may be pinnatisect, lobed, or

serrate Serration is a saw-like appearance or a row of sharp or tooth-like projections. A serrated cutting edge has many small points of contact with the material being cut. By having less contact area than a smooth blade or other edge, the applied p ...

(toothed) but rarely entire. The compound

inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphology (biology), Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of sperma ...

is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of

phyllaries In botanical terminology, a phyllary, also known an involucral bract or tegule, is a single bract of the involucre of a composite flower. The involucre is the grouping of bracts together. Phyllaries are reduced leaf-like structures that form one o ...

. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. Pollen grains are approximately 34 microns. The fruit is a ribbed achene.''Chrysanthemum''.
Flora of China. eFloras.

Taxonomy

The genus Chrysanthemum was first formally described by

Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...

in 1753, with 14

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

, and hence bears his name (L.) as the

botanical authority In botanical nomenclature, author citation is the way of citing the person or group of people who validly published a botanical name, i.e. who first published the name while fulfilling the formal requirements as specified by the ''International Cod ...

. The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus ''Dendranthema''. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the

International Botanical Congress International Botanical Congress (IBC) is an international meeting of botanists in all scientific fields, authorized by the International Association of Botanical and Mycological Societies (IABMS) and held every six years, with the location rotati ...

in 1999 changed the defining species of the genus to ''Chrysanthemum indicum'', restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus ''Chrysanthemum''. Genera now separated from ''Chrysanthemum'' include '' Argyranthemum'', ''

Glebionis ''Glebionis'' is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, native to Europe and the Mediterranean region. The species were formerly treated in the genus ''Chrysanthemum'', but a 1999 ruling of the International Botanical Congres ...

'', ''

Leucanthemopsis ''Leucanthemopsis'' is a genus of flowering plants in the daisy family. ; Species * ''Leucanthemopsis alpina'' (L.) Heywood - central + southern Europe from Spain to Ukraine * '' Leucanthemopsis flaveola'' (Hoffmanns. & Link) Heywood - Spain, Po ...

'', ''

Leucanthemum ''Leucanthemum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae. It is mainly distributed in southern and central Europe. Some species are known on other continents as introduced species, and some are cultivated as ornamental plan ...

'', ''

Rhodanthemum ''Rhodanthemum'' syn. ''Chrysanthemopsis'', ''Pyrethropsis'' (Moroccan daisy), is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, mostly native to exposed rocky places in Northern Africa (Morocco and Algeria). Formerly included in either ' ...

'', and ''

Tanacetum ''Tanacetum'' is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

''.

Species

, '' Plants of the World Online'' accepted the following species: * '' Chrysanthemum aphrodite'' Kitam. * '' Chrysanthemum arcticum'' L. * '' Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum'' Ling * '' Chrysanthemum arisanense'' Hayata * ''

Chrysanthemum chalchingolicum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...

'' Grubov * ''

Chrysanthemum chanetii Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' H.Lév. * '' Chrysanthemum crassum'' (Kitam.) Kitam. * '' Chrysanthemum cuneifolium'' Kitam. * ''

Chrysanthemum daucifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Pers. * ''

Chrysanthemum dichrum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...

'' (C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek. * ''

Chrysanthemum foliaceum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' (G.F.Peng, C.Shih & S.Q.Zhang) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou * ''

Chrysanthemum glabriusculum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' (W.W.Sm.) Hand.-Mazz. * ''

Chrysanthemum horaimontanum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Masam. * '' Chrysanthemum hypargyreum'' Diels * '' Chrysanthemum indicum'' L. * '' Chrysanthemum integrifolium'' Richardson * '' Chrysanthemum japonense'' (Makino) Nakai * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''konoanum'' Makino * '' Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium'' Makino * ''

Chrysanthemum leucanthum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center o ...

'' (Makino) Makino * ''

Chrysanthemum longibracteatum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' (C.Shih, G.F.Peng & S.Y.Jin) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou * '' Chrysanthemum maximoviczii'' Kom. * ''

Chrysanthemum miyatojimense Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Kitam. * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' (Ramat.) Hemsl. * '' Chrysanthemum morii'' Hayata * ''

Chrysanthemum naktongense Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Nakai * '' Chrysanthemum ogawae'' Kitam. * '' Chrysanthemum okiense'' Kitam. * '' Chrysanthemum oreastrum'' Hance * '' Chrysanthemum ornatum'' Hemsl. * ''

Chrysanthemum parvifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' C.C.Chang * '' Chrysanthemum potentilloides'' Hand.-Mazz. * ''

Chrysanthemum rhombifolium Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' (Y.Ling & C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek. * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''rubellum'' Sealy * ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''shimotomaii'' Makino * ''

Chrysanthemum sinuatum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Ledeb. * ''

Chrysanthemum vestitum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' (Hemsl.) Kitam. * '' Chrysanthemum yantaiense'' M.Sun & J.T.Chen * ''

Chrysanthemum yoshinaganthum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family (biology), family Asteraceae. They are native plant, native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate ...

'' Makino * '' Chrysanthemum zawadskii'' Herbich * '' Chrysanthemum zhuozishanense'' L.Q.Zhao & Jie Yang Former species include: * ''Chrysanthemum carinatum'' = ''

Ismelia carinata ''Ismelia carinata'', the tricolour chrysanthemum, tricolor daisy, or annual chrysanthemum, is an ornamental plant native to north Africa that is cultivated as a garden plant and grows as a weed in California. It is the sole species in the genus ...

'' * ''Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium'' = ''

Tanacetum cinerariifolium ''Tanacetum cinerariifolium'' is a species of flowering plant in the aster family, Asteraceae, and formerly part of the genus ''Pyrethrum'', but now placed in the genus ''Chrysanthemum'', or the genus ''Tanacetum'' by some biologists. It is calle ...

'' * ''Chrysanthemum coccineum'' = '' Tanacetum coccineum'' * ''Chrysanthemum coronarium'' = ''

Glebionis coronaria ''Glebionis coronaria'', formerly called ''Chrysanthemum coronarium'', is a species of flowering plant in the daisy family. It is native to the Mediterranean region. It is cultivated and naturalized in East Asia and in scattered locations in No ...

'' * ''Chrysanthemum frutescens'' = '' Argyranthemum frutescens'' * ''Chrysanthemum maximum'' = '' Leucanthemum maximum'' * ''

Chrysanthemum pacificum ''Chrysanthemum pacificum'', commonly called gold and silver chrysanthemum,Ajania pacifica'' * ''Chrysanthemum segetum'' = ''

Glebionis segetum ''Glebionis segetum'' (syn. ''Chrysanthemum segetum'') is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, probably native only to the eastern Mediterranean region but now naturalized in western and northern Europe as well as China and par ...

Etymology

The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the grc, χρυσός ''chrysos'' (gold) and grc, ἄνθεμον ''anthemon'' (flower).

Ecology

Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. This is also known as the favorite flower for the month of November.

History

Chrysanthemums () were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC. Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630. By 2014 it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China. The plant is renowned as one of the

Four Gentlemen In Chinese art, the Four Gentlemen or Four Noble Ones (), literally meaning "Four Junzi", is a collective term referring to four plants: the plum blossom, the orchid, the bamboo, and the chrysanthemum. The term compares the four plants to Confuci ...

() in

Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...

and

East Asian Art East Asian art includes: *Chinese art *Japanese art Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including Jōmon pottery, ancient pottery, Japanese sculpture, sculpture, Ink wash painting, ink painting and Japanese calligraphy, cal ...

. The plant is particularly significant during the

Double Ninth Festival The Double Ninth Festival (''Chong Yang Festival'' or ''Chung Yeung Festival'' in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan; ; ''Jungyangjeol'' (Hangul: , Hanja: ), observed on the ninth day of the ninth month in the Chinese calendar, is a ...

. Chrysanthemum cultivation began in Japan during the

Nara The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an " independent federal agency of the United States government within the executive branch", charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It ...

and

Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means "peace" in Japanese ...

s (early 8th to late 12th centuries), and gained popularity in the

Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characte ...

(early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes, and were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity.History of chrysanthemums.
Odawara City In addition, from the

Meiji period The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...

(late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over 20 cm (7.87 in) in diameter, called the ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums. The

Imperial Seal of Japan The Imperial Seal of Japan or National Seal of Japan, also called the , or , is one of the national seals and a crest ('' mon'') used by the Emperor of Japan and members of the Imperial Family. It is a contrast to the Paulownia Seal used by the ...

is a chrysanthemum and the institution of the monarchy is also called the

Chrysanthemum Throne The is the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace. Various other thrones or seats that are used by the Emperor during official functions ...

. A number of festivals and shows take place throughout Japan in autumn when the flowers bloom. is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show. Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John Stevens imported a

cultivated variety A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...

known as 'Dark Purple' from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in

Hoboken, New Jersey Hoboken ( ; Unami: ') is a city in Hudson County in the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2020 U.S. census, the city's population was 60,417. The Census Bureau's Population Estimates Program calculated that the city's population was 58,690 i ...

.The New York Botanical Garden, ''Curtis' Botanical Magazine, Volume X'' Bronx, New York: The New York Botanical Garden, 1797

Economic uses

Ornamental uses

Nagoya Castle Chrysanthemum Competition 2017 11

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or

button A button is a fastener that joins two pieces of fabric together by slipping through a loop or by sliding through a buttonhole. In modern clothing and fashion design, buttons are commonly made of plastic but also may be made of metal, wood, o ...

s. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of

cultivar A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...

s developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' (syn. ''C.'' × ''grandiflorum''), derived primarily from ''C. indicum'', but also involving other species. Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the

Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr (Nor ...

's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017). Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups, garden hardy and exhibition. Garden hardy chrysanthemums are perennials capable of wintering in most northern latitudes. Exhibition varieties are not usually as sturdy. Garden hardy varieties are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms with little if any mechanical assistance, such as staking, and withstanding wind and rain. Exhibition varieties, though, require staking, overwintering in a relatively dry, cool environment, and sometimes the addition of night lights. The exhibition varieties can be used to create many amazing plant forms, such as large disbudded blooms, spray forms, and many artistically trained forms, such as thousand-bloom, standard (trees), fans, hanging baskets,

topiary Topiary is the horticultural practice of training perennial plants by clipping the foliage and twigs of trees, shrubs and subshrubs to develop and maintain clearly defined shapes, whether geometric or fanciful. The term also refers to plants w ...

, bonsai, and cascades. Chrysanthemum blooms are divided into 13 different bloom forms by the US National Chrysanthemum Society, Inc., which is in keeping with the international classification system. The bloom forms are defined by the way in which the ray and disk florets are arranged. Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many individual flowers (florets), each one capable of producing a seed. The disk florets are in the center of the bloom head, and the ray florets are on the perimeter. The ray florets are considered imperfect flowers, as they only possess the female reproductive organs, while the disk florets are considered perfect flowers, as they possess both male and female reproductive organs. Irregular incurves are bred to produce a giant head called an ''ogiku''. The disk florets are concealed in layers of curving ray florets that hang down to create a 'skirt'. Regular incurves are similar, but usually with smaller blooms and a dense, globular form. Intermediate incurve blooms may have broader florets and a less densely flowered head. In the reflex form, the disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a

mop A mop (such as a floor mop) is a mass or bundle of coarse strings or yarn, etc., or a piece of cloth, sponge or other absorbent material, attached to a pole or stick. It is used to soak up liquid, for cleaning floors and other surfaces, to mop ...

-like appearance. The decorative form is similar to reflex blooms, but the ray florets usually do not radiate at more than a 90° angle to the stem. The pompon form is fully double, of small size, and very globular in form. Single and semidouble blooms have exposed disk florets and one to seven rows of ray florets. In the anemone form, the disk florets are prominent, often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. The spoon-form disk florets are visible and the long, tubular ray florets are spatulate. In the spider form, the disk florets are concealed, and the ray florets are tube-like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. In the brush and thistle variety, the disk florets may be visible. In Japan, a form of '' bonsai'' chrysanthemum was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. Another method is to use pieces of dead wood and the flower grows over the back along the wood to give the illusion from the front that the miniature tree blooms.

Culinary uses

Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species ''C. morifolium'' are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as

chrysanthemum tea Chrysanthemum tea is a flower-based infusion beverage made from the chrysanthemum flowers of the species '' Chrysanthemum morifolium'' or ''Chrysanthemum indicum'', which are most popular throughout East and Southeast Asia. First cultivated in C ...

( 菊花茶,

pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese, Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally writte ...

: ''júhuā chá'', in Chinese). In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called ''gukhwaju'' (국화주). Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as '' mixian'' in broth, or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. Japanese cuisine

sashimi is a Japanese delicacy consisting of fresh raw fish or meat sliced into thin pieces and often eaten with soy sauce. Origin The word ''sashimi'' means "pierced body", i.e. " 刺身" = ''sashimi'', where 刺し = ''sashi'' (pierced, stu ...

uses small chrysanthemums as garnish.

Insecticidal uses

Pyrethrum ''Pyrethrum'' was a genus of several Old World plants now classified as ''Chrysanthemum'' or ''Tanacetum'' which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum continues to be used as a common name for plants formerly inclu ...

(''Chrysanthemum ''[or''

Tanacetum ''Tanacetum'' is a genus of about 160 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, native to many regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

'']'' cinerariaefolium'') is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called pyrethrins, which occur in the achenes, are extracted and sold in the form of an

oleoresin Oleoresins are semi-solid extracts composed of resin and essential or fatty oil, obtained by evaporation of the solvents used for their production. The oleoresin of conifers is known as crude turpentine or gum turpentine, which consists of oil of ...

. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...

s, and inhibit female

mosquito Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning " gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "li ...

es from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an insect-repellent effect. They are harmful to

fish Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of ...

, but are far less toxic to mammals and

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...

s than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being biodegradable, and also

decompose Decomposition or rot is the process by which dead organic substances are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars and mineral salts. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is ...

easily on exposure to light.

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and '' C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides. I ...

s such as

permethrin Permethrin is a medication and an insecticide. As a medication, it is used to treat scabies and lice. It is applied to the skin as a cream or lotion. As an insecticide, it can be sprayed onto clothing or mosquito nets to kill the insects th ...

are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as leafminer flies including '' L. trifolii''.

Persian powder :''The term Persian powder can also refer to a type of dry snow in the Zagros Mountains.'' Persian powder is an insecticide powder. It is also known as Persian pellitory and insect powder. Biological pest control Persian powder is a green pestici ...

is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.

Environmental uses

Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce

indoor air pollution Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...

by the

NASA Clean Air Study __NOTOC__ The NASA Clean Air Study was a project led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in association with the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) in 1989, to research ways to clean the air in sealed envir ...

Cultural significance and symbolism

In some European countries (e.g., France,

Belgium Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...

, Italy, Spain,

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...

Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the ...

Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...

), incurve chrysanthemums symbolize

death Death is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism. For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including brainstem, and brain ...

and are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism; similarly, in China, Japan, and

Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

of East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty. In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful, with New Orleans as a notable exception. In the Victorian

language of flowers Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in tradition ...

, the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love. The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.

East Asia

China

* The chrysanthemum is the city flower of

Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...

and

Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the No ...

. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year. * The chrysanthemum is one of the "

" () of China (the others being the

plum blossom ''Prunus mume'' is an East Asian and Southeast Asian tree species classified in the ''Armeniaca'' section of the genus ''Prunus'' subgenus ''Prunus''. Its common names include Chinese plum, Japanese plum, and Japanese apricot. The flower, long ...

, the

orchid Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowerin ...

, and

bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...

). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Qian, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers. * A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in

Tongxiang Tongxiang City () is a county-level city, part of Jiaxing, in northern Zhejiang Province, China, bordering Jiangsu province to the north. It had a population of 1,029,754 as of the 2020 census even though its built-up (''or metro'') area is sm ...

, near

Hangzhou Hangzhou ( or , ; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), also romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang, China. It is located in the northwestern part of the province, sitting at the head of Hangzhou Bay, whic ...

, China. * Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China. * The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie ''

Curse of the Golden Flower ''Curse of the Golden Flower'' () is a 2006 Chinese epic wuxia drama film written and directed by Zhang Yimou. The Mandarin Chinese title of the movie is taken from the last line of the Qi dynasty poem written by the rebel leader Huang Chao who h ...

'' is a chrysanthemum. * "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén ), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations). * An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city". * The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese

. * In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties. Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire. *

Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China A pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea (from the obsolete typography ''pharmacopœia'', meaning "drug-making"), in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines, and published b ...

listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.

Japan

Blade and Mounting for a Short Sword (Wakizashi)

Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of China in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme of ''

waka Waka may refer to: Culture and language * Waka (canoe), a Polynesian word for canoe; especially, canoes of the Māori of New Zealand ** Waka ama, a Polynesian outrigger canoe ** Waka hourua, a Polynesian ocean-going canoe ** Waka taua, a Māori w ...

'' (Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in the

, and ''

Kokin Wakashū The , commonly abbreviated as , is an early anthology of the '' waka'' form of Japanese poetry, dating from the Heian period. An imperial anthology, it was conceived by Emperor Uda () and published by order of his son Emperor Daigo () in abo ...

'' is the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during the

Kamakura period The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the Genpei War, which saw the struggle bet ...

, when the Retired

Emperor Go-Toba was the 82nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1183 through 1198. This 12th-century sovereign was named after Emperor Toba, and ''go-'' (後), translates literally as "later"; a ...

adopted it as the mon (family crest) of the

Imperial family A royal family is the immediate family of King, kings/Queen regnant, queens, Emir, emirs/emiras, Sultan, sultans/Sultana (title), sultanas, or raja/rani and sometimes their extended family. The term imperial family appropriately describes the ...

, it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During the

from the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums,

cherry blossoms A cherry blossom, also known as Japanese cherry or sakura, is a flower of many trees of genus ''Prunus'' or ''Prunus'' subg. ''Cerasus''. They are common species in East Asia, including China, Korea and especially in Japan. They generall ...

Japanese iris The term "Japanese iris" encompasses three species of Irises cultivated in gardens or growing wild in Japan: ''hanashōbu'' ('' Iris ensata''), ''kakitsubata'' ('' Iris laevigata'') and ''ayame'' ('' Iris sanguinea''). Of these three species, ''I ...

morning glory Morning glory (also written as morning-glory) is the common name for over 1,000 species of flowering plants in the family Convolvulaceae, whose current taxonomy and systematics are in flux. Morning glory species belong to many genera, some of ...

, etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and many chrysanthemum exhibitions were held. From the

in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of ''ogiku'' style cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular. In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the

Shinjuku Gyo-en is a large park and garden in Shinjuku and Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. It was originally a residence of the Naitō family in the Edo period. Afterward, it became a garden under the management of Japan Imperial Household Agency. It is now a nation ...

Meiji Shrine , is a Shinto shrine in Shibuya, Tokyo, that is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken. The shrine does not contain the emperor's grave, which is located at Fushimi-momoyama, south of Kyoto. History A ...

and

Yasukuni Shrine is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Japan, from the Boshin War of 1868–1869, to the two Sino-Japanese Wars, 1894–1895 and 1937–1945 resp ...

Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and List of cities in Japan, largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, ...

. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, ''kankokuheisha'') has adopted the chrysanthemum crest. Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditional Japanese arts like

porcelain Porcelain () is a ceramic material made by heating substances, generally including materials such as kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises main ...

lacquerware Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Befor ...

and ''

kimono The is a traditional Japanese garment and the national dress of Japan. The kimono is a wrapped-front garment with square sleeves and a rectangular body, and is worn left side wrapped over right, unless the wearer is deceased. The kimono ...

''. Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many

Japanese people The are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Japanese archipelago."人類学上は，旧石器時代あるいは縄文時代以来，現在の北海道〜沖縄諸島（南西諸島）に住んだ集団を祖先にもつ人々。" () Jap ...

who enter prize plants in contests. Chrysanthemum "dolls", often depicting fictional characters from both traditional sources like ''

kabuki is a classical form of Japanese dance- drama. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily-stylised performances, the often-glamorous costumes worn by performers, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers. Kabuki is though ...

'' and contemporary sources like Disney, are displayed throughout the fall months, and the city of

Nihonmatsu is a city in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. , the city has an estimated population of 54,013 in 20,179 households, and a population density of 160 persons per km2. The total area of the city was . The Adachi neighborhood of Nihonmatsu was the bir ...

hosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin of

Nihonmatsu Castle is a Japanese castle located in what is now the city of Nihonmatsu, northern Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. Throughout most of the Edo period, Nihonmatsu Castle was home to the Niwa clan, ''daimyō'' of Nihonmatsu Domain. The castle was also known ...

. They are also grown into chrysanthemum bonsai forms. * In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of the

Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...

and the

. In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" (菊花紋章, ''kikukamonshō'' or'' kikkamonshō''), i.e. a mon of chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include: ** The

is used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern. ** The

is the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne. ** The Supreme

Order of the Chrysanthemum is Japan's highest order. The Grand Cordon of the Order was established in 1876 by Emperor Meiji of Japan; the Collar of the Order was added on 4 January 1888. Unlike its European counterparts, the order may be conferred posthumously. Apart fr ...

is a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of the Japanese government. ** In imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor. * The Nagoya Castle Chrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is for ''bonsai'' flowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes. File:Imperial Seal of Japan.jpg, Chrysanthemum crest on the battleship ''Mikasa'' File:高台寺蒔絵-Sake Ewer (Hisage) with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields.jpg, ''Maki-e''

Sake Sake, also spelled saké ( ; also referred to as Japanese rice wine), is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indee ...

Ewer with Chrysanthemums and Paulownia Crests in Alternating Fields. early 17th century,

Azuchi–Momoyama period The was the final phase of the in Japanese history from 1568 to 1600. After the outbreak of the Ōnin War in 1467, the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate effectively collapsed, marking the start of the chaotic Sengoku period. In 1568, Oda Nobuna ...

. File:Flower show-J. M. W. Silver.jpg, Chrysanthemum shows have been traditionally held in many Japanese towns. File:Hirakata-kikuningyo3231.JPG, "Hirakata Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" (2005) File:Chrysanthemum,kiku,katori-city,japan.JPG, Chrysanthemums in the Japanese ''Ogiku'' (lit., great chrysanthemum) style.

Korea

Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the

Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival It is a national flower festival held annually in Masanhappo-gu, Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. The Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival(hangul : 마산가고파 국화축제) celebrates the excellence of the chrysanthemum and has been held ...

. File:Brooklyn Museum - Chrysanthemums Rock and Bird.jpg, Korean painting ''Chrysanthemums, Rock and Bird'', 19th century

West Asia

Iran

In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.

Israel

In 2017,

Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...

named a new fast-growing Chrysanthemum flower after

Narendra Modi Narendra Damodardas Modi (; born 17 September 1950) is an Indian politician serving as the 14th and current Prime Minister of India since 2014. Modi was the Chief Minister of Gujarat from 2001 to 2014 and is the Member of Parliament fro ...

, the Prime Minister of India, in a special gesture to mark the first visit of an Indian prime minister to the Jewish nation.

Oceania

Australia

In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.

North America

United States

* On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public. * The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of

Redwood City, California Redwood City is a city on the San Francisco Peninsula in Northern California's Bay Area, approximately south of San Francisco, and northwest of San Jose. Redwood City's history spans its earliest inhabitation by the Ohlone people to being a ...

grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.La Peninsula, xlii (1) * In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration. * The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of

Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...

by Mayor

Richard J. Daley Richard Joseph Daley (May 15, 1902 – December 20, 1976) was an American politician who served as the Mayor of Chicago from 1955 and the chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party Central Committee from 1953 until his death. He has been cal ...

in 1966. * The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of Salinas, California. * The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several

fraternities and sororities Fraternities and sororities are social organizations at colleges and universities in North America. Generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained as an undergraduate student, but continues thereafter for life. Some accept gradu ...

including

Chi Phi Chi Phi () is considered by some as the oldest American men's college social fraternity that was established as the result of the merger of three separate organizations that were each known as Chi Phi. The earliest of these organizations was for ...

Phi Kappa Sigma Phi Kappa Sigma () is an international all-male college secret society and social fraternity. While nicknames differ from institution to institution, the most common nicknames for the fraternity are Skulls, Skullhouse, Phi Kap, and PKS (the fi ...

Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Fraternity of America (colloquially known as Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, Phi Mu Alpha, or simply Sinfonia) () is an American collegiate social fraternity for men with a special interest in music. The fraternity is open to men "w ...

Lambda Kappa Sigma Lambda Kappa Sigma ( or LKS) is an international pharmacy fraternity headquartered in Muskego, Wisconsin. Founded in 1913, it was created to promote the profession of pharmacy among women and advance women within the profession. LKS is the oldest ...

Sigma Alpha Sigma Alpha () is a professional agricultural sorority. History On January 26, 1978, five students, Ann Huling Mathews, Cindie Davis, Marilyn Burns, Jennifer McMillan and Amy Mathews, founded Sigma Alpha at the Ohio State University. Since that ...

and

Triangle Fraternity (Truth Conquers All) , maxim = , colors = Old Rose Gray , symbol = Engineers' transit , flower = White chrysanthemum , flag = , jewel = , publication = ''Triangle Review'' , philanthropy = FIRST , chapters = 38 Active 4 Colonies , members = 1,20 ...

Europe

Italy

Italian composer

Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Puccini ( Lucca, 22 December 1858Bruxelles, 29 November 1924) was an Italian composer known primarily for his operas. Regarded as the greatest and most successful proponent of Italian opera after Verdi, he was descended from a long ...

wrote ''

Crisantemi The Italian composer Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) is regarded as the natural successor to the tradition of Giuseppe Verdi and is considered the greatest Italian opera proponent of his time. Best known for his 12 operas, his style quickly departe ...

'' (1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friend Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta. In

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...

(and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the

cemetery A cemetery, burial ground, gravesite or graveyard is a place where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The word ''cemetery'' (from Greek , "sleeping place") implies that the land is specifically designated as a buri ...

and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the Day of the Dead (2 November).

Poland

Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during

All Saints' Day All Saints' Day, also known as All Hallows' Day, the Feast of All Saints, the Feast of All Hallows, the Solemnity of All Saints, and Hallowmas, is a Christian solemnity celebrated in honour of all the saints of the church, whether they are kn ...

and

All Souls' Day All Souls' Day, also called ''The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed'', is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, observed by certain Christian denominations on 2 November. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and ...

United Kingdom

The UK National Collection of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near

Warwick Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined with Leamington Spa and Whi ...

Gallery

File:Chrysanthemum February 2008-2.jpg, Bud of a garden chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthème tokyo.jpg, ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' 'Tokyo' File:Chrysanthemum 094557.jpg, Purple Chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum morifolium 08NOV.jpg, pink ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' File:Red chrysanthemum.jpg, Red chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum Plant (1) 06.jpg, Closeup view of White Chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum 'Vesuvius'.jpg, ''Chrysanthemum'' × ''morifolium'' 'Vesuvius' File:Złocień Zawadzkiego P39.jpg, '' Chrysanthemum zawadskii'' File:Chrysanthemum indicum2.jpg, '' Chrysanthemum indicum'' File:Chrysanthemum japonense var ashizuriense1.jpg, '' Chrysanthemum japonense'' var. ''ashizuriense'' File:Beautiful Chrysanthemum.JPG, A peach coloured chrysanthemum File:Tiger tail mum 0004.JPG, Tiger Tail chrysanthemum File:Chrysanthemum leaves.JPG, Leaves of chrysanthemum plant File:Chrysanthemum × morifolium Dompierre 1.jpg, A chrysanthemum show File:Chrysanthemum 02.jpg, Yellow Chrysanthemum. File:Chrysanthemum 01.jpg, Purple Chrysanthemum

References

Bibliography

;Books * * * * * * , ''see also'' Species Plantarum ;Articles * * * * *

External links

* *
Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Chrysanthemum''

United States National Chrysanthemum Society website

(scroll down for ''Chrysanthemum'')

* ttp://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7404.html University of California web page on aphid management {{Authority control Asteraceae genera Garden plants Leaf vegetables Medicinal plants National symbols of Japan Plants used in bonsai

Description

Taxonomy

Species

Etymology

Ecology

History

Economic uses

Ornamental uses

Culinary uses

Insecticidal uses

Environmental uses

Cultural significance and symbolism

East Asia

China

Japan

Korea

West Asia

Iran

Israel

Oceania

Australia

North America

United States

Europe

Italy

Poland

United Kingdom

Gallery

See also

References

Bibliography

External links