![Kheng Hock Keong Temple at 2013 Chinese New Year](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Kheng_Hock_Keong_Temple_at_2013_Chinese_New_Year.jpg)
Chinese folk religion plays a dynamic role in the lives of the
overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese () refers to people of Chinese birth or ethnicity who reside outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese.
Terminology
() or ''Hoan-kheh'' () in Hokkien, ref ...
who have settled in the countries of this geographic region, particularly
Burmese Chinese
Chinese Burmese, also Sino-Burmese or Tayoke, are a Burmese citizens of full or partial Chinese ancestry. They are group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Myanmar (Burma). As of 2012, the Burmese Chinese population is estimated to be as h ...
,
Singaporean Chinese,
Malaysian Chinese
Malaysian Chinese (; Malay: ''Orang Cina Malaysia''), alternatively Chinese Malaysians, are Malaysian citizens of Han Chinese descent. They form the second largest ethnic group after the Malay majority constituting 22.4% of the Malaysian p ...
,
Thai Chinese
Thai Chinese (also known as Chinese Thais, Sino-Thais), Thais of Chinese origin ( th, ชาวไทยเชื้อสายจีน; ''exonym and also domestically''), endonym Thai people ( th, ชาวไทย), are Chinese descenda ...
and
Hoa
The Hoa people ( Vietnamese: ''Người Hoa'', or ) are citizens of Vietnam of full or partial Chinese origin. Chinese migration into Vietnam dates back millennia but most Hoa today derive their recent ancestral Chinese heritage from the 18t ...
. The
Indonesian Chinese
Chinese Indonesians ( id, Orang Tionghoa Indonesia) and colloquially Chindo or just Tionghoa are Indonesians whose ancestors arrived from China at some stage in the last eight centuries.
Chinese people and their Indonesian descendants have l ...
, by contrast, were forced to adopt ''en masse'' either
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
or
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
in the 1950s and 1960s, abandoning traditional worship, due to
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
's religious policies which at the time forbade Chinese traditional religion or did not recognize it as a "religion" thus making it vulnerable to discrimination. Some
Chinese Filipinos also still practice some Chinese traditional religions, besides
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
of either
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
or
Protestantism
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
, of which some have also varyingly
syncretized
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, th ...
traditional Chinese religious practices with.
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
, the
ethnic religion
In religious studies, an ethnic religion is a religion or belief associated with a particular ethnic group. Ethnic religions are often distinguished from universal religions, such as Christianity or Islam, in which gaining converts is a prima ...
of
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
, "Shenism" was especially coined referring to its Southeast Asian expression; another Southeast Asian name for the religion is the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
expression Satya Dharma (literally "Truth Law").
The Chinese folk religion of Southeast Asia, is markedly typified by the interaction with Malay indigenous religions (
Malaysian
Malaysian may refer to:
* Something from or related to Malaysia, a country in Southeast Asia
* Malaysian Malay, a dialect of Malay language spoken mainly in Malaysia
* Malaysian people, people who are identified with the country of Malaysia regard ...
and
Indonesian folk religion
''Aliran Kepercayaan'' ( eng, the branches/flows of beliefs) is an official cover term for various, partly syncretic forms of mysticism of religion in Indonesia. It includes '' kebatinan'', ''kejiwaan'', and ''kerohanian''. In the Indonesian la ...
), the adoption of gods of
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
derivation, such as
Brahma
Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...
,
Ganesha
Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu ...
and
Hanuman
Hanuman (; sa, हनुमान, ), also called Anjaneya (), is a Hindu god and a divine '' vanara'' companion of the god Rama. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and on ...
, and also
syncretism
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
with
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
in the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
. The philosophical forms of
Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
and
Taoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
are followed, and
organised forms of the Chinese folk faith, such as the
Church of Virtue
Church may refer to:
Religion
* Church (building), a building for Christian religious activities
* Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination
* Church service, a formalized period of Christian communal worship
* Chris ...
,
Yiguandao
Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (),; ko, 일관도, Ilgwando; th, อนุตตรธรรม, . meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become C ...
and
Zhenkongism
Luodao (罗道 "Way of Luo") or Luoism (罗教), originally Wuweiism (无为教), refers to a Chinese folk religious tradition, a wide range of sect organisations flourishing over the last five hundred years, which trace their origins back to the ...
, have taken significant foothold among Southeast Asian Chinese.
In
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bor ...
about 11% of the total population is Taoist, composed by a 14.4% of the
Chinese Singaporeans
Chinese Singaporeans () are Singaporeans of Chinese descent. Chinese Singaporeans constitute 75.9% of the Singaporean citizen population according to the official census, making them the largest ethnic group among them.
As early as the 10 ...
identifying as Taoists. In
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federal constitutional monarchy consists of thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East Mal ...
, around 10% of Chinese Malaysians practice Chinese folk religions, corresponding to around 1% of the whole country population. However, numbers may be significantly larger since many folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" for census purposes. In
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
, Taosu Agung Kusumo, leader of the Majelis Agama Tao Indonesia, claims there are 5 million Taoist followers in the country as of 2009.
By country
Indonesia
![Kelenteng Thien Ie Kong Samarinda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Kelenteng_Thien_Ie_Kong_Samarinda.jpg)
The Chinese folk religion of the
Chinese Indonesians
Chinese Indonesians ( id, Orang Tionghoa Indonesia) and colloquially Chindo or just Tionghoa are Indonesians whose ancestors arrived from China at some stage in the last eight centuries.
Chinese people and their Indonesian descendants have ...
is named "Confucianism" or "Satya Dharma", and
Chinese temple
Chinese temple architecture refer to a type of structures used as place of worship of Chinese Buddhism, Taoism or Chinese folk religion, where people revere ethnic Chinese gods and ancestors. They can be classified as:
* '' miào'' () or ''d ...
s are called ''klenteng'' or ''vihara'' in
Indonesian language
Indonesian ( ) is the official and national language of Indonesia. It is a standardized variety of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia ...
. It is officially recognised by the government as ''Agama Khonghucu'' or ''Religion of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
'', which was chosen because of the political condition in
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
before the end of
Suharto
Suharto (; ; 8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian army officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving president of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto l ...
rule in 1998, who had forbidden all forms of Chinese religions and Indonesian Chinese could only embraced the five officially recognised religions, many of them eventually convert to Buddhism or Christianity. The Chinese Indonesians had their culture and religious rights restored only after the fourth president of Indonesia,
Abdurrahman Wahid
Abdurrahman Wahid ( ; born Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil; 7 September 1940 – 30 December 2009), though more colloquially known as Gus Dur (), was an Indonesian politician and Islamic religious leader who served as the 4th president of Indonesia, fr ...
, issued a regulation that recognised "Confucianism" among the legal religions of the country. He said that:
The first precept of ''
Pancasila'' (the Five Basic Principles of the Indonesian state) stipulates belief in the one and only
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
. The Confucian philosophy is able to fulfill this, for Confucius mentioned only one God in his teaching, the
Heaven
Heaven or the heavens, is a common religious cosmological or transcendent supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the belie ...
or
Shangdi
Shangdi (), also written simply, "Emperor" (), is the Chinese term for "Supreme Deity" or "Highest Deity" in the theology of the classical texts, especially deriving from Shang theology and finding an equivalent in the later '' Tian'' ("Heave ...
. The Heaven possess the characteristic of ''Yuan Heng Li Zhen'', or ''Omnipresent'', ''Omnipotent'', ''Omnibenevolent'', ''Just''.
[Bidang Litbang PTITD/Matrisia Jawa Tengah. 2007. ''Pengetahuan Umum Tentang Tri Dharma'', First Edition (July 2007). Publisher: Benih Bersemi, Semarang, ]Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
.
The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" (VIII, xix, tr. Legge 1893:214)
Another movement in Indonesia is the ''Tridharma'' (
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
: "law of the three"),
syncretising elements of different religions, the Chinese
three teachings
In Chinese philosophy, the ''three teachings'' (; vi, tam giáo, Chữ Hán: 三教) are Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, considered as a harmonious aggregate. Literary references to the "three teachings" by prominent Chinese scholars date ba ...
amongst others.
[Tsuda Koji. ''"Chinese Religion" in Modern Indonesia: Focusing on the Trend Toward Systematization in the Post-Soeharto Era''. Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.] After the fall of Suharto rule it is undergoing a process of systematisation of doctrines and rituals.
Tridharma temples always consist of three main rooms: the front room for
Tian
''Tiān'' () is one of the oldest Chinese terms for heaven and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang dynasty (17th―11th century BCE), the Chinese referred to their supreme god as '' Shàngdì'' (, "Lor ...
or
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
, the middle for the main deity of the temple, the back room for the Founders of three religions and their pantheon:
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
,
Laozi
Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state ...
, and
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
. Several big Chinese population cities like
Medan
Medan (; English: ) is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra, as well as a regional hub and financial centre of Sumatra. According to the National Development Planning Agency, Medan is one of the four mai ...
,
Batam
Batam is the largest city in the province of Riau Islands, Indonesia. The city administrative area covers three main islands of Batam, Rempang, and Galang (collectively called Barelang), as well as several small islands. Batam Island is the c ...
,
Bagansiapiapi
Bagansiapiapi or simply known as Bagan () is a city in Riau province on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The city is the capital of Rokan Hilir Regency in the Riau Province and is located on the east coast of Sumatra, on the Rokan River delt ...
and
Singkawang
Singkawang or Sakawokng in Dayak Salako or San-Khew-Jong ( hak, 山口洋), is a city located in the province of West Kalimantan, on the island of Borneo in Indonesia. It is located at about 145 km north of Pontianak, the provincial capital ...
has a significant numbers of Chinese folk religion followers aside Buddhists. There are also many Taoist associations in Indonesia.
Some local deities which are not known outside Indonesia includes
Tan Hu Cin Jin
Chen Fu Zhen Ren (; Hokkien: ''Tan Hu Cin Jin'') is an ancestral deity of the Indonesian Chinese people living throughout Banyuwangi Regency, Java, Bali, and Lombok. He is also worshipped by the indigenous population of Bali and Java ('' Kejawen ...
from
Banyuwangi
Banyuwangi, previously known as Banjoewangi, is the administrative capital of Banyuwangi Regency at the far eastern end of the island of Java, Indonesia. It had a population of 106,000 at the 2010 Census and 117,558 at the 2020 Census.
The tow ...
-
Bali
Bali () is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and ...
, Tan Tik Siu from
Tulungagung
)
, translit_lang1_info = ꦑꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦸꦭꦸꦁꦲꦒꦸꦁ
, image_skyline = Tulungagung Lead Image.jpg
, image_caption = Top: Tulungagung Town Square ( id, Alun-Alun Tulungagung ...
, Tan Oei Ji Sian Seng or Gi Yong Kong from
Rembang
Rembang Regency ( id, Kabupaten Rembang) is a regency ( id, kabupaten) on the extreme northeast coast of Central Java Province, on the island of Java (bordering on the Java Sea) in Indonesia. The regency covers an area of 1,035.70 km2 on Java ...
-Lasem, and Tey Hai Cin Jin whose worshiped on the coastal cities of East and Middle Java.
Malaysia
![Snake Temple, Penang](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Snake_Temple%2C_Penang.jpg)
In
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federal constitutional monarchy consists of thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East Mal ...
the
Malaysian Chinese
Malaysian Chinese (; Malay: ''Orang Cina Malaysia''), alternatively Chinese Malaysians, are Malaysian citizens of Han Chinese descent. They form the second largest ethnic group after the Malay majority constituting 22.4% of the Malaysian p ...
constitute a large segment of the population, mostly adherent of
Mahayana Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
. The Chinese traditional religion has a relatively significant registered following in the states of
Sarawak
Sarawak (; ) is a state of Malaysia. The largest among the 13 states, with an area almost equal to that of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is located in northwest Borneo Island, and is bordered by the Malaysian state of Sabah to the northeast, ...
(6%) and
Penang
Penang ( ms, Pulau Pinang, is a Malaysian state located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, by the Malacca Strait. It has two parts: Penang Island, where the capital city, George Town, is located, and Seberang Perai on the M ...
(5%). Many other folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" in government surveys. Chinese temples are called ''tokong'' in
Malaysian language
Malaysian Malay ( ms, Bahasa Melayu Malaysia), also known as Standard Malay (Malay: ''Bahasa Melayu Standard''), ( English translation: Malaysian language), or simply Malay, is a standardized form of the Malay language used in Malaysia (as o ...
.
The Chinese folk religion was brought into Malaysia by
Chinese emigrants in the 15th century, with small settlements and
Temple
A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
that were established in
Malacca
Malacca ( ms, Melaka) is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. Its capital is Malacca City, dubbed the Historic City, which has bee ...
by
Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
traders, but it was not until the 19th century that there was a mass migration of Chinese. They built
temples dedicated to their
Deities
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
, schools and cemeteries for those who died. The Chinese migration during the tin and gold mining days, which were a result of high demand for these products, prompted the need of temples, for practices and religious rituals.
[''Encyclopedia of Malaysia'', vol. ''Religions & Beliefs'', edited by Kamal Hassan, Ghazali bin Basri.]
/ref>
Clan organisations in the Chinese immigrant society were important, where surnames, dialect, locality and trade mattered. The Cantonese people, Cantonese, Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
, Teochew and Hakka
The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka-speaking provincial areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhej ...
, respectively formed their lineage associations and Kongsi
Kongsi () is a Hokkien transcription term meaning "company", especially businesses which have been incorporated. However, the word has other meanings under different historical contexts. ''Kongsi'' were most commonly known as Chinese social orga ...
, such as the Khoo Kongsi
The Khoo Kongsi is a large Chinese clanhouse with elaborate and highly ornamented architecture, a mark of the dominant presence of the Chinese in Penang, Malaysia. The famous Khoo Kongsi is the grandest clan temple in the country. It is also on ...
and Eng Chuan Tong Tan Kongsi
Eng Chuan Tong Tan Kongsi () is a Hokkien clan house at Beach Street in George Town, Penang, Malaysia. It was founded in the early 19th century by a Tan family from the Fujian province of Zhangzhou in China. The building is a place of worship de ...
, and they are the grassroots support of Chinese overseas communities.
A prominent cult is that of Tua Pek Kong
Tua may refer to:
* Tua River, a river in Portugal
* Tua (Papua New Guinea), a river in Papua New Guinea
* Tuʻa, also known as Alo, a chiefdom in Wallis and Futuna in Oceania
* Tua line, a railway line in Portugal
* Tua railway station, in P ...
( ''Dabo Gong''), and it has incorporated the cult of the Na Tuk Kong ( ''Nadu Gong'') and Datuk Keramat of local Malay origin. Other native and Thai Deities have been incorporated into the pantheon.
Thailand
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
has a large population of Thai Chinese
Thai Chinese (also known as Chinese Thais, Sino-Thais), Thais of Chinese origin ( th, ชาวไทยเชื้อสายจีน; ''exonym and also domestically''), endonym Thai people ( th, ชาวไทย), are Chinese descenda ...
, people of Chinese or partial Chinese origin (up to 14% of the population of the country). Most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated into the Theravada Buddhist
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
tradition of the country, with only a negligible minority still practicing Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
. However, many others have retained the Chinese folk religions and Taoism.[Tatsuki Kataoka. ''Religion as Non-religion: The Place of Chinese Temples in Phuket, Southern Thailand''. In ''Southeast Asian Studies'', Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2012, pp. 461–485. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.] Despite the large number of followers and temples, and although they are practiced freely, these religions have no state recognition, their temples are not counted as places of worship, and their followers are counted as "Theravada Buddhists" in officially released religious figures. In Thailand, Chinese temples are called ''sanchao'' ( th, ศาลเจ้า).
Like in other Southeast Asian countries, the Chinese folk religion of Thailand has developed local features, including the worship of local gods. Major Chinese festivals such as the Nian, Zhongqiu and Qingming are widely celebrated especially in Bangkok
Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated populati ...
, Phuket
Phuket (; th, ภูเก็ต, , ms, Bukit or ''Tongkah''; Hokkien:普吉; ) is one of the southern provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. It consists of the island of Phuket, the country's largest island, and another 32 smaller islands o ...
, and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations.
The Chinese in the city of Phuket
Phuket (; th, ภูเก็ต, , ms, Bukit or ''Tongkah''; Hokkien:普吉; ) is one of the southern provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. It consists of the island of Phuket, the country's largest island, and another 32 smaller islands o ...
are noted for their nine-day vegetarian festival between September and October. During the festive season, devotees will abstain from meat and mortification of the flesh
Mortification of the flesh is an act by which an individual or group seeks to mortify or deaden their sinful nature, as a part of the process of sanctification.
In Christianity, mortification of the flesh is undertaken in order to repent for ...
by Chinese mediums are also commonly seen, along with rites devoted to the worship of Tua Pek Kong
Tua may refer to:
* Tua River, a river in Portugal
* Tua (Papua New Guinea), a river in Papua New Guinea
* Tuʻa, also known as Alo, a chiefdom in Wallis and Futuna in Oceania
* Tua line, a railway line in Portugal
* Tua railway station, in P ...
. Such traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.
Singapore
Sizeable number of Chinese Singaporeans
Chinese Singaporeans () are Singaporeans of Chinese descent. Chinese Singaporeans constitute 75.9% of the Singaporean citizen population according to the official census, making them the largest ethnic group among them.
As early as the 10 ...
practice Taoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
, which in the city state is used as a synecdoche
Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole ('' pars pro toto''), or vice versa ('' totum pro parte''). The term comes from Greek .
Examples in common E ...
for broader Chinese folk religion. Taoists in Singapore worship many Deities, that frequently are embodied by historical ancestors and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. They also worship some deities of common origins, notably the Jade Emperor
The Jade Emperor or Yudi ( or , ') in Chinese culture, traditional religions and myth is one of the representations of the first god ( '). In Daoist theology he is the assistant of Yuanshi Tianzun, who is one of the Three Pure Ones, the th ...
, Xuan Tian Shang Di, Lord Guan, and Tian Shang Sheng Mu. Other deities that were venerated and frequently keep at home as auspicious images include the Fu, Lu, and Shou
The Sanxing () are the gods of the three stars or constellations considered essential in Chinese astrology and mythology: Jupiter, Ursa Major, and Canopus. Fu, Lu, and Shou (), or Cai, Zi and Shou () are also the embodiments of Fortune ( Fu), pr ...
. Caishen
Caishen () is the mythological figure worshipped in the Chinese folk religion and Taoism. He has been identified with many historical figures, viewed as his embodied forms, among whom Zhao Gongming (, Wade–Giles: ''Chao Kung-ming''; also known a ...
is also popularly venerated by many Chinese businessmen. However, certain deities are worshipped by a particular dialect group, and may not share a common devotion with other Chinese dialect groups. One interesting example will be Qing Shui Zhu Shi(祖師公), this particular Deity is mainly worshipped by the Hokkien, particularly from Anxi Clan. Buddhist Bodhisattvas like Guanyin
Guanyin () is a Bodhisattva associated with compassion. She is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara ( sa, अवलोकितेश्वर) and has been adopted by other Eastern religions, including Chinese folk religion. She ...
or Di Zang Wang are popularly worshipped in Singapore. Deities from other ethnicity, like Na Tuk Kong (拿督公) or Datuk Keramat are also venerated.
Adherents of Taoism or Chinese Folk Religionists would placed their main altars/shrines inside their living room. This is more often seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The main Gods/Deities would be enshrined at the centre of the top altar, and a tablet dedicated to the Guardians of Earth/ Dizhushen (地主神) would be placed at the bottom altar. Ancestral tablets
A spirit tablet, memorial tablet, or ancestral tablet, is a placard used to designate the seat of a deity or past ancestor as well as to enclose it. The name of the deity or past ancestor is usually inscribed onto the tablet. With origins in tra ...
are usually placed beside the statues/images of the main Gods/Deities at the top altar. Often, an incense burner
A censer, incense burner, perfume burner or pastille burner is a vessel made for burning incense or perfume in some solid form. They vary greatly in size, form, and material of construction, and have been in use since ancient times throughout t ...
to burn incense sticks is placed in front of the Gods/Deities and a separate smaller incense burner will be placed in front of the ancestral tablet. Oil lamps may also be placed at altars, and fruit or flower offerings are also placed in front of the Gods/Deities as offerings. Some families may also have an altar dedicated to the Kitchen God
The Kitchen deity – also known as the Stove God, named Zao Jun, Zao Shen, Zao kimjah, Cokimjah or Zhang Lang – is the most important of a plethora of Chinese domestic gods that protect the hearth and family. The Kitchen God is recognized in C ...
(灶君) inside the kitchen.
They will usually installed a small altar/shrine, painted red and gold, with the words "Heaven Official Bestows Blessings" (天官赐福) written on it outside the house or simply a small incense burner filled with ash where incense sticks are placed. This is dedicated to Tian Kong (天公)/Jade Emperor
The Jade Emperor or Yudi ( or , ') in Chinese culture, traditional religions and myth is one of the representations of the first god ( '). In Daoist theology he is the assistant of Yuanshi Tianzun, who is one of the Three Pure Ones, the th ...
(玉皇大帝) and is the first altar that they will worship. After they have worship toward the Heaven representing Tian Kong/Jade Emperor
The Jade Emperor or Yudi ( or , ') in Chinese culture, traditional religions and myth is one of the representations of the first god ( '). In Daoist theology he is the assistant of Yuanshi Tianzun, who is one of the Three Pure Ones, the th ...
, they will proceed to worship at the main altar to the Gods/Deities, then to the ancestral tablets and eventually to the Guardians of Earth/ Dizhushen. The smoke emitted from burning incense sticks symbolize their devotion and prayer, and at times requests, to the Gods/Deities.
Philippines
A small number of Chinese Filipinos (2%) continue to practise traditional Chinese religions
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
solely. Mahayana Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
, specifically Chinese Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, Taoism
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
, and ancestral worship
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
(including Confucianism
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
) are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents among Chinese Filipinos.
Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where Chinese Filipinos live, especially in urban areas like Metro Manila
Metropolitan Manila (often shortened as Metro Manila; fil, Kalakhang Maynila), officially the National Capital Region (NCR; fil, link=no, Pambansang Punong Rehiyon), is the capital region, seat of government and one of three List of metrop ...
.[most prominently the Buddhist ]Seng Guan Temple
Seng Guan Ssu () is a prominent Buddhist edifice on Narra Street, near Divisoria, in Tondo, Manila, Philippines. It contains a stupa, a huge repository for urns of human ashes, several meditation rooms, and various shrines. It is a major cultur ...
in Tondo, Manila. Veneration of the Guanyin
Guanyin () is a Bodhisattva associated with compassion. She is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara ( sa, अवलोकितेश्वर) and has been adopted by other Eastern religions, including Chinese folk religion. She ...
(觀音) or Mazu
Mazu or Matsu is a Chinese sea goddess also known by several other names and titles. She is the deified form of the legendary figure Lin Mo or Lin Moniang, a Fujianese shamaness whose life span is traditionally dated from 960 to 987. ...
(媽祖), known locally in Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
as ''Kuan-im'' (Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
) and ''Ma-cho'' (Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
) respectively, or in '','' either in its pure form or seen as a representation of the Mary Mother Of God is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. For example, Mazu / Ma-cho is sometimes known or identified as ''"Our Lady of Caysasay
Our Lady of Caysasay ( es, Nuestra Señora de Caysasay) is a statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary venerated at the Archdiocesan Shrine of Our Lady of Caysasay in Taal, Batangas in the Philippines. The image, which depicts the Immaculate Conceptio ...
"'', which is also an emanation of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother ...
. Both are considered emanations of each other, with the images of Our Lady of Antipolo and Our Lady of the Abandoned as additional emanations, as all four are related to water and/or travel. Additionally, Guan Yu
Guan Yu (; ), courtesy name Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with Zhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on ...
is also sometimes known among Chinese Filipinos as ''" Santo Santiago"'' ( St. James) or in Hokkien as "''Te Ya Kong"'' (Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
) or "''Kuan Kong"'' (Hokkien
The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...
). Chinese Filipinos also established indigenous religious denominations like Bell Church
The Bell Church (Chinese: ; , ) is a Chinese Filipino indigenous religious organization based in La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines. It is led Elias Ng, the Spiritual Leader and Head Administrator of the Bell Church.
History
The Bell Church was ...
(钟教), which is a syncretic
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
religion with ecumenical and interfaith in orientation. There are several prominent Chinese temples like Seng Guan Temple
Seng Guan Ssu () is a prominent Buddhist edifice on Narra Street, near Divisoria, in Tondo, Manila, Philippines. It contains a stupa, a huge repository for urns of human ashes, several meditation rooms, and various shrines. It is a major cultur ...
(Buddhist) in Manila
Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populated ...
, Ma-Cho Temple
The Ma-Cho,. Mazu or Ma Cho Temple is a Taoist temple to the Chinese Sea-Goddess Mazu located on Quezon Avenue in Barangay II, San Fernando, La Union in the Philippines. It was built in 1977 by a group of Filipino-Chinese devotees under the lead ...
( Mazu worship) in San Fernando, La Union
San Fernando City, officially the City of San Fernando ( ilo, Siudad ti San Fernando; fil, Lungsod ng San Fernando), is a 3rd class component city and capital of the province of La Union, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a popu ...
, Cebu Taoist Temple
Cebu Taoist Temple ( zh, s=宿雾定光宝殿, t=宿霧定光寶殿, p=Sùwù Dìngguāng Bǎodiàn, poj=Siok-bū Tēng-kng Pó-tiān) is a Taoist temple located in Beverly Hills Subdivision of Cebu City, Philippines. The temple is built by Ceb ...
in Cebu City
Cebu City, officially the City of Cebu ( ceb, Dakbayan sa Sugbo; fil, Lungsod ng Cebu; hil, Dakbanwa sang Sugbo), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the Central Visayas region of the Philippines and capital of the Cebu Province. Ac ...
, Lon Wa Buddhist Temple
The Longhua Temple, also known as the Lon Wa Buddhist Temple is one of the biggest Buddhist temples in the Philippines and the biggest in the island of Mindanao. It is located in the Agdao District, 3-4 kilometers northeast of the center of Davao ...
in Davao City
Davao City, officially the City of Davao ( ceb, Dakbayan sa Dabaw; ), is a first class highly urbanized city in the Davao Region, Philippines. The city has a total land area of , making it the largest city in the Philippines in terms of land ...
, and many more distributed around the country.
Around half (40%) of all Filipino Chinese regardless of religion still claim to practise ''ancestral worship
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
''. Chinese Filipinos, especially the older generations, have the tendency to go to pay respects to their deceased ancestors at least once a year, either by going to the temple, or going to the local Chinese cemetery or traditional burial grounds, such as the Manila Chinese Cemetery
The Manila Chinese Cemetery (; es, Cementerío para chinos) is the second oldest cemetery in Manila after La Loma Cemetery. The cemetery includes Christian, Buddhist and Taoist burials. The present-day cemetery is a vaguely trapezoidal area of ...
for those in Metro Manila
Metropolitan Manila (often shortened as Metro Manila; fil, Kalakhang Maynila), officially the National Capital Region (NCR; fil, link=no, Pambansang Punong Rehiyon), is the capital region, seat of government and one of three List of metrop ...
, often burning candles
A candle is an ignitable wick embedded in wax, or another flammable solid substance such as tallow, that provides light, and in some cases, a fragrance. A candle can also provide heat or a method of keeping time.
A person who makes candl ...
, incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also b ...
and joss paper money, presenting offerings like certain fruits or fruit juice tetra packs to the deceased and decorating the tombstones, mausoleums
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be consi ...
, and ancestral tablets
A spirit tablet, memorial tablet, or ancestral tablet, is a placard used to designate the seat of a deity or past ancestor as well as to enclose it. The name of the deity or past ancestor is usually inscribed onto the tablet. With origins in tra ...
with joss paper
Joss paper, also known as incense papers, are papercrafts or sheets of paper made into burnt offerings common in Chinese ancestral worship (such as the veneration of the deceased family members and relatives on holidays and special occasions). ...
. Chinese Filipino mausoleums or burial grounds also frequently have altars for Houtu (后土), where candles and incense are also lit.
Since most Chinese Filipinos practice Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
, such as Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
or Protestantism
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
, there is also a unique religious syncretism
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thu ...
that is found in many Chinese FIlipino homes. For Catholic Chinese Filipinos, some have altars bearing Catholic images such as the '' Santo Niño'' (Child Jesus
The Christ Child, also known as Divine Infant, Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, the Divine Child, Child Jesus, the Holy Child, Santo Niño, and to some as Señor Noemi refers to Jesus Christ from his nativity to age 12.
The four canonical gospels, a ...
) as well as statues of the Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
and Taoist gods or other deities like the Three Deities in their homes, often decorated with Sampaguita
''Jasminum sambac'' (Arabian jasmine or Sambac jasmine) is a species of jasmine native to tropical Asia, from the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia. It is cultivated in many places, especially West Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is ...
garlands. It is not unheard of to venerate the Blessed Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother ...
using joss sticks (Tao And buddhist Incense Sticks.) and otherwise traditional offerings, much as one would have done for Guan Yin
Guanyin () is a Bodhisattva associated with compassion. She is the East Asian representation of Avalokiteśvara ( sa, अवलोकितेश्वर) and has been adopted by other Eastern religions, including Chinese folk religion. She w ...
or Mazu
Mazu or Matsu is a Chinese sea goddess also known by several other names and titles. She is the deified form of the legendary figure Lin Mo or Lin Moniang, a Fujianese shamaness whose life span is traditionally dated from 960 to 987. ...
. In general for both Catholic or Protestant Christian Chinese Filipinos, it is normal in many households to have traditional Chinese statues and figurines like the Fat Buddha
Budai ( zh, c=布袋, p=Bùdài; ko, 포대, Podae; ja, 布袋, Hotei; vi, Bố Đại) was a Chinese monk who is often identified with and venerated as Maitreya Buddha in Chan Buddhism. With the spread of Chan Buddhism, he also came to b ...
, the Three Deities, the Lucky Fu(福) Cat, the Money Frog, Chinese couplets, or other such traditional Chinese paraphernalia
Paraphernalia most commonly refers to a group of apparatus, equipment, or furnishing used for a particular activity. For example, an avid sports fan may cover their walls with football and/or basketball paraphernalia.
Historical legal term
In l ...
for the purposes of inviting good fortune, luck, and prosperity, while at the same time praying
Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with an object of worship through deliberate communication. In the narrow sense, the term refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards a deity or a deified ...
to God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
and conducting Bible study in the same household or room while also having Christian symbols, Bible verses, and other such Catholic or Protestant Christian paraphernalia
Paraphernalia most commonly refers to a group of apparatus, equipment, or furnishing used for a particular activity. For example, an avid sports fan may cover their walls with football and/or basketball paraphernalia.
Historical legal term
In l ...
posted around the household.
Vietnam
Many Vietnamese people
The Vietnamese people ( vi, người Việt, lit=Viet people) or Kinh people ( vi, người Kinh) are a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to modern-day Northern Vietnam and Southern China (Jing Islands, Dongxing, Guangxi). The native la ...
and Hoa people
The Hoa people ( Vietnamese: ''Người Hoa'', or ) are citizens of Vietnam of full or partial Chinese origin. Chinese migration into Vietnam dates back millennia but most Hoa today derive their recent ancestral Chinese heritage from the 18t ...
(Han Chinese of Vietnam) practice Chinese folk religion, Buddhism and Vietnamese folk religion
Vietnamese folk religion ( vi, tín ngưỡng dân gian Việt Nam, sometimes just called , Chữ Hán: ) is the ethnic religion of the Vietnamese people. About 86% of the population in Vietnam are associated with this religion.
Vietnamese f ...
syncretically.
Features
Organised traditions
Some organised sects stemming from Chinese practises have been active among Southeast Asian Chinese. They include especially De jiao ("religion of virtue
Virtue ( la, virtus) is morality, moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is Value (ethics), valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that sh ...
"),[Chee Beng Tan. ]
The Development and Distribution of Dejiao Associations in Malaysia and Singapore, A Study on a Religious Organization
'. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Occasional Paper n. 79. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985. (Note: Book review has a typo in the ISBN) Zhenkong jiao ("Teachings of True Emptiness")[Vincent Goossaert, David Palmer. ''The Religious Question in Modern China''. University of Chicago Press, 2011. p. 108] and Yiguandao
Yiguandao / I-Kuan Tao (),; ko, 일관도, Ilgwando; th, อนุตตรธรรม, . meaning the Consistent Way or Persistent Way, is a Chinese salvationist religious sect that emerged in the late 19th century, in Shandong, to become C ...
("Consistent Way").
Southeast Asian Chinese pantheon
The names of the gods are in transcribed Mandarin or certain Chinese dialects
Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast of main ...
spoken by Southeast Asian Chinese populations:
* Thin Kong (天公) "Lord of Heaven" also known as the Jade Emperor
* Xuan Tian Shang Di (玄天上帝) or Siong Teh Gong (上帝公), Powerful Deity and was known as the Patron Deity of Ming Dynasty
* Hou Tu
Hòutǔ () or Hòutǔshén (), also Hòutǔ Niángniáng (in Chinese either or ), otherwise called Dimǔ () or Dimǔ Niángniáng (), is the Shen (Chinese religion), deity of deep earth and soil in Chinese folk religion, Chinese religion and Chi ...
(后土) or Di Mu Niang Niang (地母娘娘), known as Goddess Queen of the Earth
* Xi Wang Mu
The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
(西王母), an ancient deity and was highly honored
* Dou Mu Yuan Jun (斗母元君), Mother Goddess of the Big Dipper or Lady Mother of the Chariot
* Kew Ong Yah (九皇爷), Nine Emperor Gods who symbolized the nine stars of the Big Dipper, was known in Malay as "Perayaan Dewa Sembilan Maharaja"
* Guan Teh Gong (關帝公) or Guan Sheng Di Jun (關聖帝君) or "Lord Guan" - God of Military, Symbol of Righteousness and Justice, Patron Deity of police, businessmen and secret societies
* Kuan Yim Pu Chor (觀音佛祖) or also known as Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
- Goddess of Mercy or Bodhisattva of Compassion
* Jiu Tian Xuan Nü (九天玄女) Lady of the Nine Heavens, an ancient Deity and also worshipped as Goddess of War
* Ma Zu (媽祖) or Tian Shang Sheng Mu (天上圣母), Goddess of the sea, Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded as Patron Deity for Lim (林) Clan
* Ong Yah Gong (王爺信仰), Divine Emissaries (代天巡狩) who tour the world of the living on behalf of the Jade Emperor, expelling disease and evil
* Qing Shui Zhu Shi (清水祖師) or Cho Su Gong (祖師公), Patron Deity of Anxi County in Quanzhou
* Bao Sheng Da Di
Baozi (), Pao-tsih or bao, is a type of yeast-leavened filled bun in various Chinese cuisines. There are many variations in fillings ( meat or vegetarian) and preparations, though the buns are most often steamed. They are a variation of '' ma ...
(保生大帝), Patron Deity of Tong'an District in Xiamen, also worshipped as a Medicinal Deity
* Guang Ze Zun Wang (廣澤尊王), Honorific King of Great Compassion, Patron Deity of Nan'an City in Quanzhou
* Kai Zhang Sheng Wang (開漳聖王), Patron Deity of Zhangzhou
* Tua Pek Kong
Tua may refer to:
* Tua River, a river in Portugal
* Tua (Papua New Guinea), a river in Papua New Guinea
* Tuʻa, also known as Alo, a chiefdom in Wallis and Futuna in Oceania
* Tua line, a railway line in Portugal
* Tua railway station, in P ...
(大伯公) or Fu De Zheng Shen Fude Zhengshen ('',Keith G. Stevens, Chinese Mythological Gods, Oxford University Press, USA, (November 8, 2001), pages 60, 68, 70, lit. Righteous God of Virtue and Blessing) is a God of Prosperity in Chinese folk religion. He is often considered ...
(福德正神)
* Hua Tuo
Hua Tuo ( 140–208), courtesy name Yuanhua, was a Chinese physician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. The historical texts ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Book of the Later Han'' record Hua Tuo as the first person in China ...
(華佗), was regarded as "divine physician" in Chinese history and worshipped as a Medicinal Deity
* Qi Tian Da Sheng (齊天大聖) or Dai Seng Yah (大聖爺), the popular and powerful Monkey God
* Seng Ong Yah (城隍爺), Patron Deity of City or City God
* Choy Sun Yeh (财神 "Wealth God")
* Wen Chang Di Jun (文昌帝君), God of Culture and Literature, Patron Deity of scholars and students
* Zhu Sheng Niang Niang (註生娘娘), Goddess of fertility and children
* Yue Xia Lao Ren (月下老人), Patron Deity of marriage and love
* He-He Er Xian (和合二仙), Immortals of Harmony and Union, associated with happy marriages
* Hua Gong Hua Po (花公花婆) Patron Deities and Protector of children
* Tai Yang Xing Jun (太陽星君) Sun God
* Tai Yin Niang Niang (太陰娘娘) or Chang Er (嫦娥), Moon Goddess, worshipped by female devotees during Mid-Autumn Festival
* Tai Sui
Tai Sui is a Chinese term for the stars directly opposite the planet Jupiter ( ''Mùxīng'') during its roughly 12-year orbital cycle. Personified as deities, they are important features of Chinese astrology, Feng Shui, Taoism, and Chinese Bud ...
(太歲) 60 Heavenly Officials who will be in charge of each year during the Chinese sixty years cycle
* Fu, Lu, and Shou
The Sanxing () are the gods of the three stars or constellations considered essential in Chinese astrology and mythology: Jupiter, Ursa Major, and Canopus. Fu, Lu, and Shou (), or Cai, Zi and Shou () are also the embodiments of Fortune ( Fu), pr ...
(福祿壽), Three deities of stars representing auspicious, good life and longevity.
* Wu Ying Jiang Jun (五營將軍 The Celestial Generals of Five Directions)
* Teh Choo Kong (地主公) "Earth Lord" or Di Zhu Shen (地主神) "God of the Purified Place"
* Ho Yah Gong (虎爺公) "Tiger Deity" who guard the temples and was worshipped for protection against bad luck, dangers and enemies
* Zao Jun
The Kitchen deity – also known as the Stove God, named Zao Jun, Zao Shen, Zao kimjah, Cokimjah or Zhang Lang – is the most important of a plethora of Chinese domestic gods that protect the hearth and family. The Kitchen God is recognized in C ...
(灶君), Kitchen God and also known as the Stove God
* Men Shen (門神), Divine Guardians of doors and gates
* Tua Li Yah Pek (大二爺伯), Underworld Deities who are in charge of escorting or arresting the spirits of the dead, also been highly regarded for their brotherhood spirit
* Gu Tao Baey Bin (牛頭馬面), Guardians of the Underworld
* Jin Qian Bo (金錢伯), Popularly known in English as Uncle Moneybags, who oversees incense money transmission from the living realm to the realm of the dead (Underworld)
* She Mian Shen (四面神), also known as Four Faced Deity, who is also known as Brahma
Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...
* Na Tuk Kong (拿督公), also as ''Dato Gong'' or ''Datuk Gong'', related to Datuk Keramat in Malaysian folk religion
Malaysian folk religion refers to the animistic and polytheistic beliefs and practices that are still held by many in the Islamic-majority country of Malaysia. Malaysian folk faith is practiced either openly or covertly depending on the type of ...
Places of worship and practice
Chinese temples in Indonesia and Malaysia are called ''kelenteng'', ''klenteng'', ''tokong'' or ''pekong'' in local Malay language
Malay (; ms, Bahasa Melayu, links=no, Jawi: , Rencong: ) is an Austronesian language that is an official language of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and that is also spoken in East Timor and parts of the Philippines an ...
s, or alternatively ''bio'', the southern Chinese pronunciation of Mandarin ''miao'' (). In Thailand their name is ''sanchao'' ( th, ศาลเจ้า). Items for Chinese religious practices in Southeast Asia are supplied at '' shén liào shāngdiàn'' (神料商店 "shops of goods for the gods").
See also
* Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
* Nine Emperor Gods Festival
* Birthday of the Monkey God
The Birthday of the Monkey God is a cultural and religious holiday celebrated in Singapore on the 15th or 16th day of the First Lunar Month. The dates on the Western Calendar vary from year to year. It marks the birthday of Sun Wukong, the protagon ...
* Ancestor worship
The veneration of the dead, including one's ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, and may possess the ability to influence the fortune of t ...
(Ancestral halls
An ancestral shrine, hall or temple ( or , vi, Nhà thờ họ; Chữ Hán: 家祠户), also called lineage temple, is a temple dedicated to deified ancestors and progenitors of surname lineages or families in the Chinese tradition. Ancestra ...
& Ancestral tablet
A spirit tablet, memorial tablet, or ancestral tablet, is a placard used to designate the seat of a deity or past ancestor as well as to enclose it. The name of the deity or past ancestor is usually inscribed onto the tablet. With origins in tra ...
)
* List of Mazu temples This is a list of Mazu temples, dedicated to Mazu (媽祖) also known as Tian Shang Sheng Mu (天上聖母) or Tian Hou (天后) Chinese Goddess of Sea and Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded a ...
(Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage
The Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage () is usually held annually between Chinese calendar, lunar January and April in the western plains of Taiwan, a major Taoism, Taoist religious event since 1863. After every lunar new year, the Mazu statue of Gongtian ...
& Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong
Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong are dedicated to Tin Hau (Mazu). Over 100 temples are dedicated (at least partially) to Tin Hau in Hong Kong. A list of these temples can be found below.
Famous temples
Famous Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong include: ...
)
* Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong There are several Kwan Tai Temples () in Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a List of cities in China, city an ...
& Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong
* List of City God Temples in China
This is a list of City God Temples in China.
Hong Kong
Shing Wong Temples () in Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or H ...
* Chinese temples in Kolkata
Chinese temples are sacred sites for the practice of Chinese folk religion and Chinese Buddhism. Kolkata has a significant population of Indian nationals of Chinese ethnic origin (immigrants and their descendants that emigrated from China star ...
* Bell Church
The Bell Church (Chinese: ; , ) is a Chinese Filipino indigenous religious organization based in La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines. It is led Elias Ng, the Spiritual Leader and Head Administrator of the Bell Church.
History
The Bell Church was ...
& Bell Church (temple)
* Chow Yam-nam
Chow Yam-nam (; June 19, 1937 - August 17, 2013Tw.nextmedia.com.Tw.nextmedia.com" ''泰國白龍王病重.'' Retrieved on 2010-24-10.) was a Thai guru born in Pattaya to Chinese parents, better known publicly as Bak Lung-wong (), literally the Whit ...
(White Dragon King)
* Vietnamese folk religion
Vietnamese folk religion ( vi, tín ngưỡng dân gian Việt Nam, sometimes just called , Chữ Hán: ) is the ethnic religion of the Vietnamese people. About 86% of the population in Vietnam are associated with this religion.
Vietnamese f ...
* Malaysian folk religion
Malaysian folk religion refers to the animistic and polytheistic beliefs and practices that are still held by many in the Islamic-majority country of Malaysia. Malaysian folk faith is practiced either openly or covertly depending on the type of ...
* Burmese folk religion
* Tai folk religion
The Tai folk religion, or Satsana Phi ( lo, ສາສະໜາຜີ, links=no; th, ศาสนาผี, links=no, , "religion of spirits"), or Ban Phi ( Ahom: 𑜈𑜃𑜫 𑜇𑜣) is a form of animist religious beliefs intermixed with Buddh ...
* Diwata
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associa ...
Notes
References
Further reading
*
External links
Deism of Malaysian Chinese
Zhenkong way
Zhenkong religion
{{Religion topics
Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia
Chinese folk religion in Asia
Religion in Southeast Asia