The Chitlin' Circuit was a collection of performance venues throughout the eastern, southern, and upper Midwest areas of the United States that provided commercial and cultural acceptance for African American musicians, comedians, and other entertainers during the era of

racial segregation in the United States In the United States, racial segregation is the systematic separation of facilities and services such as Housing in the United States, housing, Healthcare in the United States, healthcare, Education in the United States, education, Employment in ...

through the 1960s. The Chitlin' Circuit was considered to be by, for, and about black people. There is debate as to when the Chitlin' Circuit peaked. Some say its peak was in the 1930s, some say it was after World War II, and others say it was the time of the blues.

Etymology

The name derives from the soul food dish

chitterlings Chitterlings (), sometimes spelled chitlins or chittlins, are the small intestines of domestic animals. They are usually made from pigs' intestines. They may also be filled with a forcemeat to make sausage.''Oxford English Dictionary'', 1st editi ...

(boiled pig intestines). It is also a play on the term " Borscht Belt", which referred to particular resort venues (primarily in New York State's

Catskill Mountains The Catskill Mountains, also known as the Catskills, are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains, located in southeastern New York. As a cultural and geographic region, the Catskills are generally defined as those areas c ...

) that were popular with Jewish performers and audiences during the 1940s through the 1960s. Chitterlings are part of the culinary history of African Americans, who were often limited to the intestines of the pig to eat as opposed to the bacon or ham. The food symbolizes acquiring a taste out of necessity and eventually coming to like it. The term "Chitlin' Circuit" did not appear in print until a 1972 article on Ike & Tina Turner in '' The Chicago Defender''. However, the slang term "Chitlin'" was used long before it was printed. Blues musician

W.C. Handy William Christopher Handy (November 16, 1873 – March 28, 1958) was an American composer and musician who referred to himself as the Father of the Blues. Handy was one of the most influential songwriters in the United States. One of many musici ...

wrote of chitlin' cafes in his 1917 song " Beale Street Blues". In the 21st century, the term is applied to the venues, especially in the South, where contemporary African-American

blues Blues is a music genre and musical form which originated in the Deep South of the United States around the 1860s. Blues incorporated spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts, chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads from the Afr ...

singers such as Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle, and O.B. Buchana continue to appear regularly.

Contemporary use

'' Ebony'' magazine prefers the term "urban theater circuit" for recent work like that of playwright and actor Tyler Perry. In a January 2004 interview with Perry, the genre's leading practitioner, ''Ebony'' wrote that his work marked "a new chapter in the urban theater circuit as a whole—a genre that has been dogged by criticism from some Blacks in the traditional theater. Perry, as the most visibly recognized player in the circuit, has felt the brunt of this criticism." "They say that Tyler Perry has set the Black race back some 500 years with these types of "Chitlin' Circuit" shows. The problem with the naysayers is that they don't take the opportunity to see my shows,' Perry argued. "With my shows, I try to build a bridge that marries what's deemed 'legitimate theater' and so-called 'chitlin' circuit theater,' and I think I've done pretty well with that, in bringing people in to enjoy a more elevated level of theater.'"

Origins

Leading figures in establishing the Chitlin' Circuit were the Black

Indianapolis Indianapolis (), colloquially known as Indy, is the state capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Indiana and the seat of Marion County. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the consolidated population of Indianapolis and Marion ...

entrepreneurs Sea and

Denver D. Ferguson Denver Darious Ferguson (February 19, 1895 – May 11, 1957) was an American businessman and nightclub owner in Indianapolis, who had a leading role in establishing the " Chitlin' Circuit" of entertainment venues for black entertainers and ...

. After the collapse of the Theatre Owners Booking Association (TOBA) in 1930, the Ferguson brothers drew on bandleader and influential columnist

Walter Barnes Walter, Walt, or Walley Barnes may refer to: * Walley Barnes (1920–1975), Welsh footballer and broadcaster * Walt Barnes (1918–1998), American football player and character actor * Walt Barnes (defensive lineman) (born 1944), American footbal ...

and his contacts to bring top Black entertainers to Indianapolis in the 1930s. When their businesses' licenses were revoked in 1940, they opened Ferguson Brothers, a booking agency, which grew rapidly and became the most powerful Black-owned talent agency in the country. They helped various orchestras, bands, and vaudeville shows book gigs, including Jay McShann, King Kolax, Tiny Bradshaw, Roosevelt Sykes, Claude Trenier, the

Bama State Collegians The Bama State Collegians is a student jazz orchestra made up of students at Alabama State University. This group was organized in the late 1920s by Len Bowden, Fess Whatley, and Paul Bascomb. Bowden went on to direct the Navy's music program at C ...

, Carolina Cotton Pickers, Snookum Russell, Milton Larkin,

Clarence Love Clarence Eugene Love (born June 16, 1976) is a former American football safety who played in the National Football League. Love starred at local Jackson High School and was a member of the Jackson Citizen Patriot's Dream Team. Love attended colle ...

Gene Pope Generoso Paul "Gene" Pope Jr. (1927–1988) was an American media mogul, best known for creating '' The National Enquirer'' as it is known today. Early life Pope was born on January 13, 1927. His father, Generoso Pope, was a New York politic ...

, and the International Sweethearts of Rhythm, and organised tours around the South playing to Black audiences. John Morthland, "The Chitlin’ Circuit: Celebrating a Secret History of American Music", ''WonderingSound.com'', 1 November 2011
Retrieved 25 November 2019 Musician Sax Kari described Denver Ferguson as "the man who ''invented'' the chitlin’ circuit".

Theaters and nightclubs

Noted theaters and nightclubs on the Chitlin' Circuit included: * Atlanta, Georgia:

The Royal Peacock ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things that are already or about to be mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in ...

, originally The Top Hat * Austin, Texas: The

Victory Grill Victory Grill is a historic music venue located at 1104 E. 11th St, Austin, Texas. The nightclub was on the Chitlin' Circuit and hosted famous African American acts such as Bobby Bland, Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown, W. C. Clark and B. B. King when A ...

Baltimore, Maryland Baltimore ( , locally: or ) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland, fourth most populous city in the Mid-Atlantic, and the 30th most populous city in the United States with a population of 585,708 in 2020. Baltimore was ...

: The Royal Theatre *

Bay St. Louis, Mississippi Bay St. Louis is a city in and the county seat of Hancock County, Mississippi, in the United States. Located on the Gulf Coast on the west side of the Bay of St. Louis, it is part of the Gulfport–Biloxi Metropolitan Statistical Area. As of ...

: The 100 Men Hall * Birmingham, Alabama: The Carver Theatre * Bowling Green, Kentucky: The Quanset * Chicago, Illinois: Robert's Show Lounge, Club DeLisa, and the Regal Theatre * Detroit, Michigan: The Fox Theatre * Eatonville, Florida: Club Eaton * Harlem, New York: Cotton Club,

Smalls Paradise Smalls Paradise (often called Small's Paradise and Smalls' Paradise, and not to be confused with Smalls Jazz Club), was a nightclub in Harlem, New York City. Located in the basement of 2294 Seventh Avenue at 134th Street, it opened in 1925 and w ...

, and the

Apollo Theater The Apollo Theater is a music hall at 253 West 125th Street between Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard (Seventh Avenue) and Frederick Douglass Boulevard (Eighth Avenue) in the Harlem neighborhood of Upper Manhattan in New York City. It is a not ...

* Hobson City, Alabama: The Men's Club, Holloway's Night Club * Indianapolis, Indiana: The Madam C. J. Walker Theatre * Jacksonville, Florida: The Ritz Theatre * Lebanon, Kentucky: Club Cherry *

Lexington, Kentucky Lexington is a city in Kentucky, United States that is the county seat of Fayette County, Kentucky, Fayette County. By population, it is the List of cities in Kentucky, second-largest city in Kentucky and List of United States cities by popul ...

: The Lyric Theatre * Little Rock, Arkansas: Dreamland Ballroom * Memphis, Tennessee: Club Handy,

Club Paradise ''Club Paradise'' is a 1986 American comedy film directed by Harold Ramis and starring Robin Williams, Twiggy, Peter O'Toole, and Jimmy Cliff. Set in a fictional Caribbean banana republic, it follows a group of vacationers' attempts to create a ...

*Norfolk, Virginia: Attucks Theatre "The Apollo of the South" * Mobile (Prichard), Alabama: The Harlem Duke Social Club *

Pensacola, Florida Pensacola () is the westernmost city in the Florida Panhandle, and the county seat and only incorporated city of Escambia County, Florida, United States. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 54,312. Pensacola is the principal ...

: Abe's 506 Club * Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Uptown Theatre * Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: New Granada *

Richmond, Virginia (Thus do we reach the stars) , image_map = , mapsize = 250 px , map_caption = Location within Virginia , pushpin_map = Virginia#USA , pushpin_label = Richmond , pushpin_m ...

: The

Hippodrome Theatre The Hippodrome Theatre, also called the New York Hippodrome, was a theater in New York City from 1905 to 1939, located on Sixth Avenue between West 43rd and West 44th Streets in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan. It was called the worl ...

* San Antonio, Texas: Eastwood Country Club * San Antonio, Texas: Keyhole Club (

1619 West Poplar 1619 West Poplar is a historic performance venue in San Antonio, Texas. From 1950 to 1964 it was Don Albert and Willie "Red" Winner's Keyhole Club. Albert helped manage and hosted musical acts. It was adorned with neon lights and signage. The buil ...

) * Smithville, Texas: West End Park * St. Petersburg, Florida: The Manhattan Casino * Taylor, Texas: Chicken Shack,Hidalgo Park & One Acre Club * Tampa, Florida: The Blue Note * Tallahassee, Florida: The Red Bird Café * Tulsa, Oklahoma: The Big 10 Ballroom * Waco, Texas: Walker's Auditorium * Washington, D.C.: Howard Theatre Seasonal venues included the still-standing auditorium at John Brown's Farm (also known as "the Kennedy Farm") outside Sharpsburg, Maryland; Carr's and Sparrow's Beach in Anne Arundel County, Maryland; and Rosedale Beach in Millsboro, Delaware. According to

Ruth Brown Ruth Alston Brown (; January 12, 1928 – November 17, 2006) was an American singer-songwriter and actress, sometimes referred to as the " Queen of R&B". She was noted for bringing a pop music style to R&B music in a series of hit songs for Atl ...

, an artist needed to play at four specific theaters to prove they had made it: the Regal in Chicago, the Howard in Washington D.C., the Uptown in Philadelphia, and the Apollo in New York City. This was called the "litchman chain". The song " Tuxedo Junction" was written about a stop along the Chitlin' Circuit in Birmingham. Once the performance was over, the band would leave for the next stop on the circuit. After composing the music, Erskine Hawkins explained the reason for the title to Buddy Feyne, who created lyrics to express the concept.

Notable performers

Notable 20th-century performers who worked on the Chitlin' Circuit included: * Count Basie * Peg Leg Bates * Tiny Bradshaw *

James Brown James Joseph Brown (May 3, 1933 – December 25, 2006) was an American singer, dancer, musician, record producer and bandleader. The central progenitor of funk music and a major figure of 20th century music, he is often referred to by the honor ...

& The Famous Flames *

Cab Calloway Cabell Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American singer, songwriter, bandleader, conductor and dancer. He was associated with the Cotton Club in Harlem, where he was a regular performer and became a popular vocalist ...

* Ray Charles *

Louis Jordan Louis Thomas Jordan (July 8, 1908 – February 4, 1975) was an American saxophonist, multi-instrumentalist, songwriter and bandleader who was popular from the late 1930s to the early 1950s. Known as " the King of the Jukebox", he earned his high ...

* Lucky Millinder * Dorothy Dandridge *

Sammy Davis, Jr. Samuel George Davis Jr. (December 8, 1925 – May 16, 1990) was an American singer, dancer, actor, comedian, film producer and television director. At age three, Davis began his career in vaudeville with his father Sammy Davis Sr. and the ...

* Fats Domino *

Duke Ellington Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington (April 29, 1899 – May 24, 1974) was an American jazz pianist, composer, and leader of his eponymous jazz orchestra from 1923 through the rest of his life. Born and raised in Washington, D.C., Ellington was based ...

* Ella Fitzgerald * Little Milton *

Redd Foxx John Elroy Sanford (December 9, 1922 – October 11, 1991), better known by his stage name Redd Foxx, was an American stand-up comedian and actor. Foxx gained success with his raunchy nightclub act before and during the civil rights movement. ...

Aretha Franklin Aretha Louise Franklin ( ; March 25, 1942 – August 16, 2018) was an American singer, songwriter and pianist. Referred to as the " Queen of Soul", she has twice been placed ninth in ''Rolling Stone''s "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". With ...

* Billie Holiday *

John Lee Hooker John Lee Hooker (August 22, 1912 or 1917 – June 21, 2001) was an American blues singer, songwriter, and guitarist. The son of a sharecropper, he rose to prominence performing an electric guitar-style adaptation of Delta blues. Hooker often ...

* Roy Hamilton *

Lena Horne Lena Mary Calhoun Horne (June 30, 1917 – May 9, 2010) was an American dancer, actress, singer, and civil rights activist. Horne's career spanned more than seventy years, appearing in film, television, and theatre. Horne joined the chorus of th ...

Sam Cooke Samuel Cook (January 22, 1931 – December 11, 1964), known professionally as Sam Cooke, was an American singer and songwriter. Considered to be a pioneer and one of the most influential soul artists of all time, Cooke is commonly referred ...

Jackie Wilson Jack Leroy Wilson Jr. (June 9, 1934 – January 21, 1984) was an American singer and performer of the 1950s and 60s. He was a prominent figure in the transition of rhythm and blues into soul. Nicknamed "Mr. Excitement", he was considered a mas ...

* Teddy Wilson *

Etta James Jamesetta Hawkins (January 25, 1938 – January 20, 2012), known professionally as Etta James, was an American singer who performed in various genres, including gospel, blues, jazz, R&B, rock and roll, and soul. Starting her career in 1954, sh ...

* Albert King * B.B. King *

Freddy King Freddy or Freddie may refer to: Entertainment *Freddy (comic strip), a newspaper comic strip which ran from 1955 to 1980 *Freddie (Cromartie), a character from the Japanese manga series''Cromartie High School'' *Freddie (dance), a short-lived 1960 ...

* Muddy Waters * Howlin' Wolf * Bobby "Blue" Bland * Tyrone Davis *

Willie Hightower Willie H. Hightower (October 1889, Nashville - December 1959, Chicago) was an American jazz cornetist and trumpeter. Hightower moved to New Orleans and played with a group called the American Stars from about 1908 to about 1917. He also accompani ...

* Joe Tex * Moms Mabley * Jay McShann * Roosevelt Sykes * The Dramatics *

Soul Children The Soul Children was an American vocal group who recorded soul music for Stax Records in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They had three top 10 hits on the U.S. ''Billboard'' R&B chart – "The Sweeter He Is" (1969), "Hearsay" (1972), and "I ...

* Wilson Pickett * Richard Pryor * Otis Redding *

Little Richard Richard Wayne Penniman (December 5, 1932 – May 9, 2020), known professionally as Little Richard, was an American musician, singer, and songwriter. He was an influential figure in popular music and culture for seven decades. Described as the " ...

* Ike & Tina Turner * The Miracles * The Jackson 5 * Gladys Knight & the Pips * The Four Tops * The Temptations * The Isley Brothers *

Marvin Gaye Marvin Pentz Gay Jr., who also spelled his surname as Gaye (April 2, 1939 – April 1, 1984), was an American singer and songwriter. He helped to shape the sound of Motown in the 1960s, first as an in-house session player and later as a solo ar ...

& Tammi Terrell * Johnnie Taylor * Bobby Rush * Flip Wilson

Mississippi Blues Trail marker

A historic marker designated by the Mississippi Blues Commission on the Mississippi Blues Trail was placed in front of the 100 Men Hall in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. The 100 Men Hall is one of the rare still standing, still active blues venues on the trail. The second historic marker designated by the Mississippi Blues Commission on the Mississippi Blues Trail was placed in front of the Southern Whispers Restaurant on Nelson Street in Greenville, Mississippi, a stop on the Chitlin' Circuit in the early days of the blues. The marker commemorates the importance of this site in the history of the

in Mississippi. In the 1940s and 1950s, this historic strip drew crowds to the flourishing club scene to hear

Delta blues Delta blues is one of the earliest-known styles of blues. It originated in the Mississippi Delta, and is regarded as a regional variant of country blues. Guitar and harmonica are its dominant instruments; slide guitar is a hallmark of the s ...

, big band,

jump blues Jump blues is an up-tempo style of blues, usually played by small groups and featuring horn instruments. It was popular in the 1940s and was a precursor of rhythm and blues and rock and roll. Appreciation of jump blues was renewed in the 1990s as ...

, and jazz.

Musical references

* 1976: The Kudzu Band – ''Chitlin' Circuit'' * 1995: Wentus Blues Band – ''Chitlin' Circuit'' * 2005: North Carolina hip-hop group Little Brother named their

mixtape A mixtape (alternatively mix-tape, mix tape or mixed tape) is a compilation of music, typically from multiple sources, recorded onto a medium. With origins in the 1980s, the term normally describes a homemade compilation of music onto a cassette ...

''Chittlin Circuit 1.5'' * 2019: A Strange Loop

musical Musical is the adjective of music. Musical may also refer to: * Musical theatre, a performance art that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting and dance * Musical film and television, a genre of film and television that incorporates into the narr ...

Michael R. Jackson Michael R. Jackson (born 1981) is an American playwright, composer, and lyricist, best known for his musical ''A Strange Loop'', which won the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the 2022 Tony Award for Best Musical. He is originally from Detroit, M ...

references riding the Chitlin' Circuit in a lyric from the song "Tyler Perry Writes Real Life"

References

External links

Jimi Hendrix and the Chitlin' Circuit

Flickr Photo Set: Historic Chitlin' Circuit Clubs
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chitlin' Circuit African-American cultural history Vaudeville theaters Historically African-American theaters and music venues Mississippi Blues Trail