Chiricahua ( ) is a band of
Apache
The Apache () are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño an ...
Native Americans.
Based in the
Southern Plains
The Great Plains (french: Grandes Plaines), sometimes simply "the Plains", is a broad expanse of plain, flatland in North America. It is located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, step ...
and Southwestern United States, the Chiricahua (Tsokanende ) are related to other Apache groups: Ndendahe (Mogollon, Carrizaleño), Tchihende (Mimbreño), Sehende (Mescalero), Lipan, Salinero,
Plains
In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands.
In ...
, and Western Apache. Chiricahua historically shared a common area, language, customs, and intertwined family relations with their fellow Apaches. At the time of European contact, they had a territory of 15 million acres (61,000 km
2) in Southwestern
New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ker ...
and Southeastern
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
in the United States and in Northern
Sonora
Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is d ...
and
Chihuahua in
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
.
Today Chiricahua are enrolled in three
federally recognized tribe
This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States of America. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes were legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United ...
s in the United States: the
Fort Sill Apache Tribe, located near
Apache, Oklahoma, with a small
reservation outside
Deming, New Mexico
Deming (, ''DEM-ing'') is a city in Luna County, New Mexico, Luna County, New Mexico, United States, west of Las Cruces, New Mexico, Las Cruces and north of the Mexico–United States border, Mexican border. The population was 14,855 as of the ...
; the
Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Reservation
Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-c ...
near
Ruidoso, New Mexico
Ruidoso is a village in Lincoln County, New Mexico, United States, adjacent to the Lincoln National Forest. The population was 8,029 at the 2010 census. The city of Ruidoso Downs and the unincorporated area of Alto are suburbs of Ruidoso, and ...
; and the
San Carlos Apache Tribe
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation ( Western Apache: Tsékʼáádn), in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1872 as a reservation for the Chiricahua Apache tribe as well as surrounding Yavapai and Apache bands removed f ...
in southeastern Arizona.
Name
The Chiricahua Apache, also written as ''Chiricagui'', ''Apaches de Chiricahui'', ''Chiricahues'', ''Chilicague'', ''Chilecagez'', and ''Chiricagua'', were given that name by the Spanish. The
White Mountain Coyotero Apache, including the ''Cibecue'' and ''Bylas'' groups of the
Western Apache
The Western Apache live primarily in east central Arizona, in the United States. Most live within reservations. The Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation, Tonto Apache, and the Fort McDowe ...
, referred to the Chiricahua by the name ''Ha'i’ą́há'', while the
San Carlos Apache
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation ( Western Apache: Tsékʼáádn), in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1872 as a reservation for the Chiricahua Apache tribe as well as surrounding Yavapai and Apache bands removed fr ...
called them ''Hák'ą́yé'' which means ″Eastern Sunrise″, or ″People in the East″. Sometimes they adapted this appellation and referred to themselves also as ''Ha’ishu Na gukande'' ('Sunrise People'). The
Mescalero Apache
Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-c ...
called the Western Apache and Chiricahua bands to their west ''Shá'i'áõde'' ("Western Apache People", "The People of the Sunset", "The People of the West"), when referring only to Chiricahuas they used ''Ch'úk'ânéõde'' ("People of a ridge or mountainside
ade of loose rocks
Ade, Adé, or ADE may refer to:
Aeronautics
*Ada Air's ICAO code
*Aden International Airport's IATA code
*Aeronautical Development Establishment, a laboratory of the DRDO in India
Medical
* Adverse Drug Event
*Antibody-dependent enhancement
*ADE ...
) or sometimes ''Tã'aa'ji k'ee'déõkaa'õde'' ("The Ones who are Covered
ith breech cloths).
Navajo
The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States.
With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United ...
refer to the Chiricahua as ''Chíshí'' ("Southern People").
The Chiricahua
autonym
Autonym may refer to:
* Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym
* Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name
See also
* Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...
, or name by which they refer to themselves, is simply (depending on dialect) ''Nde, Ne, Néndé, Héndé'', ''Hen-de'' or ''õne'' ("The People, Men", "the People of"); they never called themselves ″Apaches". The Chiricahua referred to outsiders, such as Americans, Mexicans or other Indians, as ''Enee'', ''ⁿdáa'' or ''Indah / N'daa''. This word has two possible meanings, the first being "strange people, non-Apache people" or "enemy", but another being "eye". Sometimes it is said that all Apaches referred to the Americans and European settlers (with exception of the Mexicans) as ''Bi'ndah-Li'ghi' / Bi'nda-li'ghi'o'yi'' ("White Eyes"), but this seems a name from Mescalero and Lipan Apache bands, as the Chiricahua bands called them ''Daadatlijende'', meaning "Blue/green eye people" or ''Indaaɫigáí / Indaaɫigánde'' meaning "White skinned or pale colored people" or literally "Strange, non-Apache people, which are white-skinned"). ''Łigáí'' means "it is white" or it can be translate as "it is pale colored". The í on the end usually translates as "the one that is", but in the context of human beings, can mean "the group who are".
Culture and organization
Several loosely affiliated bands of Apache came improperly to be usually known as the Chiricahuas. These included the ''Chokonen'' (
recte
The Latin adverb ''sic'' (; "thus", "just as"; in full: , "thus was it written") inserted after a quoted word or passage indicates that the quoted matter has been transcribed or translated exactly as found in the source text, complete with any e ...
: Tsokanende), the ''Chihenne'' (recte: Tchihende), the ''Nednai'' (''Nednhi'') and ''Bedonkohe'' (recte, both of them together: Ndendahe). Today, all are commonly referred to as Chiricahua, but they were not historically a single band nor the same Apache division, being more correctly identified, all together, as "Central Apaches".
Many other bands and groups of
Apachean language
Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The language is spoken to a ...
-speakers ranged over eastern Arizona and the American Southwest. The bands that are grouped under the Chiricahua term today had much history together: they intermarried and lived alongside each other, and they also occasionally fought with each other. They formed short-term as well as longer alliances that have caused scholars to classify them as one people.
The Apachean groups and the Navajo peoples were part of the
Athabaskan
Athabaskan (also spelled ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'' or ''Athapascan'', and also known as Dene) is a large family of indigenous languages of North America, located in western North America in three areal language groups: Northern, Pacific C ...
migration into the North American continent from Asia, across the
Bering Strait from
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
. As the people moved south and east into North America, groups splintered off and became differentiated by language and culture over time. Some anthropologists believe that the
Lipan Apache
Lipan Apache are a band of Apache, a Southern Athabaskan Indigenous people, who have lived in the Southwest and Southern Plains for centuries. At the time of European and African contact, they lived in New Mexico, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and ...
and the
Navajo
The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States.
With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United ...
were pushed south and west into what is now New Mexico and Arizona by pressure from other
Great Plains
The Great Plains (french: Grandes Plaines), sometimes simply "the Plains", is a broad expanse of flatland in North America. It is located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, an ...
Indians, such as the
Comanche
The Comanche or Nʉmʉnʉʉ ( com, Nʉmʉnʉʉ, "the people") are a Native American tribe from the Southern Plains of the present-day United States. Comanche people today belong to the federally recognized Comanche Nation, headquartered in La ...
and
Kiowa
Kiowa () people are a Native American tribe and an indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in the 17th and 18th centuries,Pritzker 326 and eve ...
. Among the last of such splits were those that resulted in the formation of the different Apachean bands whom the later Europeans encountered: the southwestern Apache groups and the Navajo. Although both speaking forms of Southern Athabaskan, the Navajo and Apache have become culturally distinct.
The "Chihenne (Tchihende)", "Nednai/Nednhi (Ndendahe)" and "Bedonkohe" intermarried sometimes with Mescalero Bands of New Mexico and Chihuahua and formed alliances with them; therefore their Mescalero kin did know the names of Chiricahua bands and local groups: ''Chíhéõde'' ("The People of Red Ceremonial Paint", "The Red Ceremonial Paint People"), ''Ndé'ndaa'õde / Ndé'ndaaõde'' ("The Apache People (who live among) Enemies") and ''Bidáõ'kaõde / Bidáõ'kahéõde'' ("The People whom We Met", "The People whom We Came Upon"), The Mescalero use the term -õde, -éõde, -néõde, or -héõde ("the people of") instead of the Chiricahua Nde, Ne, Néndé, Héndé, Hen-de or õne ("the people of").
History
The Tsokanende (Chiricahua) Apache division was once led, from the beginning of the 18th century, by chiefs such as
Pisago Cabezón,
Relles,
Posito Moraga,
Yrigollen,
Tapilá,
Teboca,
Vívora,
Miguel Narbona
-->
Miguel is a given name and surname, the Portuguese and Spanish form of the Hebrew name Michael. It may refer to:
Places
* Pedro Miguel, a parish in the municipality of Horta and the island of Faial in the Azores Islands
* São Miguel (disam ...
,
Esquinaline, and finally
Cochise
Cochise (; Apache: ''Shi-ka-She'' or ''A-da-tli-chi'', lit.: ''having the quality or strength of an oak''; later ''K'uu-ch'ish'' or ''Cheis'', lit. ''oak''; June 8, 1874) was leader of the Chihuicahui local group of the Chokonen and principa ...
(whose name was derived from the Apache word ''Cheis,'' meaning "having the quality of oak") and, after his death, his sons
Tahzay and, later,
Naiche
Chief Naiche ( ; –1919) was the final hereditary chief of the Chiricahua band of Apache Indians.Johansen, Bruce E"Naiche (ca. 1857–1919)." ''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.'' (retrieved 25 Sept 2011 ...
, under the guardianship of Cochise's war chief and brother-in-law
Nahilzay, and the independent chiefs
Chihuahua,
Ulzana Ulzana ( – 1909, also known as Josanni, Jolsanie or Ozaní’ – ″Tanned buckskin″ or Bį-sópàn – ″Big Buckskin″), was a Tsokanende Apache war chief, brother of Chihuahua.
Biography
Both the brothers were loyal and warlike support ...
,
Skinya and
Pionsenay; Tchihende (Mimbreño) people was led, during the same period, by chiefs as
Juan José Compa
''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish language, Spanish and Manx language, Manx versions of ''John (given name), John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronoun ...
, Fuerte also known as
Soldado Fiero,
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
,
Cuchillo Negro
Baishan, Spanish name Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) (c. 1796 – May 24, 1857), was a Tchihende ( Mimbres) Apache chieftain, of the Warm Springs Apache Band during the 1830s to 1850s.
Apache war-leader and chief
Baishan ("Knife"), son of the ...
,
Delgadito
Atsidi Sani ( nv, ) (c. 1830 – c. 1870 or 1918) was the first known Navajo silversmith.
Background
Little is known of Atsidi Sani. However, it is known that he was born near Wheatfields, Arizona, c. 1830 as part of the Dibelizhini (Black Sheep) ...
, Ponce,
Nana
Nana, Nanna, Na Na or NANA may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Nana (given name), including a list of people and characters with the given name
* Nana (surname), including a list of people and characters with the surname
* Nana ( ...
,
Victorio
Victorio (Bidu-ya, Beduiat; ca. 1825–October 14, 1880) was a warrior and chief of the Warm Springs band of the Tchihendeh (or Chihenne, often called Mimbreño) division of the central Apaches in what is now the American states of Texas, New ...
,
Loco
Loco or El Loco may refer to:
Places United States
* Loco, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Loco, Oklahoma, a village
* Loco, Texas, an unincorporated community
* Loco Mountain (Labinero, Montana), a mountain peak of the Crazy Mountains ...
,
Mangus; Ndendahe (Mogollón and Carrizaleño / Janero) Apache people, in the meanwhile, was led by
Mahko and, after him,
Mano Mocha
Mano may refer to:
People
* Mano people, an ethnic group in Liberia
* Mano (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname
* Mano (Mozambican footballer) (born 1984), real name Celso Halilo de Abdul
* Mano (Portuguese footballer ...
,
Coleto Amarillo,
Luis
Luis is a given name. It is the Spanish form of the originally Germanic name or . Other Iberian Romance languages have comparable forms: (with an accent mark on the i) in Portuguese and Galician, in Aragonese and Catalan, while is archaic ...
,
Laceres,
Felipe,
Natiza, and finally
Juh
Juh (also known as Ju, Ho, Whoa, and sometimes Who;Kraft, Louis (2000). - ''Gatewood and Geronimo''. - Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. - p.4. - c. 1825 – Sept/Oct 1883) was a warrior and leader of the Janeros local group of the Ndé ...
and
''Goyaałé'' (known to the Americans as Geronimo). After Victorio's death, Nana, Gerónimo, Mangus (youngest Mangas Coloradas' son) and youngest Cochise's son ''
Naiche
Chief Naiche ( ; –1919) was the final hereditary chief of the Chiricahua band of Apache Indians.Johansen, Bruce E"Naiche (ca. 1857–1919)." ''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.'' (retrieved 25 Sept 2011 ...
'' were the last leaders of the Central Apaches, and their mixed Apache group was the last to continue to resist
U.S. government control of the
American Southwest
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, N ...
.
European-Apache relations
From the beginning of EuropeanAmerican/Apache relations, there was conflict between them, as they competed for land and other resources, and had very different cultures. Their encounters were preceded by more than 100 years of Spanish colonial and Mexican incursions and settlement on the Apache lands. The United States settlers were newcomers to the competition for land and resources in the
Southwest
The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sepa ...
, but they inherited its complex history, and brought their own attitudes with them about American Indians and how to use the land. By the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( es, Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo), officially the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits, and Settlement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States, is the peace treaty that was signed on 2 ...
of 1848, the US took on the responsibility to prevent and punish cross-border incursions by Apache who were raiding in Mexico.
The Apache viewed the United States colonists with ambivalence, and in some cases enlisted them as allies in the early years against the Mexicans. In 1852, the US and some of the Chiricahua signed a treaty, but it had little lasting effect. During the 1850s, American miners and settlers began moving into Chiricahua territory, beginning encroachment that had been renewed in the migration to the Southwest of the previous two decades.
This forced the Apachean people to change their lives as nomads, free on the land. The US Army defeated them and forced them into the confinement of reservation life, on lands ill-suited for subsistence farming, which the US proffered as the model of civilization. Today, the Chiricahua are preserving their culture as much as possible, while forging new relationships with the peoples around them. The Chiricahua are a living and vibrant culture, a part of the greater American whole and yet distinct based on their history and culture.
Hostilities
Although they had lived peaceably with most Americans in the
New Mexico Territory
The Territory of New Mexico was an organized incorporated territory of the United States from September 9, 1850, until January 6, 1912. It was created from the U.S. provisional government of New Mexico, as a result of ''Santa Fe de Nuevo México ...
up to about 1860, the Chiricahua became increasingly hostile to American encroachment in the Southwest after a number of provocations had occurred between them.
In 1835, Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps which further inflamed the situation. In 1837
Warm Springs Mimbreños
Warm, WARM, or Warmth may refer to:
* A somewhat high temperature
* Kindness
Music
* Warm (The Lettermen album), ''Warm'' (The Lettermen album), 1967, and the title song
* Warm (Johnny Mathis album), ''Warm'' (Johnny Mathis album), 1958, and the ...
' head chief and famed raider,
Soldado Fiero also known as Fuerte was killed by Mexican soldiers of the garrison at
Janos (only two days' travel from Santa Rita del Cobre), and his son Cuchillo Negro succeeded him as head chief and went to war against Chihuahua for revenge. In the same 1837, the American John (also known as James) Johnson invited the
Coppermine Mimbreños Coppermine may refer, apart from the primary meaning of copper extraction, to:
* Coppermine Bay, Greenland
* Coppermine Herald, one of the heralds at the Canadian Heraldic Authority
* Coppermine Peninsula, Antarctica
* Coppermine Photo Gallery
* Cop ...
in the Pinos Altos area to trade with his party (near the mines at
Santa Rita del Cobre
Santa Rita is a ghost town in Grant County in the U.S. state of New Mexico. The site of Chino copper mine, Santa Rita was located fifteen miles east of Silver City.
History
Copper mining in the area began late in the Spanish colonial period, but ...
, New Mexico) and, when they gathered around a blanket on which ''pinole'' (a ground corn flour) had been placed for them, Johnson and his men opened fire on the Chihenne with rifles and a concealed cannon loaded with scrap iron, glass, and a length of chain. They killed about 20 Apache, including the chief
Juan José Compá.
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
is said to have witnessed this attack, which inflamed his and other Apache warriors' desires for vengeance for many years; he led the survivors to safety and subsequently, together with
Cuchillo Negro
Baishan, Spanish name Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) (c. 1796 – May 24, 1857), was a Tchihende ( Mimbres) Apache chieftain, of the Warm Springs Apache Band during the 1830s to 1850s.
Apache war-leader and chief
Baishan ("Knife"), son of the ...
, took Mimbreño revenge. The historian Rex W. Strickland argued that the Apache had come to the meeting with their own intentions of attacking Johnson's party, but were taken by surprise. In 1839 scalp-hunter
James Kirker
James is a common English language surname and given name:
*James (name), the typically masculine first name James
* James (surname), various people with the last name James
James or James City may also refer to:
People
* King James (disambiguat ...
was employed by Robert McKnight to re-open the road to Santa Rita del Cobre.
After the conclusion of the US/Mexican War (1848) and the
Gadsden Purchase
The Gadsden Purchase ( es, region=MX, la Venta de La Mesilla "The Sale of La Mesilla") is a region of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that the United States acquired from Mexico by the Treaty of Mesilla, which took effe ...
(1853), Americans began to enter the territory in greater numbers. This increased the opportunities for incidents and misunderstandings. The Apaches, including Mangas Coloradas and Cuchillo Negro, were not at first hostile to the Americans, considering them enemies of their own Mexican enemies.
Cuchillo Negro, with Ponce,
Delgadito
Atsidi Sani ( nv, ) (c. 1830 – c. 1870 or 1918) was the first known Navajo silversmith.
Background
Little is known of Atsidi Sani. However, it is known that he was born near Wheatfields, Arizona, c. 1830 as part of the Dibelizhini (Black Sheep) ...
,
Victorio
Victorio (Bidu-ya, Beduiat; ca. 1825–October 14, 1880) was a warrior and chief of the Warm Springs band of the Tchihendeh (or Chihenne, often called Mimbreño) division of the central Apaches in what is now the American states of Texas, New ...
and other Mimbreño chiefs, signed a treaty at Fort Webster in April 1853, but, during the spring of 1857 the U.S. Army set out on a campaign, led by Col. Benjamin L.E. deBonneville, Col. Dixon S. Miles (3° Cavalry from Fort Thorn) and Col. William W. Loring (commanding a Mounted Rifles Regiment from Albuquerque), against Mogollon and Coyotero Apaches: Loring's Pueblo Indian scouts found out and attacked an Apache rancheria in the Canyon de Los Muertos Carneros (May 25, 1857), where Cuchillo Negro and some Mimbreño Apache were resting after a raid against the Navahos. Some Apaches, including Cuchillo Negro himself, were killed.
In December 1860, after several bad incidents provoked by the miners led by James H. Tevis in the Pinos Altos area, ''
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
'' went to
Pinos Altos, New Mexico
Pinos Altos is a census-designated place in Grant County, New Mexico, United States. The community was a mining town, formed in 1860 following the discovery of gold in the nearby Pinos Altos Mountains. The town site is located about five to ten m ...
to try to convince the miners to move away from the area he loved and to go to the Sierra Madre and seek gold there, but they tied him to a tree and whipped him badly. His Mimbreño and Ndendahe followers and related Chiricahua bands were incensed by the treatment of their respected chief. Mangas had been just as great a chief in his prime (during the 1830s and 1840s), along with Cuchillo Negro, as Cochise was then becoming.
In 1861, the US Army seized and killed some of Cochise's relatives near
Apache Pass
Apache Pass, also known by its earlier Spanish name Puerto del Dado ("Pass of the Die"), is a historic mountain pass in the U.S. state of Arizona between the Dos Cabezas Mountains and Chiricahua Mountains at an elevation of . It is approximately ...
, in what became known as the
Bascom Affair. Remembering how Cochise had escaped, the Chiricahua called the incident "cut the tent." In 1863, Gen. James H. Carleton set out leading a new campaign against the Mescalero Apache, and Capt. Edmund Shirland (10° California Cavalry) invited
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
for a "parley" but, after he entered the U.S. camp to negotiate a peace, the great Mimbreño chief was arrested and convicted in
Fort McLane
A fortification is a military construction or building designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is also used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Latin ''fortis'' ("strong") and ''facere'' ...
, where, probably on Gen. Joseph R. West's orders, Mangas Coloradas was killed by American soldiers (Jan. 18, 1863). His body was mutilated by the soldiers, and his people were enraged by his murder. The Chiricahuas began to consider the Americans as "enemies we go against them." From that time, they waged almost constant war against US settlers and the Army for the next 23 years.
Cochise
Cochise (; Apache: ''Shi-ka-She'' or ''A-da-tli-chi'', lit.: ''having the quality or strength of an oak''; later ''K'uu-ch'ish'' or ''Cheis'', lit. ''oak''; June 8, 1874) was leader of the Chihuicahui local group of the Chokonen and principa ...
, his brother-in-law
Nahilzay (war chief of Cochise's people),
Chihuahua,
Skinya,
Pionsenay,
Ulzana Ulzana ( – 1909, also known as Josanni, Jolsanie or Ozaní’ – ″Tanned buckskin″ or Bį-sópàn – ″Big Buckskin″), was a Tsokanende Apache war chief, brother of Chihuahua.
Biography
Both the brothers were loyal and warlike support ...
and other warring chiefs became a nightmare to settlers and military garrisons and patrols. In the meantime, the great
Victorio
Victorio (Bidu-ya, Beduiat; ca. 1825–October 14, 1880) was a warrior and chief of the Warm Springs band of the Tchihendeh (or Chihenne, often called Mimbreño) division of the central Apaches in what is now the American states of Texas, New ...
,
Delgadito
Atsidi Sani ( nv, ) (c. 1830 – c. 1870 or 1918) was the first known Navajo silversmith.
Background
Little is known of Atsidi Sani. However, it is known that he was born near Wheatfields, Arizona, c. 1830 as part of the Dibelizhini (Black Sheep) ...
(soon killed in 1864),
Nana
Nana, Nanna, Na Na or NANA may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Nana (given name), including a list of people and characters with the given name
* Nana (surname), including a list of people and characters with the surname
* Nana ( ...
,
Loco
Loco or El Loco may refer to:
Places United States
* Loco, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Loco, Oklahoma, a village
* Loco, Texas, an unincorporated community
* Loco Mountain (Labinero, Montana), a mountain peak of the Crazy Mountains ...
, young
Mangus (last son of Mangas Coloradas) and other minor chiefs led on the warpath the Mimbreños, Chiricahuas' cousins and allies, and
Juh
Juh (also known as Ju, Ho, Whoa, and sometimes Who;Kraft, Louis (2000). - ''Gatewood and Geronimo''. - Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. - p.4. - c. 1825 – Sept/Oct 1883) was a warrior and leader of the Janeros local group of the Ndé ...
led the Ndendahe (Nednhi and Bedonkohe together).
In 1872, General
Oliver O. Howard, with the help of
Thomas Jeffords, succeeded in negotiating a peace with
Cochise
Cochise (; Apache: ''Shi-ka-She'' or ''A-da-tli-chi'', lit.: ''having the quality or strength of an oak''; later ''K'uu-ch'ish'' or ''Cheis'', lit. ''oak''; June 8, 1874) was leader of the Chihuicahui local group of the Chokonen and principa ...
. The US established a Chiricahua Apache Reservation with Jeffords as US Agent, near
Fort Bowie
Fort Bowie was a 19th-century outpost of the United States Army located in southeastern Arizona near the present day town of Willcox, Arizona. The remaining buildings and site are now protected as Fort Bowie National Historic Site.
Fort Bowi ...
, Arizona Territory. It remained open for about 4 years, during which the chief Cochise died (from natural causes). In 1876, about two years after Cochise's death, the US moved the Chiricahua and some other Apache bands to the
San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation (Western Apache: Tsékʼáádn), in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1872 as a reservation for the Chiricahua Apache tribe as well as surrounding Yavapai and Apache bands removed fro ...
, still in Arizona. This was in response to public outcry after the killings of
Orizoba Spence
Orizoba O. Spence (1847 – April 7, 1876), alternatively spelled Orisoba, was a sergeant in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor for gallantry in action during the Indian Wars.
Biography
Spence was born in 1847 in Tionesta, P ...
and Nicholas Rogers at Sulpher Springs. The
mountain people
Hill people, also referred to as mountain people, is a general term for people who live in the hills and mountains.
This includes all rugged land above and all land (including plateaus) above elevation.
The climate is generally harsh, with s ...
hated the desert environment of San Carlos, and some frequently began to leave the reservation and sometimes raided neighboring settlers.
They surrendered to General
Nelson Miles
Nelson Appleton Miles (August 8, 1839 – May 15, 1925) was an American military general who served in the American Civil War, the American Indian Wars, and the Spanish–American War.
From 1895 to 1903, Miles served as the last Commanding Gen ...
in 1886. The best-known warrior leader of the "renegades", although he was not considered a 'chief', was the forceful and influential
Geronimo
Geronimo ( apm, Goyaałé, , ; June 16, 1829 – February 17, 1909) was a prominent leader and medicine man from the Bedonkohe band of the Ndendahe Apache people. From 1850 to 1886, Geronimo joined with members of three other Central Apache ba ...
. He and ''
Naiche
Chief Naiche ( ; –1919) was the final hereditary chief of the Chiricahua band of Apache Indians.Johansen, Bruce E"Naiche (ca. 1857–1919)." ''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.'' (retrieved 25 Sept 2011 ...
'' (the son of Cochise and hereditary leader after Tahzay's death) together led many of the resisters during those last few years of freedom.
![Taghdeem be doostam Pastoral](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Taghdeem_be_doostam_Pastoral.JPG)
They made a stronghold in the
Chiricahua Mountains
The Chiricahua Mountains massif is a large mountain range in southeastern Arizona which is part of the Basin and Range province of the west and southwestern United States and northwest Mexico; the range is part of the Coronado National Forest. T ...
, part of which is now inside
Chiricahua National Monument
Chiricahua National Monument is a unit of the National Park System located in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. The monument was established on April 18, 1924, to protect its extensive hoodoos and balancing rocks. The Faraway Ra ...
, and across the intervening
Willcox Playa
The Willcox Playa is a large endorheic dry lake or sink (playa) adjacent to Willcox, Arizona in Cochise County, in the southeast corner of the state. It is part of the Sonoran Desert ecoregion and is the remnant of a Pleistocene era pluvial Lak ...
to the northeast, in the
Dragoon Mountains
The Dragoon Mountains are a range of mountains located in Cochise County, Arizona. The range is about 25 mi (40 km) long, running on an axis extending south-south east through Willcox. The name originates from the 3rd U.S. Cavalry Drag ...
(all in southeastern Arizona). In late frontier times, the Chiricahua ranged from San Carlos and the White Mountains of Arizona, to the adjacent mountains of southwestern New Mexico around what is now Silver City, and down into the mountain sanctuaries of the Sierra Madre (of northern Mexico). There they often joined with their ''Nednai'' Apache kin.
General
George Crook
George R. Crook (September 8, 1828 – March 21, 1890) was a career United States Army officer, most noted for his distinguished service during the American Civil War and the Indian Wars. During the 1880s, the Apache nicknamed Crook ''Nantan ...
, then General Miles' troops, aided by Apache scouts from other groups, pursued the exiles until they gave up. Mexico and the United States had negotiated an agreement allowing their troops in pursuit of the Apache to continue into each other's territories. This prevented the Chiricahua groups from using the border as an escape route, and as they could gain little time to rest and consider their next move, the fatigue, attrition and demoralization of the constant hunt led to their surrender.
The final 34 hold-outs, including Geronimo and Naiche, surrendered to units of General Miles' forces in September 1886. From Bowie Station, Arizona, they were entrained, along with most of the other remaining Chiricahua (as well as the Army's Apache scouts), and exiled to
Fort Marion
The Castillo de San Marcos (Spanish for "St. Mark's Castle") is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida.
It was designed by the Spanish ...
,
Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
. At least two Apache warriors,
Massai
Massai (also known as: Masai, Massey, Massi, Mah–sii, Massa, Wasse, Wassil or by the nickname "Big Foot" Massai; c. 1847–1906, 1911?Simmons, Marc. - "TRAIL DUST: Massai's escape part of Apache history". - ''The Santa Fe New Mexican''. - Nov ...
and Gray Lizard, escaped from their prison car and made their way back to San Carlos Arizona in a journey to their ancestral lands.
After a number of Chiricahua deaths at the
Fort Marion
The Castillo de San Marcos (Spanish for "St. Mark's Castle") is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida.
It was designed by the Spanish ...
prison near
St. Augustine, Florida, the survivors were moved, first to
Alabama
(We dare defend our rights)
, anthem = "Alabama (state song), Alabama"
, image_map = Alabama in United States.svg
, seat = Montgomery, Alabama, Montgomery
, LargestCity = Huntsville, Alabama, Huntsville
, LargestCounty = Baldwin County, Al ...
, and later to
Fort Sill, Oklahoma
Fort Sill is a United States Army post north of Lawton, Oklahoma, about 85 miles (136.8 km) southwest of Oklahoma City. It covers almost .
The fort was first built during the Indian Wars. It is designated as a National Historic Landmark ...
. Geronimo's surrender ended the Indian Wars in the United States. However, another group of Chiricahua (also known as the ''Nameless Ones'' or ''Bronco Apache'') were not captured by U.S. forces and refused to surrender. They escaped over the border to Mexico, and settled in the remote
Sierra Madre
Sierra Madre (Spanish, 'mother mountain range') may refer to:
Places and mountains Mexico
*Sierra Madre Occidental, a mountain range in northwestern Mexico and southern Arizona
*Sierra Madre Oriental, a mountain range in northeastern Mexico
*S ...
mountains. There they built hidden camps, raided homes for cattle and other food supplies, and engaged in periodic firefights with units of the Mexican Army and police. Most were eventually captured or killed by soldiers or by private ranchers armed and deputized by the Mexican government.
Eventually, the surviving Chiricahua prisoners were moved to the
Fort Sill
Fort Sill is a United States Army post north of Lawton, Oklahoma, about 85 miles (136.8 km) southwest of Oklahoma City. It covers almost .
The fort was first built during the Indian Wars. It is designated as a National Historic Landmark ...
military reservation in Oklahoma. In August 1912, by an act of the U.S. Congress, they were released from their prisoner of war status as they were thought to be no further threat. Although promised land at Fort Sill, they met resistance from local non-Apache. They were given the choice to remain at Fort Sill or to relocate to the Mescalero reservation near Ruidoso, New Mexico. Two-thirds of the group, 183 people, elected to go to New Mexico, while 78 remained in Oklahoma. Their descendants still reside in these places. At the time, they were not permitted to return to Arizona because of hostility from the long wars.
in 1912 many different Apache bands returned to San Carlos Apache lands after their release from Fort Sill Apache Reservation.
Bands
![Viola & Agnes Chihuahua, Apaches, 1916](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Viola_%26_Agnes_Chihuahua%2C_Apaches%2C_1916.jpg)
In the Chiricahua culture, the "band" as a unit was much more important than the
American or European concept of "tribe". The Chiricahua had no name for themselves (autonym) as a people. The name Chiricahua is most likely the Spanish rendering of the
Opata
The Opata (written Ópata in Spanish, pronounced with stress on the first syllable: /ˈopata/) are three indigenous peoples of Mexico. Opata territory, the “Opatería” in Spanish, encompasses the mountainous northeast and central part of the ...
word ''Chihuicahui or Chiguicagui'' ('mountain of the wild turkey') for the
Chiricahua Mountains
The Chiricahua Mountains massif is a large mountain range in southeastern Arizona which is part of the Basin and Range province of the west and southwestern United States and northwest Mexico; the range is part of the Coronado National Forest. T ...
, later corrupted into Chiricahui/Chiricahua. The Chiricahua tribal territory encompassed today's SE Arizona, SW New Mexico, NE Sonora and NW Chihuahua. The Chiricahua range extended to the east as far as the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico and to the west as far as the
San Pedro River Valley in Arizona, north of
Magdalena just below present day Hwy I-40 corridor in New Mexico and with the town
Ciudad Madera
Madera, also known as Ciudad Madera, is a town and seat of the municipality of Madera in the mountains of the northwestern Mexican state of Chihuahua. As of 2010, the city of Madera had a population of 15,447, up from 15,267 as of 2005. Institu ...
(276 km northwest of the state capital,
Chihuahua, and 536 km southwest of
Ciudad Juárez
Ciudad Juárez ( ; ''Juarez City''. ) is the most populous city in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is commonly referred to as Juárez and was known as El Paso del Norte (''The Pass of the North'') until 1888. Juárez is the seat of the Ju ...
(formerly known as Paso del Norte) on the
Mexico–United States border
The Mexico–United States border ( es, frontera Estados Unidos–México) is an international border separating Mexico and the United States, extending from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Gulf of Mexico in the east. The border traver ...
), as their southernmost range.
According to
Morris E. Opler
Morris Edward Opler (May 3, 1907 – May 13, 1996), American anthropologist and advocate of Japanese American civil rights, was born in Buffalo, New York. He was the brother of Marvin Opler, an anthropologist and social psychiatrist.
Morris Ople ...
(1941), the Chiricahuas consisted of three bands:
* Chíhéne or Chííhénee’ 'Red Paint People' (also known as Eastern Chiricahua, Warm Springs Apache, ''Gileños'', ''
Ojo Caliente'' Apache, Coppermine Apache, Copper Mine, ''Mimbreños'', ''Mimbres'', Mogollones, Tcihende),
* Ch'úk'ánéń or Ch'uuk'anén ‘Ridge of the Mountainside People’ (also known as Central Chiricahua, ''Ch'ók'ánéń'', Cochise Apache, ''Chiricahua'' proper, Chiricaguis, ''Tcokanene''), or the Sunrise People;
* Ndé'indaaí or Nédnaa'í 'Enemy People' or 'The Apache People (who live among) Enemies' known as the Southern Chiricahua, Pinery Apache, Bronco Apache, ''Ne'na'i''), or "those ahead at the end".
Schroeder (1947) lists five bands:
* Mogollon
* Copper Mine
* Mimbres
* Warm Spring
* Chiricahua proper
The
Chiricahua-Warm Springs Fort Sill Apache tribe in Oklahoma say they have four bands in Fort Sill: (some of the Arizona Apaches did not return to San Carlos or Fort Apache, White Mountain Apache warrior Eyelash is buried in Fort Sill cememtry, Southern Tonto Apache Chief/Scout Hosay is buried in Fort Apache cememtery, Hosay has family in Fort Sill and San Carlos today)
* Chíhéne (recte ''Tchi-he-nde'', more correctly known as the Warm Springs and Coppermine Mimbreño bands, ''Chinde''),
* Chukunen (recte ''Tsoka-ne-nde'', also known as the Chiricahua band, Chokonende),
* Bidánku (recte ''Bedonkohe Ndendahe'', also known as Bidanku, Bronco),
* Ndéndai (recte ''Nednhi Ndendahe'', also known as Ndénai, Nednai).
Today they use the word Chidikáágu (derived from the Spanish word ''Chiricahua'') to refer to the Chiricahua in general, and the word Indé, to refer to the Apache in general.
Other sources list these and additional bands (only the Chokonen and Chihuicahui local groups of the Chokonen band were considered by Chiricahua tribal members to be ''the real Chiricahua people''):
* Chokonen, Chukunende or Tsokanende (also known as ''Ch’ók’ánéń, Tsoka-ne-nde, Tcokanene, Chu-ku-nde, Chukunen, Ch’úk’ánéń, Ch’uuk’anén, Chuukonende'' or ''Ch'úk'ânéõne'' – ‘Ridge of the Mountainside People’, ''proper'' or Central Chiricahua)
** Chokonen local group (lived west of
Safford, Arizona, along the upper reaches of the
Gila River
The Gila River (; O'odham ima Keli Akimel or simply Akimel, Quechan: Haa Siʼil, Maricopa language: Xiil) is a tributary of the Colorado River flowing through New Mexico and Arizona in the United States. The river drains an arid watershed of n ...
, along the
San Francisco River in the north to the
Mogollon Mountains
The Mogollon Mountains or Mogollon Range ( or ) are a mountain range in Grant County and Catron County of southwestern New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. They are primarily protected within the Gila National Forest.
Geography
The Mo ...
in New Mexico in the east and the
San Simon Valley
The San Simon Valley is a broad valley east of the Chiricahua Mountains, in the northeast corner of Cochise County, Arizona and southeastern Graham County, Arizona, Graham County, with a small portion near Antelope Pass in Hidalgo County, New Mex ...
to the southwest, northeastern local group – headed by Chief Chihuahua (Kla-esh) and his segundo (war chief) and brother
Ulzana Ulzana ( – 1909, also known as Josanni, Jolsanie or Ozaní’ – ″Tanned buckskin″ or Bį-sópàn – ″Big Buckskin″), was a Tsokanende Apache war chief, brother of Chihuahua.
Biography
Both the brothers were loyal and warlike support ...
)
** Chihuicahui group (lived in SE Arizona in the
Huachuca Mountains
The Huachuca Mountains are part of the Sierra Vista Ranger District of the Coronado National Forest in Cochise County in southeastern Arizona, approximately south-southeast of Tucson and southwest of the city of Sierra Vista. Included in this ar ...
("Wa-CHOO-ka" Mountains; Apache name meaning "thunder mountain") west of the
San Pedro River, in the northwest along a line of today's
Benson Benson may refer to:
Animals
*Benson (fish), largest common carp caught in Britain
Places Geography
Canada
*Rural Municipality of Benson No. 35, Saskatchewan; rural municipality
*Benson, Saskatchewan; hamlet
United Kingdom
* Benson, Oxfordshire ...
, Johnson,
Willcox, and north along the San Simon River to east of SW New Mexico, controlled the southern
Pinaleño,
Winchester
Winchester is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city in Hampshire, England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government Districts of England, district, at the western end of the South Downs Nation ...
,
Dos Cabezas, Chiricahua, Dragoon and
Mule Mountains
The Mule Mountains are a north/south running mountain range located in the south-central area of Cochise County, Arizona. The highest peak, Mount Ballard, rises to . Prior to mining operations commencing there, the mountains were heavily fo ...
, also known as ''Huachuca Mountains Apache'' or by the Apache name ''Shaiahene'' ("Western People", "Sunset People"), southwestern local group – headed by
Cochise (Kùù'chish) ("
akood") and after him by his sons, therefore known as ''Chishhéõne'' ("The People of Wood", "The Wood People") or ''Cochise Apache''.)
*** Cai-a-he-ne local group (′Sun Goes Down People, i.e. People of the West′, were the westernmost of all Chihuicahui, western local group)
*** Tse-ga-ta-hen-de / Tséghát'ahéõne local group (′Rock Pocket People′, 'The People beside the Rocks', 'The People on the side of the Rocks', lived in the
Chiricahua Mountains
The Chiricahua Mountains massif is a large mountain range in southeastern Arizona which is part of the Basin and Range province of the west and southwestern United States and northwest Mexico; the range is part of the Coronado National Forest. T ...
)
*** Dzil-dun-as-le-n / Tsétáguãgáõne local group (′Rocks at Foot of Grass-Expanse′, 'The People of the Plains among the Rocks', 'The People of Rocky Plains', 'The People among White Rocks', lived in the
Dragoon Mountains
The Dragoon Mountains are a range of mountains located in Cochise County, Arizona. The range is about 25 mi (40 km) long, running on an axis extending south-south east through Willcox. The name originates from the 3rd U.S. Cavalry Drag ...
– according to Christian Naiche Jr. this was Cochise's local group.)
** Dzilmora local group (in SW New Mexico in the
Alamo Hueco,
Little Hatchet and in the
Big Hatchet Mountains (which were known to the Apache as ''Dzilmora''), southeastern local group)
** Animas local group (lived south of the Rio Gila, and west of the San Simon Valley in the
Peloncillo Mountains (called by Apache ''Dziltilcil'' – "Black Mountain") along the Arizona–New Mexico border south to the
Guadalupe Canyon and eastward in the
Animas Valley
The Animas Valley is a lengthy and narrow, north–south long, valley located in western Hidalgo County, New Mexico in the Bootheel Region; the extreme south of the valley lies in Sonora- Chihuahua, in the extreme northwest of the Chihuahuan De ...
and
Animas Mountains
The Animas Mountains are a small mountain range in Hidalgo County, within the " Boot-Heel" region of far southwestern New Mexico, in the United States. They extend north–south for about 30 miles (50 km) along the Continental Divide,Since ...
in SW New Mexico, ''southern local group'')
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived in NE Sonora and adjacent Arizona, in Guadalupe Canyon, along the
San Bernardino River
The Rio San Bernardino, or San Bernardino River, begins in extreme southeastern Cochise County, Arizona, and is a tributary of the Bavispe River, in Sonora, Mexico.
Watershed
The Rio San Bernardino has two major tributaries, the Agua Prieta River ...
, northwestern parts of the
Sierra San Luis, in the
Batepito Valley with the
Sierra Pitaycachi, east of
Fronteras
Fronteras is the seat of Fronteras Municipality in the northeastern part of the Mexican state of Sonora. Frontera translates as Border. The elevation is 1,120 meters and neighboring municipalities are Agua Prieta, Nacozari and Bacoachi. The ar ...
, as their stronghold)
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived east of Fronteras in der
Sierra Pilares de Teras in Sonora)
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived in the
Sierra de los Ajos northeast of the
Sonora River
Río Sonora (''Sonora River'') is a 402-kilometer-long river of Mexico. It lies on the Pacific slope of the Mexican state of Sonora and it runs into the Gulf of California.
Watershed
The Sonora River watershed covers of public land. Slopes range ...
, along the
Bavispe River
The Rio Bavispe or Bavispe River is a river in Mexico which flows briefly north then mainly south by southwest until it joins with the Aros River to become the Yaqui River, eventually joining the Gulf of California.
History
Historically, the Rio ...
towards Fronteras in the north)
* Bedonkohe, Bidánku or Bidankande (''Bi-dan-ku'' – 'In Front of the End People', ''Bi-da-a-naka-enda'' or ''Bedonkohe Ndendahe'' – 'Standing in front of the enemy', lived in West New Mexico between the
San Francisco River in the West and the
Gila River
The Gila River (; O'odham ima Keli Akimel or simply Akimel, Quechan: Haa Siʼil, Maricopa language: Xiil) is a tributary of the Colorado River flowing through New Mexico and Arizona in the United States. The river drains an arid watershed of n ...
to the southeast, lived in the
Tularosa Mountains and in their stronghold, the
Mogollon Mountains
The Mogollon Mountains or Mogollon Range ( or ) are a mountain range in Grant County and Catron County of southwestern New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. They are primarily protected within the Gila National Forest.
Geography
The Mo ...
, therefore often called ''Mogollon Apaches'', were also known – together with other Apache local groups living along the Gila River and in the
Gila Mountains – as ''Gileños / Gila Apaches'', Northeastern Chiricahua –
Geronimo
Geronimo ( apm, Goyaałé, , ; June 16, 1829 – February 17, 1909) was a prominent leader and medicine man from the Bedonkohe band of the Ndendahe Apache people. From 1850 to 1886, Geronimo joined with members of three other Central Apache ba ...
, a prominent leader and medicine man (but not a chief) belonged to this band)
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived in the Mogollon Mountains)
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived also in the Mogollon Mountains)
** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived in the Tularosa Mountains)
* Chihenne, Chihende or Tchihende (also known as ''Chi-he-nde, Tci-he-nde, Chíhéne, Chííhénee’, Chiende'' – 'Red Painted People', their autonym could relate to the mineral red coloration of the
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
-containing tribal area, often called ''Copper Mine, Ojo Caliente / Warm Springs, Mimbreños / Mimbres'' and ''Gileños / Gila Apaches'', improperly Eastern Chiricahua)
** Warm Springs Apache (The vicinity of a southern New Mexico hot spring known as Ojo Caliente (Spanish for Hot Spring) was their favourite retreat and was known to the Apache as ''Tih-go-tel'' – ′four broad plains′)
*** northern Warm Springs local group (lived in the northeast of the Bedonkohe in the
Datil,
Magdalena and
Socorro Mountains, the
Plains of San Agustin, and from today's
Quemado east toward the
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande ( and ), known in Mexico as the Río Bravo del Norte or simply the Río Bravo, is one of the principal rivers (along with the Colorado River) in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico.
The length of the Rio G ...
, northern local group – headed by
Victorio
Victorio (Bidu-ya, Beduiat; ca. 1825–October 14, 1880) was a warrior and chief of the Warm Springs band of the Tchihendeh (or Chihenne, often called Mimbreño) division of the central Apaches in what is now the American states of Texas, New ...
)
*** southern Warm Springs local group (Warm Springs proper, settled around a warm spring known as Ojo Caliente near present-day
Monticello, New Mexico
Monticello is an unincorporated community located in Sierra County, New Mexico, United States. Monticello is located on Alamosa Creek, northwest of Truth or Consequences. Monticello has a post office with ZIP code 87939.
History Canada Alamos ...
along the
Cañada Alamosa, between the Cuchillo Negro Creek and the Animas Creek, controlled the
San Mateo as well as the
Black Range
Black is a color which results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white have o ...
(Dził Diłhił) west of the Rio Grande to the Rio Gila, used the warm springs in the vicinity of
Truth or Consequences
''Truth or Consequences'' is an American game show originally hosted on NBC radio by Ralph Edwards (1940–1957) and later on television by Edwards (1950–1954), Jack Bailey (1954–1956), Bob Barker (1956–1975), Steve Dunne (1957–1958), ...
hence called Warm Springs or Ojo Caliente Apaches, southern local group – headed by
Cuchillo Negro
Baishan, Spanish name Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) (c. 1796 – May 24, 1857), was a Tchihende ( Mimbres) Apache chieftain, of the Warm Springs Apache Band during the 1830s to 1850s.
Apache war-leader and chief
Baishan ("Knife"), son of the ...
)
** Gileños / Gila Apache (often used as a collective name for different Apache groups living along the Gila River; sometimes for all Chiricahua local groups and sometimes for the Aravaipa / Arivaipa Apache and Pinaleño / Pinal Apache of the
Western Apache
The Western Apache live primarily in east central Arizona, in the United States. Most live within reservations. The Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation, Tonto Apache, and the Fort McDowe ...
)
*** Ne-be-ke-yen-de local group (′Country of People′ or ′Earth They Own It People′, presumably a mixed Chihenne-Bedonkohe local group, lived southwest of the Gila River, centered around the
Santa Lucia Springs
Santa Claus, also known as Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, Saint Nick, Kris Kringle, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring children gifts during the late evening and overnight ...
in the
Little Burro and
Big Burro Mountains
The Big Burro Mountains are a moderate length long, mountain range located in central Grant County, New Mexico. The range's northwest-southeast 'ridgeline' is located 15 mi southwest of Silver City.
The southeast end of the range has the Co ...
, controlled the Pinos Altos Mountains,
Pyramid Mountains
The Pyramid Mountains are a 30 mi (48 km) long, mountain range in central-east Hidalgo County, New Mexico. The city of Lordsburg and Interstate 10 lie at its northern border.
The range lies between the northeast corner of the north-sou ...
and the vicinity of
Santa Rita del Cobre
Santa Rita is a ghost town in Grant County in the U.S. state of New Mexico. The site of Chino copper mine, Santa Rita was located fifteen miles east of Silver City.
History
Copper mining in the area began late in the Spanish colonial period, but ...
along the Mimbres River in the east, then called ''Gileños / Gila Apaches'', after discovering profitable
copper mines at Santa Rita del Cobre they were called ''Copper Mine Apaches'', western local group – headed by
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
, an Bedonkohe by birth, and later by
Loco
Loco or El Loco may refer to:
Places United States
* Loco, Georgia, an unincorporated community
* Loco, Oklahoma, a village
* Loco, Texas, an unincorporated community
* Loco Mountain (Labinero, Montana), a mountain peak of the Crazy Mountains ...
)
*** Mimbreño / Mimbres local group (lived in southeast-central New Mexico, between the
Mimbres River
The Mimbres is a river in southwestern New Mexico.
Course
The Mimbres forms from snowpack and runoff on the southwestern slopes of the Aldo Leopold Wilderness in the Black Range at in Grant County. The river ends in the Guzmán Basin, a smal ...
and the Rio Grande up in the
Mimbres Mountains Mimbres may refer to:
* Mimbres culture (c. 1100–1150 CE), a subdivision of Mogollon culture
* Mimbres pottery, a particular style of pottery decoration from the Mimbres culture
* Mimbres Valley AVA, an American Viticultural Area in southwestern N ...
and the
Cook's Range, hence called ''Mimbreño / Mimbres Apaches'', eastern local group; often the name Mimbreños is used to identify the whole Chihenne people, sometimes it is just thought of simply as an aggregation of some families belonging to the Chihenne people around the Mimbres Agency established by temporary Indian agent James M. Smith in 1853)
*** local group (today no longer known by name) (lived in southern New Mexico in the
Pyramid Mountains
The Pyramid Mountains are a 30 mi (48 km) long, mountain range in central-east Hidalgo County, New Mexico. The city of Lordsburg and Interstate 10 lie at its northern border.
The range lies between the northeast corner of the north-sou ...
and
Florida Mountains
The Florida Mountains are a small long, mountain range in New Mexico. The mountains lie in southern Luna County about southeast of Deming, and north of the state of Chihuahua, Mexico; the range lies in the north of the Chihuahuan Desert reg ...
(called by the Chihenne DzilnokoneLong Hanging Mountain) moved to the Rio Grande in the east and south to the Mexican border, southern group)
* Nednhi, Nde’ndai or Ndendahe (also known as ''Ndéndai, Nde-nda-i, Nédnaa’í, Ndé’indaaí, Ndé’indaande, Ndaandénde'' – 'Enemy People', 'People who make trouble', the Mexicans adopted it as ''Bronco Apaches'' – ′Wild, Untamed Apaches′, lived in
Sierra Madre Occidental
The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Sierra Madre is part of the American C ...
and
desert
A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...
s of NW Chihuahua, NO Sonora and SE Arizona, therefore often called ''Sierre Madre Apaches'', Southern Chiricahua)
[William B. Griffen: ''Apaches at War and Peace: The Janos Presidio 1750–1858'', University of Oklahoma Press 1998, ]
** Nednhi / Ndendahe Apache (they were subdivided in three local groups)
*** Janeros local group (also known as ''real Nednhi'', lived in NW Chihuahua and NE Sonora, south into the
Sierra San Luis,
Sierra del Tigre
Sierra del Tigre is a mountain range in northeastern Sonora, Mexico at the northern region of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The region contains sky island mountain ranges, called the Madrean Sky Islands, some separated from the Sierra Madre Occid ...
, Sierra de Carcay, Sierra de Boca Grande, west beyond the Aros River to Bavispe, east along the Janos River and
Casas Grandes River
The Casas Grandes River is a river of Mexico.
See also
*List of rivers of Mexico
This is a list of rivers of Mexico, listed from north to south. There are 246 rivers on this list. Alternate names for rivers are given in parentheses.
Rivers flowi ...
toward the
Lake Guzmán
A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a Depression (geology), basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the World Ocean, oce ...
in the northern part of the
Guzmán Basin The Guzmán Basin is an endorheic basin of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. It occupies the northwestern portion of Chihuahua in Mexico, and extends into southwestern New Mexico in the United States.
Notable rivers of the Guzmá ...
, because they traded at the presidio of
Janos they were called ''Janeros Apache'', because they preferred living in the nearly inaccessible Sierra Madre Occidental, their autonym for themselves was ''Dzilthdaklizhénde'' or ''Dził Dklishende'' – ′Blue Mountain People, i.e. People of the Sierra Madre′, northern local group – headed by
Juh
Juh (also known as Ju, Ho, Whoa, and sometimes Who;Kraft, Louis (2000). - ''Gatewood and Geronimo''. - Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. - p.4. - c. 1825 – Sept/Oct 1883) was a warrior and leader of the Janeros local group of the Ndé ...
)
*** Tu-ntsa-nde local group (′Big Water People, i.e. People along the Aros River′, their stronghold called ''Guaynopa'' was in the bend of the Papigochic River (Aros River) east of the border of Sonora in the vicinity of a mountain, which called the Apache ''Dzil-da-na-tal'' – ′Mountain Holding Head Up And Peering Out′, smallest local group)
*** Haiahende local group (′People of the Rising Sun, i.e. People of the East′, lived in the Peloncillo Mountains, Animas Mountains and Florida Mountains in SE Arizona and in
New Mexico Bootheel
The New Mexico Bootheel is a salient which comprises the southwestern corner of New Mexico. As part of the Gadsden Purchase it is bounded on the east by the Mexican state of Chihuahua along a line at extending south to latitude 31°20′0″ ...
and south into the deserts and mountains of NE of Sonora and the
Mexican Plateau
The Central Mexican Plateau, also known as the Mexican Altiplano ( es, Altiplanicie Mexicana), is a large arid-to-semiarid plateau that occupies much of northern and central Mexico. Averaging above sea level, it extends from the US-Mexico border ...
in NW Chihuahua, eastern local group)
*** Hakaye local group (were part of Sierra Madre Mountains of Sonora Mexico)
** Carrizaleños local group (known by other Chiricahua as ''Gol-ga-he-ne'' – ′Open Place People′ or ''Gul-ga-ki'' – ′Prairie Dog People′, lived exclusively in Chihuahua, between the
presidio
A presidio ( en, jail, fortification) was a fortified base established by the Spanish Empire around between 16th century, 16th and 18th century, 18th centuries in areas in condition of their control or influence. The presidios of Captaincy Genera ...
s of Janos in the west and Carrizal and
Lake Santa Maria in the east, south toward Corralitos,
Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes (Spanish for ''Great Houses''; also known as Paquimé) is a prehistoric archaeological site in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. Construction of the site is attributed to the Mogollon culture. Casas Grandes has been design ...
and Agua Nuevas north of
Chihuahua, controlled the southern part of the Guzmán Basin, and the mountains along the Casas Grandes,
Santa Maria and
Carmen River
The Carmen River is a river of Mexico.
See also
*List of rivers of Mexico
This is a list of rivers of Mexico, listed from north to south. There are 246 rivers on this list. Alternate names for rivers are given in parentheses.
Rivers flowing into ...
, likely called ''TsebekinéndéStone House People' or 'Rock House People', southeastern group)
** Pinaleños / Pinery local group (lived south of
Bavispe
Bavispe is a small town and a municipality in the northeast part of the Mexican state of Sonora.
Location
The municipality is located in the northeast of the state at . The elevation of the administrative seat is 902 meters above sea level. It ...
, between the Bavispe River and
Aros River
The Aros River is a river of Mexico.
See also
*List of rivers of Mexico
This is a list of rivers of Mexico, listed from north to south. There are 246 rivers on this list. Alternate names for rivers are given in parentheses.
Rivers flowing into t ...
in NE Sonora and NW Chihuahua, controlled the
Sierra Huachinera
Sierra (Spanish for "mountain range" and "saw", from Latin '' serra'') may refer to the following:
Places Mountains and mountain ranges
* Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico
* Sierra de las Nieves, a mountain range i ...
,
Sierra de los Alisos and
Sierra Nacori Chico, the mountains had a large stock of
Apache Pine foresthence they were called ''Pinaleños / Pinery Apaches'', southwestern local group).
The Chokonen, Chihenne, Nednhi, and Bedonkohe had probably up to three other groups, named respectively after their leaders or homelands. By the end of the 19th century, surviving Apache no longer identified these groups. They may have been wiped out (like the Pinaleño-Nednhi) or had joined more powerful groups. For instance, the remnant of the Carrizaleño-Nedhni camped together with their northern kin, the Janero-Nednhi.
The Carrizaleňo-Nednhi shared overlapping territory in the surroundings of Casas Grandes and Aguas Nuevas with the ''Tsebekinéndé'', a southern
Mescalero
Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-cen ...
band (which was often called ''Aguas Nuevas'' by the Spanish). The Spanish referred to the Apache band by the same name of Tsebekinéndé. These two different Apache bands were often confused with each other. (Similar confusion arose over distinguishing the Janeros-Nednhi of the Chiricahua (''Dzilthdaklizhéndé'') and the ''Dzithinahndé'' of the Mescalero.
Notable Chiricahua Apache people
Please list 20th and 21st-century people under their specific tribes,
Fort Sill Apache Tribe,
Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Reservation
Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-c ...
, and
San Carlos Apache Tribe
The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation ( Western Apache: Tsékʼáádn), in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1872 as a reservation for the Chiricahua Apache tribe as well as surrounding Yavapai and Apache bands removed f ...
.
*
Geronimo
Geronimo ( apm, Goyaałé, , ; June 16, 1829 – February 17, 1909) was a prominent leader and medicine man from the Bedonkohe band of the Ndendahe Apache people. From 1850 to 1886, Geronimo joined with members of three other Central Apache ba ...
(1829–1909), warrior, medicine man of the Bedonkohe Ndendahe band
*
Mildred Cleghorn Mildred Imoch Cleghorn (December 11, 1910 – April 15, 1997) was first chairperson of the Fort Sill Apache Tribe. Her Apache names were ''Eh-Ohn'' and ''Lay-a-Bet'', and she was one of the last Chiricahua Apaches born under "prisoner of war" sta ...
(Fort Sill Apache Tribe), served as first tribal chairperson of the
Fort Sill Apache Tribe, elected in 1976
*
Chato, also Bidayajislnl or Pedes-klinje (1854–1934), warrior, scout
*
Chihuahua, also Chewawa, Kla-esh, Tłá’í’ez (ca. 1825–1901)
*
Cochise
Cochise (; Apache: ''Shi-ka-She'' or ''A-da-tli-chi'', lit.: ''having the quality or strength of an oak''; later ''K'uu-ch'ish'' or ''Cheis'', lit. ''oak''; June 8, 1874) was leader of the Chihuicahui local group of the Chokonen and principa ...
, chief of the Chihuicahui local group of the Tsokanende people
*
Baishan
Baishan (, ko, 백산시) is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Jilin province, in the Dongbei (northeastern) part of China. "" literally means "White Mountain", and is named after Changbai Mountain (, also known as Paektu Mountain (Kore ...
, Cuchillo Negro, (ca. 1796–1857) war chief of the southern Warm Springs local group of the Tchihende people and principal chief of them after Fuerte's / Soldado Fiero's death
*
Dahteste (Tahdeste), woman warrior and Lozen's companion; sister of Ilth-goz-ay, the wife of Chihuahua,
*
Delgadito
Atsidi Sani ( nv, ) (c. 1830 – c. 1870 or 1918) was the first known Navajo silversmith.
Background
Little is known of Atsidi Sani. However, it is known that he was born near Wheatfields, Arizona, c. 1830 as part of the Dibelizhini (Black Sheep) ...
, (ca. 1810–1864), principal chief of the Copper Mine local group of the Tchihende people
*
Gouyen
Gouyen (in Mescalero ''Góyą́ń'', "the one who is wise") (c. 1857-1903), was a 19th-century Apache woman noted for her heroism.
Early life and education
''Góyą́ń'' (Gouyen) was born circa 1857 into Chief Victorio's Warm Springs Apache o ...
, (ca. 1857–1903), woman from the Warm Springs group of Tchihende people
*
Juh
Juh (also known as Ju, Ho, Whoa, and sometimes Who;Kraft, Louis (2000). - ''Gatewood and Geronimo''. - Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. - p.4. - c. 1825 – Sept/Oct 1883) was a warrior and leader of the Janeros local group of the Ndé ...
, (ca. 1825–1883), medicine man and chief of the Janero local group of Nednhi band
*
Lozen
Lozen (c. 1840 – June 17, 1889) was a warrior and prophet of the Chihenne Chiricahua Apache. She was the sister of Victorio, a prominent chief. Born into the Chihenne band during the 1840s, Lozen was, according to legends, able to use her po ...
, "Dextrous Horse Thief" (ca. 1840–1890), woman warrior and prophet of the Tchihende people
*
Mangas Coloradas
Mangas Coloradas or Mangus-Colorado (La-choy Ko-kun-noste, alias "Red Sleeve"), or Dasoda-hae ("He Just Sits There") (c. 1793 – January 18, 1863) was an Apache tribal chief and a member of the Mimbreño (Tchihende) division of the Central ...
, (ca. 1793–1863) war chief of the Copper Mines local group of the Tchihende people and principal chief after Juan José Compà's death
*
Massai
Massai (also known as: Masai, Massey, Massi, Mah–sii, Massa, Wasse, Wassil or by the nickname "Big Foot" Massai; c. 1847–1906, 1911?Simmons, Marc. - "TRAIL DUST: Massai's escape part of Apache history". - ''The Santa Fe New Mexican''. - Nov ...
, also Mah–sii (ca. 1847–1906/1911), warrior of the Mimbres Tchihende band
*
Naiche
Chief Naiche ( ; –1919) was the final hereditary chief of the Chiricahua band of Apache Indians.Johansen, Bruce E"Naiche (ca. 1857–1919)." ''Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.'' (retrieved 25 Sept 2011 ...
(ca. 1857–1919), second son of Cochise, was the final hereditary chief of the Chihuicahui local group of the Tsokanende people
*
Nana
Nana, Nanna, Na Na or NANA may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* Nana (given name), including a list of people and characters with the given name
* Nana (surname), including a list of people and characters with the surname
* Nana ( ...
, (ca. 1805/1810?–1896), war chief of the Warm Springs Tchihende people
*
Taza
Taza ( ber, ⵜⴰⵣⴰ, ar, تازة) is a city in northern Morocco occupying the corridor between the Rif mountains and Middle Atlas mountains, about 120 km east of Fez and 150 km west of Al hoceima. It recorded a population of 148 ...
(ca. 1843–1876), son of Cochise and his successor as chief of the Chihuicahui local group of Tsokanende people
*
Tso-ay
Tso-ay, also known as Panayotishn or Pe-nel-tishn, today widely known by his nickname as "Peaches", (c. 1853 – December 16, 1933) was a Chiricahua, Western Apache warrior, who also served as a scout for General George Crook during the Apache war ...
, also Panayotishn, Pe-nel-tishn, "Peaches," Scout for General Crook
*
Ulzana Ulzana ( – 1909, also known as Josanni, Jolsanie or Ozaní’ – ″Tanned buckskin″ or Bį-sópàn – ″Big Buckskin″), was a Tsokanende Apache war chief, brother of Chihuahua.
Biography
Both the brothers were loyal and warlike support ...
(ca. 1821–1909), war chief Chihuahua of the Chokonen local group of Tsokanende people
*
Victorio
Victorio (Bidu-ya, Beduiat; ca. 1825–October 14, 1880) was a warrior and chief of the Warm Springs band of the Tchihendeh (or Chihenne, often called Mimbreño) division of the central Apaches in what is now the American states of Texas, New ...
, also Bidu-ya, Beduiat (He who checks his horse) (ca. 1825–1880), chief of the Warm Springs Tchihende (Mimbreño) people
See also
*
Mescalero-Chiricahua language
Chiricahua (also known as Chiricahua Apache) is a Southern Athabaskan language spoken by the Chiricahua people in Chihuahua and Sonora, México and in Oklahoma and New Mexico. It is related to Navajo and Western Apache and has been described in ...
*
Southern Athabaskan languages
Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The language is spoken to a ...
References
Cited works
* Debo, Angie. (1976) ''Geronimo: The Man, His Time, His Place,'' Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. .
* Roberts, David. (1993) ''Once They Moved Like the Wind,'' New York: Simon & Schuster.
* Thrapp, Dan L. (1988) ''The Conquest of Apacheria,'' Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Further reading
* Castetter, Edward F. and
Opler, Morris E. (1936). ''The ethnobiology of the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache: The use of plants for foods, beverages and narcotics''. Ethnobiological studies in the American Southwest, (Vol. 3); Biological series (Vol. 4, No. 5); Bulletin, University of New Mexico, whole, (No. 297). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
*
Hoijer, Harry and Opler, Morris E. (1938). ''Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts''. The University of Chicago publications in anthropology; Linguistic series. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Reprinted 1964 by Chicago: University of Chicago Press; in 1970 by Chicago: University of Chicago Press; & in 1980 under H. Hoijer by New York: AMS Press, ).
* Opler, Morris E. (1933). ''An analysis of Mescalero and Chiricahua Apache social organization in the light of their systems of relationship''. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago.
* Opler, Morris E. (1935). The concept of supernatural power among the Chiricahua and Mescalero Apaches. ''American Anthropologist'', ''37'' (1), 65–70.
* Opler, Morris E. (1936). The kinship systems of the Southern Athabaskan-speaking tribes. ''American Anthropologist'', ''38'' (4), 620–33.
* Opler, Morris E. (1937). An outline of Chiricahua Apache social organization. In F. Egan (Ed.), ''Social anthropology of North American tribes'' (pp. 171–239). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* Opler, Morris E. (1938). A Chiricahua Apache's account of the Geronimo campaign of 1886. ''New Mexico Historical Review'', ''13'' (4), 360–86.
* Opler, Morris E. (1941). ''An Apache life-way: The economic, social, and religious institutions of the Chiricahua Indians''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. (Reprinted in 1962 by Chicago: University of Chicago Press; in 1965 by New York: Cooper Square Publishers; in 1965 by Chicago: University of Chicago Press; & in 1994 by Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, ).
* Opler, Morris E. (1942). The identity of the Apache Mansos. ''American Anthropologist'', ''44'' (1), 725.
* Opler, Morris E. (1946). Chiricahua Apache material relating to sorcery. ''Primitive Man'', ''19'' (3–4), 81–92.
* Opler, Morris E. (1946). Mountain spirits of the Chiricahua Apache. ''Masterkey'', ''20'' (4), 125–31.
* Opler, Morris E. (1947). Notes on Chiricahua Apache culture, I: Supernatural power and the shaman. ''Primitive Man'', ''20'' (1–2), 1–14.
* Opler, Morris E. (1983). Chiricahua Apache. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), ''Southwest'' (pp. 401–18). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 10). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
* Opler, Morris E.; & French, David H. (1941). ''Myths and tales of the Chiricahua Apache Indians''. Memoirs of the American folk-lore society, (Vol. 37). New York: American Folk-lore Society. (Reprinted in 1969 by New York: Kraus Reprint Co.; in 1970 by New York; in 1976 by Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint Co.; & in 1994 under M. E. Opler, Morris by Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ).
* Opler, Morris E.; & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache. ''American Anthropologist'', ''42'' (4), 617–34.
* Schroeder, Albert H. (1974). ''A study of the Apache Indians: Parts IV and V''. Apache Indians (No. 4), American Indian ethnohistory, Indians of the Southwest. New York: Garland.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2002) Conquest and Concealment: After the El Paso Phase on Fort Bliss. Conservation Division, Directorate of Environment, Fort Bliss. Lone Mountain Report 525/528. This document can be obtained by contacting belinda.mollard@us.army.mil.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2003) Protohistoric and Early Historic Temporal Resolution. Conservation Division, Directorate of Environment, Fort Bliss. Lone Mountain Report 560–003. This document can be obtained by contacting belinda.mollard@us.army.mil.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2003) The Cerro Rojo Complex: A Unique Indigenous Assemblage in the El Paso Area and Its Implications For The Early Apache. Proceedings of the XII Jornada Mogollon Conference in 2001. Geo-Marine, El Paso.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2004) A Ranchería in the Gran Apachería: Evidence of Intercultural Interaction at the Cerro Rojo Site. Plains Anthropologist 49(190):153–92.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2004) Before the Spanish Chronicles: Early Apache in the Southern Southwest, pp. 120–42. In "Ancient and Historic Lifeways in North America’s Rocky Mountains." Proceedings of the 2003 Rocky Mountain Anthropological Conference, Estes Park, Colorado, edited by Robert H. Brunswig and William B. Butler. Department of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2007) Sexually Based War Crimes or Structured Conflict Strategies: An Archaeological Example from the American Southwest. In Texas and Points West: Papers in Honor of John A. Hedrick and Carol P. Hedrick, edited by Regge N. Wiseman, Thomas C. O’Laughlin, and Cordelia T. Snow, pp. 117–34. Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico No. 33. Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2007) Apache, Spanish, and Protohistoric Archaeology on Fort Bliss. Conservation Division, Directorate of Environment, Fort Bliss. Lone Mountain Report 560–005. With Tim Church
* Seymour, Deni J. (2007) An Archaeological Perspective on the Hohokam-Pima Continuum. Old Pueblo Archaeology Bulletin No. 51 (December 2007):1–7. (This discusses the early presence of Athapaskans.)
* Seymour, Deni J. (2008) Despoblado or Athapaskan Heartland: A Methodological Perspective on Ancestral Apache Landscape Use in the Safford Area. Chapter 5 in Crossroads of the Southwest: Culture, Ethnicity, and Migration in Arizona's Safford Basin, pp. 121–62, edited by David E. Purcell, Cambridge Scholars Press, New York.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2008) A Pledge of Peace: Evidence of the Cochise-Howard Treaty Campsite. Historical Archaeology 42(4):154–79. With George Robertson.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2008) Apache Plain and Other Plainwares on Apache Sites in the Southern Southwest. In "Serendipity: Papers in Honor of Frances Joan Mathien," edited by R.N. Wiseman, T.C O'Laughlin, C.T. Snow and C. Travis, pp. 163–86. Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico No. 34. Archaeological Society of New Mexico, Albuquerque.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2008) Surfing Behind The Wave: A Counterpoint Discussion Relating To "A Ranchería In the Gran Apachería." Plains Anthropologist 53(206):241–62.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2008) Pre-Differentiation Athapaskans (Proto-Apache) in the 13th and 14th Century Southern Southwest. Chapter in edited volume under preparation. Also paper in the symposium: The Earliest Athapaskans in Southern Southwest: Implications for Migration, organized and chaired by Deni Seymour, Society for American Archaeology, Vancouver.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2009) Evaluating Eyewitness Accounts of Native Peoples along the Coronado Trail from the International Border to Cibola. New Mexico Historical Review 84(3):399–435.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2009) Distinctive Places, Suitable Spaces: Conceptualizing Mobile Group Occupational Duration and Landscape Use. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13(3): 255–81.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2009) Nineteenth-Century Apache Wickiups: Historically Documented Models for Archaeological Signatures of the Dwellings of Mobile People. Antiquity 83(319):157–64.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2009) Comments On Genetic Data Relating to Athapaskan Migrations: Implications of the Malhi et al. Study for the Apache and Navajo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 139(3):281–83.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2009
The Cerro Rojo Site (LA 37188) – A Large Mountain-Top Ancestral Apache Site in Southern New Mexico Digital History Project. New Mexico Office of the State Historian.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2010) Cycles of Renewal, Transportable Assets: Aspects of the Ancestral Apache Housing Landscape. Accepted at Plains Anthropologist.
* Seymour, Deni J. (2010) Contextual Incongruities, Statistical Outliers, and Anomalies: Targeting Inconspicuous Occupational Events. American Antiquity. (Winter, in press)
External links
Fort Sill Apache Tribe official website
Mescalero Apache Tribe official website
Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache TextsAllan Houser, Chiricahua Apache artist National Park Service
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chiricahua
Apache tribes
Chiricahua Mountains
History of Catron County, New Mexico
Indigenous peoples in Mexico
Native American history of Arizona
Native American history of New Mexico
Native American tribes in Arizona
Native American tribes in New Mexico
Native American tribes in Oklahoma