Chinese Children's Books
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Children's literature in China emerged as a distinct genre in the early 20th century. Before this, children read educational works and reading primers alongside literature intended for adults. Primers were intended to both teach
Chinese characters Chinese characters are logographs used Written Chinese, to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represe ...
and instill values such as proper etiquette and
filial piety Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors, particularly within the context of Confucian ethics, Confucian, Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist ethics, Buddhist, and Daoism, Daoist ethics. ...
.
Picture book A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. With the narrative told primarily through text, they are distinct from comics, which do so primarily through sequential images. The ima ...
s were introduced during the 15th century, and became popular as a way for children in middle-class families to learn basic literacy. Children's periodicals emerged at the beginning of the 20th century, and western children's books began to be translated into Chinese. Following the fall of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
, the
New Culture Movement The New Culture Movement was a progressivism, progressive sociopolitical movement in China during the 1910s and 1920s. Participants criticized many aspects of traditional Chinese society, in favor of new formulations of Chinese culture inform ...
, and the increased use of
vernacular Chinese Written vernacular Chinese, also known as ''baihua'', comprises forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular varieties of the language spoken throughout China. It is contrasted with Literary Chinese, which was the predominant written form ...
as a written language, more authors began to produce stories aimed at children. Works described as the first Chinese children's book include
Ye Shengtao Ye Shengtao (28 October 1894 – 16 February 1988) also known as Ye Shaojun, was a Chinese writer, journalist, educator, publisher and politician. He was a founder of the Association for Literary Studies (), the first literature association dur ...
's fairy tale collection ''The Scarecrow'' and
Bing Xin Xie Wanying (; October 5, 1900 – February 28, 1999), better known by her pen name Bing Xin () or Xie Bingxin, was one of the most prolific Chinese women writers of the 20th century. Many of her works were written for young readers. She ...
's '' Letters to Young Readers'', the latter of which became one of the most popular children's works in China. The children's literature market became lucrative to the emerging Chinese publishing industry, with various major presses publishing large volumes of children's books and periodicals in the 1920s and 1930s. Academic debates arose over the purpose of children's books; some scholars saw fables and fairy tales as most appropriate for children, while others saw these as impeding children's ability to understand reality, and instead advocated for works emphasizing moral
didactics A didactic method (from ''didáskein'', "to teach") is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to present information to students. The didactic method of instruction is often contrasted with dialecti ...
. Radical children's literature, which sought to teach children
left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social ...
political ideals and
class consciousness In Marxism, class consciousness is the set of beliefs that persons hold regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their common class interests. According to Karl Marx, class consciousness is an awa ...
, became popular as the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
grew in the 1920s and 1930s. They gained further popularity following the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, although film became the primary means of communicating socialist ideals. A surge in children's literature publishing took place in the late 1950s, although their popularity declined during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a Social movement, sociopolitical movement in the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his de ...
. Children's literature began again to grow in popularity during the liberalization of the 1980s and 1990s. This period saw some publications reincorporating Confucian values, while others authors have challenged patriarchal authority in their works and emphasized children's self-assertion. Many children's books are adaptations of classic novels and folk tales, with simplified language so as to remain accessible to younger readers. Since the 2000s, works have increasingly explored issues children face in modern China and their effect on families. Academic study of children's literature and
literary award A literary award or literary prize is an award presented in recognition of a particularly lauded Literature, literary piece or body of work. It is normally presented to an author. Organizations Most literary awards come with a corresponding award c ...
s celebrating children's works are well-established in China.


History


Traditional children's readings

Although children were exposed to
folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...
and the
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
from an early age, no distinct genre of
children's literature Children's literature or juvenile literature includes stories, books, magazines, and poems that are created for children. In addition to conventional literary genres, modern children's literature is classified by the intended age of the reade ...
existed in China before the modern era. Reading materials for children in
Imperial China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
were generally primers meant to instill values such as
filial piety Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors, particularly within the context of Confucian ethics, Confucian, Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist ethics, Buddhist, and Daoism, Daoist ethics. ...
. The ''
Three Character Classic The ''Three Character Classic'' (), commonly known as ''San Zi Jing'', also translated as ''Trimetric Classic'', is one of the Chinese classic texts. It was probably written in the 13th century and is mainly attributed to Wang Yinglin (王應麟 ...
'', ''
Hundred Family Surnames The ''Hundred Family Surnames'' (), commonly known as ''Bai Jia Xing'', also translated as ''Hundreds of Chinese Surnames'', is a classic Chinese language , Chinese text composed of common Chinese surnames. An unknown author compiled the book ...
'', and ''
Thousand Character Classic The ''Thousand Character Classic'' (), also known as the ''Thousand Character Text'', is a Chinese poem that has been used as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children from the sixth century onward. It contains exactly one thousand c ...
'' were used to teach a vocabulary of around 2000
characters Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to Theoph ...
. Moral primers, focused on etiquette and
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
virtues, included ''
The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars ''The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars'', also translated as ''The Twenty-four Paragons of Filial Piety'' (), is a classic text of Confucianism, Confucian filial piety written by Guo Jujing ()() Wang, Qi (). ''Xu Wenxian Tongkao'' () vol. 71. duri ...
'' and adaptations of the ''
Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The '' ...
''. However, as childhood was not understood as a finite period of time, reading of these materials continued into adulthood. Beyond educational works, children often read literature intended for adults. The (), published in 1436, was the first children's
picture book A picture book combines visual and verbal narratives in a book format, most often aimed at young children. With the narrative told primarily through text, they are distinct from comics, which do so primarily through sequential images. The ima ...
in China. Picture books gained popularity as a way to introduce young children to reading. Children from middle-class families, not needing the formal training required for the
imperial examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
s, may have learned only from illustrated primers in order to gain basic literacy. At around six or seven, boys began to study the
Four Books and Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
. Archaic and difficult to understand for children, they were often memorized before their meanings were fully understood. Educational materials for girls were mainly conduct guides focused around preparing them for marriage, such as the ''Women's Precepts'' and the '' Classic for Girls''. These works heavily emphasized women's submission to their husbands along Confucian ideals.


Early translations

Foreign works of children's literature began to be translated into Chinese in the late Qing dynasty, with early publications including the fairy tales of
Hans Christian Andersen Hans Christian Andersen ( , ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish author. Although a prolific writer of plays, travelogue (literature), travelogues, novels, and poems, he is best remembered for his literary fairy tales. Andersen's fai ...
, the books of Lewis Carrol, and
J.M. Barrie Sir James Matthew Barrie, 1st Baronet, (; 9 May 1860 19 June 1937) was a Scottish novelist and playwright, best remembered as the creator of Peter Pan. He was born and educated in Scotland and then moved to London, where he wrote several succ ...
's novel ''
Peter Pan Peter Pan is a fictional character created by Scottish novelist and playwright J. M. Barrie. A free-spirited and mischievous young boy who can fly and never grows up, Peter Pan spends his never-ending childhood having adventures on the mythical ...
''. Around 120 translated children's works were published in China between 1898 and 1919.
Lin Shu Lin Shu (, November 8, 1852 – October 9, 1924; courtesy name Qinnan () was a Chinese writer. He was well known for introducing Western literature to a whole generation of Chinese readers, despite his ignorance of any foreign languages; co ...
, a prolific translator of Western literature (despite lacking fluency in any fluent language), produced a large number of translated children's works, including the first Chinese translation of ''
Aesop's Fables Aesop's Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a Slavery in ancient Greece, slave and storyteller who lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 Before the Common Era, BCE. Of varied and unclear origins, the stor ...
'' in 1902. Sun Yuxiu translated 48 Western children's stories in his ''Tong Hua'' series, a compilation of adapted classical Chinese and western tales. Prior to the
New Culture Movement The New Culture Movement was a progressivism, progressive sociopolitical movement in China during the 1910s and 1920s. Participants criticized many aspects of traditional Chinese society, in favor of new formulations of Chinese culture inform ...
, works were often translated into
Classical Chinese Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from . For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary ...
instead of
Standard Chinese Standard Chinese ( zh, s=现代标准汉语, t=現代標準漢語, p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ, l=modern standard Han speech) is a modern standard form of Mandarin Chinese that was first codified during the republican era (1912–1949). ...
, rendering them inaccessible to many children. These translations were generally published in Shanghai, variously included within magazines and books. The initial wave of translations were followed by localized adaptations, with
Shen Congwen Shen Congwen (28 December 1902 – 10 May 1988), formerly romanized as Shen Ts'ung-wen, was a Chinese writer who is considered one of the greatest modern Chinese writers, on par with Lu Xun. Regional culture and identity plays a much bigger ro ...
and Chen Bochui continuing ''
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' (also known as ''Alice in Wonderland'') is an 1865 English Children's literature, children's novel by Lewis Carroll, a mathematics university don, don at the University of Oxford. It details the story of a ...
'' and
Lao She Shu Qingchun (3 February 189924 August 1966), known by his pen name Lao She, was a Chinese writer of Manchu ethnicity, known for his vivid portrayal of urban life and his colorful use of the Beijing dialect, such as in the novel '' Rickshaw Boy' ...
publishing a 1940 book derived from
Carlo Collodi Carlo Lorenzini (; 24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi ( ; ), was an Italian author, humourist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel '' The Adventures of Pinocchio''. Early lif ...
's ''
The Adventures of Pinocchio ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' ( ; , i.e. "The Adventures of Pinocchio. Story of a Puppet"), commonly shortened to ''Pinocchio'', is an 1883 Children's literature, children's fantasy novel by Italian author Carlo Collodi. It is about the mischi ...
'' (1883).
Liang Qichao Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啓超; Wade–Giles: ''Liang2 Chʻi3-chʻao1''; Yale romanization of Cantonese, Yale: ''Lèuhng Kái-chīu''; ) (February 23, 1873 – January 19, 1929) was a Chinese politician, social and political activist, jour ...
and Lu Xun both translated works by
Jules Verne Jules Gabriel Verne (;''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary''. ; 8 February 1828 – 24 March 1905) was a French novelist, poet and playwright. His collaboration with the publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel led to the creation of the ''Voyages extraor ...
for young Chinese readers, collectively highlighting the importance of science in modernization.


Emergence of children's literature

Children's books emerged as a distinct domestic genre in the 1920s. Previously, amidst the turbulence of the late
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
, few children had had the luxury of reading, and the use of Classical Chinese further impeded them. Following the
May 4th Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese cultural and anti-imperialist political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen to protest the Chinese government's weak response to ...
, several writers began to prepare stories for children. Challenging the long-established system of Confucian beliefs, these authors were facilitated by the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
government's policy of using
vernacular Chinese Written vernacular Chinese, also known as ''baihua'', comprises forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular varieties of the language spoken throughout China. It is contrasted with Literary Chinese, which was the predominant written form ...
as a language of instruction, which had been implemented in the 1910s. Accompanying this writing of children's literature were changing mores that recognized the agency of children, the idea of using age as a measure of development, and the implementation of
student-centered learning Student-centered learning, also known as learner-centered education, broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner ...
. Early proponents of children's literature in China included the prominent new culture novelist
Lu Xun Lu Xun ( zh, c=魯迅, p=Lǔ Xùn, ; 25 September 188119 October 1936), pen name of Zhou Shuren, born Zhou Zhangshou, was a Chinese writer. A leading figure of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in both vernacular and literary Chinese as a no ...
. Although Lu did not write for children, he frequently advocated for it, and translated a number of western children's books into Chinese. In 1919, Lu advocated in the literary magazine ''
New Youth ''New Youth'', also known as La Jeunesse, was a Chinese literary magazine founded by Chen Duxiu and published between 1915 and 1926. It strongly influenced both the New Culture Movement and the later May Fourth Movement. Publishing history ...
'' for writers to create a distinct children's literature. He was joined in this call the following year by his brother
Zhou Zuoren Zhou Zuoren () (16 January 1885 – 6 May 1967) was a Chinese writer, primarily known as an essayist and a translator. He was the younger brother of Lu Xun (Zhou Shuren, 周树人), the second of three brothers. Biography Early life Born in ...
. The two wrote that there existed a sharp divide between adults and the persecuted children, for whom adults needed to make a better future. In 1923,
Ye Shengtao Ye Shengtao (28 October 1894 – 16 February 1988) also known as Ye Shaojun, was a Chinese writer, journalist, educator, publisher and politician. He was a founder of the Association for Literary Studies (), the first literature association dur ...
published ''The Scarecrow'', a compilation of
fairy tale A fairy tale (alternative names include fairytale, fairy story, household tale, magic tale, or wonder tale) is a short story that belongs to the folklore genre. Such stories typically feature magic, enchantments, and mythical or fanciful bei ...
s. Some scholars, including Lu, described ''The Scarecrow'' as the first major work of Chinese children's literature; others argued that Ye had co-opted the fairy-tale format as a form of critique against Chinese society more broadly, instead attributing the title of first children's book to
Bing Xin Xie Wanying (; October 5, 1900 – February 28, 1999), better known by her pen name Bing Xin () or Xie Bingxin, was one of the most prolific Chinese women writers of the 20th century. Many of her works were written for young readers. She ...
's '' Letters to Young Readers'', a collection of letters penned between 1923 and 1926 while she was studying in the United States. ''Letters to Young Readers'' became one of the most popular children's works in China during the 1920s; initially published as a newspaper supplement, it was republished as a book in 1926, and saw twenty-one different editions and republications over the following decade. Magazines for children emerged in the early 1900s, including ''Educational Pictures for Children'' (1908–1925) and ''Fairy Tales'' (1909–1932). '' Children's World'' (published by the
Commercial Press The Commercial Press () is the first modern publishing organization in China. The Commercial Press is known for its academic publishing and translation work in humanities and social sciences, as well as the '' Xinhua Dictionary''. History In ...
) and '' Little Friend'' (published by the
Zhonghua Book Company Zhonghua Book Company (), formerly spelled Chunghwa or Chung-hua Shu-chü, and sometimes translated as Zhonghua Publishing House, are Chinese publishing houses that focuses on the humanities, especially classical Chinese works. Currently it ha ...
) became the most prominent of these children's journals, each seeing biweekly circulations of over 20,000 copies. The Chinese publishing industry became highly dependent on the lucrative children's literature market. Publishers such as the Beixin Book Company, '' zh, p=
Kaiming Shudian Kaiming He () is a Chinese computer scientist who primarily researches computer vision and deep learning. He is an associate professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and is known as one of the creators of residual neural network (ResNet) ...
, labels=no'', and '' zh, p= Xiandai Shuju, labels=no'' all published large volumes of children's books. Beixin and Xiandai launched their own children's magazines — ''Little Student'' and ''Modern Child'' respectively — in an attempt to compete with periodicals such as ''Children's World''.
Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
, the center of the Chinese literary community during the Republican era, also became the center of children's literature and publishing.


Debates over purpose

During the Republican period (1912–1949), theorists of the emerging children's literature argued what role children's literature had should have and on what themes the works should focus. Some theorists argued that the literature should focus on supplying happiness and curiosity to children, writing that children were unable to understand the sadness and emotional pain of the adult world. However, many early books (including ''The Scarecrow'') were focused on themes of grief and empathy. Zhou's 1920 essay "A Children's Literature", initially delivered as a lecture to elementary school educators, provided a systematic theorization of childhood and children's literature, identifying five distinct stages of childhood development. He argued that children's literature should avoid both moral
didactics A didactic method (from ''didáskein'', "to teach") is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to present information to students. The didactic method of instruction is often contrasted with dialecti ...
and politics, instead encouraging fairy tales. Despite advocacy from figures such as Zhou, children's literature became highly politicized by the 1930s. The
Commercial Press The Commercial Press () is the first modern publishing organization in China. The Commercial Press is known for its academic publishing and translation work in humanities and social sciences, as well as the '' Xinhua Dictionary''. History In ...
editor Bi Yun, published an attack on children's fables and fairy tales in the '' Eastern Miscellany'' in 1935, writing that children needed "content that exposes the ugliness and cruelty of the beautiful kingdoms and handsome princes in the fairy tales". In 1931, the Hunan governor
He Jian He Jian (; 10 April 1887 – 25 April 1956) was a Chinese Nationalist (KMT) general and politician in the Republic of China. He was governor of Hunan province between 1929 and 1937, and Interior Minister from 1937 to 1939. He was best known for ...
wrote to the
Ministry of Education An education ministry is a national or subnational government agency politically responsible for education. Various other names are commonly used to identify such agencies, such as Ministry of Education, Department of Education, and Ministry of Pub ...
, urging them to ban
fable Fable is a literary genre defined as a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a parti ...
s from schools, prompting widespread debate on the format. Proponents of the stories described narratives including anthropomorphized animals as harmless encouragement to children's imaginations, while opponents argued that such narratives impaired children's ability to grasp reality. Although popular opinion largely supported the stories, they were banned from schools in 1932. Radical children's literature emerged in China soon after the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
in 1921, although they were a minor current in comparison to other forms during the period. ''Little Children's Weekly'', a communist-affiliated children's magazine, was briefly published from 1926 to 1927, before it was pushed underground by the
Kuomintang The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
repression of the Communists during the
Chinese Civil War The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government, government of the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Armed conflict continued intermitt ...
. The genre declined during this period of repression, with authors often writing under
pen name A pen name or nom-de-plume is a pseudonym (or, in some cases, a variant form of a real name) adopted by an author and printed on the title page or by-line of their works in place of their real name. A pen name may be used to make the author's na ...
s and avoiding political content in their stories in favor of fairy tales and fables. This situation began to reverse in 1936, particularly after the formation of the
Second United Front The Second United Front ( zh, t=第二次國共合作 , s=第二次国共合作 , first=t , l=Second Nationalist-Communist Cooperation, p=dì èr cì guógòng hézuò ) was the alliance between the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Co ...
.
Zhang Tianyi Zhang Tianyi, (real name: Zhang Yuanding; 26 September 1906 – 28 April 1985) was a 20th-century Chinese left-wing writer and children's author, whose novels and short stories achieved acclaim in the 1930s for his satiric wit. Biography ...
's 1936 ''
Big Lin and Little Lin Big or BIG may refer to: * Big, of great size or degree Film and television * ''Big'' (film), a 1988 fantasy-comedy film starring Tom Hanks * ''Big'', a 2023 Taiwanese children's film starring Van Fan and Chie Tanaka * ''Big!'', a Discovery ...
'', one of the most famed Chinese children's books of the 1930s, draws heavily from communist ideals, portraying the struggle between an elite ogre versus Little Lin, a worker. Through the later parts of the decade, leftist children's magazines touched on international affairs as well as domestic concerns regarding the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
and the
Empire of Japan The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From Japan–Kor ...
's imperial ambitions.


Wartime

The writer
Mao Dun Shen Dehong (Shen Yanbing; 4 July 1896 – 27 March 1981), best known by the pen name of Mao Dun, was a Chinese novelist, essayist, journalist, playwright, literary and cultural critic. He was highly celebrated for his Literary realism, rea ...
translated numerous works of western children's literature into Chinese. Further contributions to children's literature came from a range of prominent poets and novelists, including
Ba Jin Li Yaotang ( zh, s=李尧棠, t=李堯棠, p=Lǐ Yáotáng; 25 November 1904 – 17 October 2005), better known by his pen name Ba Jin ( zh, s=巴金, t=巴金, p=Bā Jīn) or his courtesy name Li Feigan ( zh, s=李芾甘, t=李芾甘, p=Lǐ F ...
, Chen Bochui, and
Guo Moruo Guo Moruo (November 16, 1892 – June 12, 1978), courtesy name Dingtang, was a Chinese author, poet, historian, archaeologist, and government official. Biography Family history Guo Moruo, originally named Guo Kaizhen, was born on November 10 or ...
. During the 1940s,
Yan Wenjing Yan Wenjing (; October 15, 1915 – July 20, 2005) was a Chinese writer. He was born Yan Wenjin () in Wuchang, Hubei province. Career * In 1934, Yan Wenjing graduated from Hubei Senior High School. * In 1935, Yan Wenjing took his first job in ...
and Zhang Tianyi emerged as the preeminent children's authors, although both also wrote for adults. Unlike earlier authors such as Ye and Bing, who tended towards more somber works, Yan and Zhang wrote hopeful, optimistic books which greatly appealed to children. Most of the children's literature in this era was intended for readers over the age of eleven. Early literary production was centered in Shanghai, but in the late 1930s, as Japan gained increased control over coastal China, activities moved to
Chongqing ChongqingPostal Romanization, Previously romanized as Chungking ();. is a direct-administered municipality in Southwestern China. Chongqing is one of the four direct-administered municipalities under the State Council of the People's Republi ...
and
Yan'an Yan'an; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternatively spelled as Yenan is a prefecture-level city in the Shaanbei region of Shaanxi Province of China, province, China, bordering Shanxi to the east and Gansu to the west. It administers several c ...
; production also slowed as major publishers and publications were closed. Works published in this time, which included such anti-Japanese titles as Su Su's ''The Little Traitor'' and Lao Xiang's ''Three Character Classic of the Anti-Japanese War'', tended to have low readership. Songs were more common, with tunes by
Peng Pai Peng Pai ( zh, c=彭湃, p=Péng Pài, w=P'êng2 P'ai4; October 22, 1896 – August 30, 1929) was a pioneer of the Chinese agrarian movement and a leading revolutionary in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during its early years.In the Preface, ...
and
Qu Qiubai Qu Qiubai (; 29 January 1899 – 18 June 1935) was a Chinese writer, poet, translator, and a political activist. In the late 1920s and early 1930s he was the de facto leader of the Chinese Communist Party. In 1935, he was arrested and executed ...
adapted for the wartime effort. During the second phase of the Chinese Civil War, the majority of children's writers supported the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
(CCP), putting on plays and producing stories that satirized the
Kuomintang The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
.


Early Communist era

With the establishment of the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
in 1949, the CCP called for the production of literary works dedicated to children; Such works would advance the idea that children were the heirs to the
proletarian revolution A proletarian revolution or proletariat revolution is a social revolution in which the working class attempts to overthrow the bourgeoisie and change the previous political system. Proletarian revolutions are generally advocated by socialist ...
, "revolutionary successors" and "new generations of socialism" that could be trained to further improve Chinese society. Contemporary thinkers also highlighted the importance of children's literature in shaping the new socialist society, with Li Bokang deeming it "inseparable from that of literature for adults, only playing a more important and special role in the initial stage of the whole process of education".quoted in and translated by Thinkers such as Du Gao called for authors to promote
class consciousness In Marxism, class consciousness is the set of beliefs that persons hold regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their common class interests. According to Karl Marx, class consciousness is an awa ...
, with the aim of children seeing themselves proletarians. Many works were intended to help children imagine a better future and memorialize the spirit of the
Chinese Communist Revolution The Chinese Communist Revolution was a social revolution, social and political revolution in China that began in 1927 and culminated with the proclamation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. The revolution was led by the Chinese C ...
. Though cinema was used as the primary means of communicating socialist ideals, works of children's literature were issued by several state-owned publishersincluding the Shanghai-based Adolescents and Children's Publishing House. After 1955, the production of children's literature increased rapidly; by the end of the 1950s, more than 14,000 titles had been published. There were over 300 active children's writers during the 1950s. Works from this period extensively used symbols of a new eraspring, dawn, and the rising sun. Various different genres and formats were in circulation, from fairy tales and
nursery rhyme A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem or song for children in Britain and other European countries, but usage of the term dates only from the late 18th/early 19th century. The term Mother Goose rhymes is interchangeable with nursery rhymes. Fr ...
s to novels, poems, and even news reports. Prominent works from the early Communist period include Zhang Tianyi's 1952 '' The Story of Luo Wenying'', 's 1955 , 's 1955 '' Han Meimei'', Gao Xiangzhen's 1960 '' Xiao Pang and Xiao Song'' and 's 1962 ''.'' Works from the period were typically story-focused and centered around a strong hero or heroine; as such, some were enjoyed by adult readers. The
Anti-Rightist Campaign The Anti-Rightist Campaign () in the People's Republic of China, which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged " Rightists" within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign w ...
, began in 1957, saw a campaign against "reactionary
humanism Humanism is a philosophy, philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and Agency (philosophy), agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The me ...
", the concept of childhood innocence and criticism of works which proclaimed a universal
human nature Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of Thought, thinking, feeling, and agency (philosophy), acting—that humans are said to have nature (philosophy), naturally. The term is often used to denote ...
. Many children's authors and works were criticized during this period.


Cultural Revolution

This surge had ended by the mid-1960s. Works published in this decade included He Yi's ''Liu Wenxue'' (1965), based on the life of who was killed by a landlord whom he caught stealing. When the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a Social movement, sociopolitical movement in the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). It was launched by Mao Zedong in 1966 and lasted until his de ...
commenced in 1966, fewer still works were produced. Children were positioned as part of the
Little Red Guards The Little Red Guards ( zh, t=紅小兵, s=红小兵, p=Hóng Xiǎobīng, l=red little soldiers) was a large student organization in primary schools during the Cultural Revolution in mainland China. It replaced the Young Pioneers and participate ...
, seen as the vanguards for the ongoing revolution.


Modern era

The Cultural Revolution lasted through 1976, at which point the production of children's literature had slowed to 200 titles per year. Seeking to improve the situation, more than two hundred educators, publishers, and writers held the Lu Shan Conference in 1978 to discuss potential solutions. They produced three recommendations: promote innovative and imaginative writing, highlight matters of ethics and aesthetics, and allow for greater influence from foreign works. At the same time, the government encouraged the idea that modernization did not necessarily require westernization, and that literary works could be used to shape the Chinese national character in the future. Such a liberalization of literary policies allowed for the publication of stories critical of the Cultural Revolution, with
Liu Xinwu Liu Xinwu (; born June 1942) is a Chinese author, and one of the earliest proponents of the post-Maoism, Maoist wave of Chinese literature. Biography Born in the province of Sichuan, his family moved to Beijing, a city that figures prominently ...
's 1977 short story "The Class Teacher" being considered a milestone in post-Mao children's literature. The production of children's literature increased through the 1980s; by 1984, there were 23 active children's publishers and total sales of children's literature reached 907,540,000. Works such as the anthology '' Stories for 365 Nights'' sold several million copies. Publications for children included not only books, but also widely circulated newspapers and magazines; the circulation of the ''
China Youth Daily The ''China Youth Daily'' ( zh, s=中国青年报, t=, p=) is the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Communist Youth League of China. It has been the newspaper of the Communist Youth League of China since 1951. It has occasional ...
'' peaked at 11,000,000 in 1983, but was displaced by local youth newspapers in the following years. In the 1990s, the Chinese government began to exert greater influence on literature. Amidst a broader movement towards reincorporating Confucian values, it issued the ''New Three Character Classic'' in 1994; ten years later, it issued a list of three hundred films, songs, and books recommended for children's consumption. Meanwhile, several writersincluding
Yu Hua Yu Hua (; born 3 April, 1960) is a Chinese novelist, essayist, and short story writer. He is widely considered one of the greatest living authors in China. Shortly after his debut as a fiction writer in 1983, his first breakthrough came in 19 ...
, through his debut novel ''Cries in the Drizzle'' (1993)have challenged patriarchal authority through depictions of nefarious fathers and self-asserting children. Scholarship on children's literature in China expanded significantly in the 1990s. Theorists have rejected the idea that children's literature should be used merely for education and political purposes. By 2002, more than 3,000 authors were producing works of children's literature. At the same time, the industry was hindered by high prices and a limited distribution network that focused primarily on urban centers.


Themes and style

Generally, works of Chinese children's literature have served a didactic purpose, being intended as a means to transfer moral and cultural values to younger generations, as well as to develop language and
critical thinking Critical thinking is the process of analyzing available facts, evidence, observations, and arguments to make sound conclusions or informed choices. It involves recognizing underlying assumptions, providing justifications for ideas and actions, ...
skills. Moral teachings were prominent in early Chinese works meant for children, with both the ''Three Character Classic'' and ''The Twenty-Four Filial Exemplars'' highlighting the importance of
filial piety Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors, particularly within the context of Confucian ethics, Confucian, Chinese Buddhism, Chinese Buddhist ethics, Buddhist, and Daoism, Daoist ethics. ...
understood not merely as children honoring their elders, but a continued commitment to one's parents and ancestors as well as one's family, clan, and society. Literature may be used to instill children with an appreciation for the history of Chinese culture as well as the virtues expected of them as members of society. At the same time, it can provide students with an introduction to
empirical knowledge Empirical evidence is evidence obtained through sense experience or experimental procedure. It is of central importance to the sciences and plays a role in various other fields, like epistemology and law. There is no general agreement on how the ...
as well as guidance in
social interaction A social relation is the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences, and describes any voluntary or involuntary interpersonal relationship between two or more conspecifics within and/or between groups. The group can be a language or ...
s. Language skills, including new characters, are also acquired as children read. Through the 1980s it was common for children to be positioned as uncritical readers of such works. Republican Chinese children's literature varied thematically. Ye Shengtao used "Little White Boat", the first story in ''The Scarecrow'', to highlight the innocence of children and juxtapose it with the tribulations of adulthood. Bing Xin highlighted lovefor animals, for nature, and in generaleven as she idealized the "natural innocence and sensitivity of children". Zhang Tianyi used humor to promote
moral education Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children and adults in a manner that will help them develop variously as moral, civic, good, mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditiona ...
, at the same time using allegory to highlight the plight of
child labour Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation w ...
ers; his fairy tale "Big Lin and Little Lin" depicted a wealthy factory owner eating a hundred eggs a dayeach egg a child who had been worked into exhaustion. Similar condemnation of capitalism and factories came from writers such as Guo Moruo (''Only One Hand'', 1928). Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China, political education has driven much literature for children. Works may follow revolutionary heroes, labor heroes, or peasants, often coming into conflict with landlords and other members of the
bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
. Characters such as
Lei Feng Lei Feng (18 December 194015 August 1962), born Lei Zhengxing, was a soldier in the People's Liberation Army who was the object of several major propaganda campaigns in China. The most well-known of these campaigns in 1963 promoted the slogan ...
and " Little Radish Head" are presented as models that should be emulated. Other works, such as Cui Daoyi's "The Road of a Young Pioneer Member" (1956), depicted children denouncing their capitalist parents. Other works retell legends, fables, and historical tales. Traditional versions of such stories may be difficult for younger readers, and consequently these stories may be retold using simpler language and colorful illustrations. Works that are popularly adapted for child readers include ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
'', ''
Journey to the West ''Journey to the West'' () is a Chinese novel published in the 16th century during the Ming dynasty and attributed to Wu Cheng'en. It is regarded as one of the Classic Chinese Novels, great Chinese novels, and has been described as arguably the ...
'', and ''
Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (), also called ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' or ''All Men Are Brothers'', is a Chinese novel from the Ming dynasty that is one of the preeminent Classic Chinese Novels. Attributed to Shi Nai'an, ''Water Margin'' was one of the e ...
''. Still more works of Chinese children's literature use contemporary settings, everyday situations, and child characters to convey lessons and teach problem-solving skills. Characters in such works tend to have limited arcs, but may show growth (from cowardice to courage, or selfishness to selflessness) over the course of the story. Issues explored in such works have, since the late 1990s, included work habits, the
Chinese diaspora Overseas Chinese people are people of Chinese origin who reside outside Greater China (mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan). As of 2011, there were over 40.3 million overseas Chinese. As of 2023, there were 10.5 million people livin ...
, and the effect of these phenomena on families. Works exploring the issues faced by children in modern China have included
Yang Hongying Yang Hongying (born 12 May 1962) is a best-selling Chinese writer of children's fiction, who has been called "China's J. K. Rowling." As of 2013, her novels had sold more than 50 million copies, and she has been listed as one of the richest Chin ...
's ''A Girl's Diary'' (2000),
Cao Wenxuan Cao Wenxuan (; born January 1954) is a Chinese novelist, best known for his works of children's literature. Cao is the vice president of the Beijing Writers Association. He is also a professor and doctoral tutor at Peking University. His novels ...
's ''Straw Hut'' (2006), and
Qin Wenjun Qin Wenjun (; born 1954) is an author of children's literature. She writes in Chinese. Life and work Qin Wenjun was born in Shanghai in 1954. In 1971, as one of the educated youth sent to work in the rural China, Qin was sent to a forested area in ...
's ''A New Biography of Schoolboy Jia Li'' (2010).
Poetry Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
is taught to Chinese children from a young age, beginning with
nursery rhymes A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem or song for children in Britain and other European countries, but usage of the term dates only from the late 18th/early 19th century. The term Mother Goose rhymes is interchangeable with nursery rhymes. Fro ...
and
nonsense verse Nonsense verse is a form of nonsense literature usually employing strong prosodic elements like rhythm and rhyme. It is often whimsical and humorous in tone and employs some of the techniques of nonsense literature. Limericks are probably th ...
. Published
children's poetry Children's poetry is poetry children's literature, written for, appropriate for children, appropriate for, or enjoyed by children. Children's poetry is one of the oldest art forms, rooted in early oral tradition, folk poetry, and nursery rhymes ...
tends to use simple language, with rhymes used to teach pronunciation. Poems for children may use sensory imagery, or provide figurative comparisons or new paradigms that allow children to better understand their world. Children's poetry with communist themes can be traced back to the 1920s, with
Peng Pai Peng Pai ( zh, c=彭湃, p=Péng Pài, w=P'êng2 P'ai4; October 22, 1896 – August 30, 1929) was a pioneer of the Chinese agrarian movement and a leading revolutionary in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during its early years.In the Preface, ...
's 1921 song "The Peasants Curse the Landlord" being revived by the CCP in the 1960s.


Awards and recognition

The first awards for children's literature in China were given out in 1954, and various exist such literary awards today. Prominent examples include: *
Chen Bochui Children's Literature Award The Chen Bochui Children's Literature Award (陈伯吹儿童文学奖) is a major award issued in China, with the aim of promoting excellence in children's publishing and cultural diversity. It was originally called the Children's Literary Garden Pr ...
*
Bing Xin Children's Literature Award The Bing Xin Children's Literary Award (''Bing Xin ertong wenxue xinzuo jiang'' 冰心儿童文学新作奖) is named after the Chinese writer Bing Xin, whose work has made her a key figure in 20th-century Chinese literature The history of C ...
* National Outstanding Children's Literature Award *
Soong Ching-ling Children's Literature Prize The Soong Ching-ling Children’s Literature Prize 宋庆龄儿童文学奖(pinyin: ) is a prize for children’s literature in China. It is sponsored by the Soong Ching-ling Foundation, and is awarded every two years, with a different genre speci ...
* Feng Zikai Chinese Children's Picture Book Award


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** ** * * * * {{refend Chinese children's literature Chinese literary genres