History
Pre-Columbian
Prior to Classic collapse
The first settlements in Chetumal were established by Palaeo-indians before 8000 BC, during the Lithic Period of Mesoamerica.As of 2016, evidence of Palaeo-indian presence in Chetumal include— (i) an undated, fishtailProximal to Classic collapse
{{Main, Classic Maya collapse The completion of the Classic Mayan collapse in Yucatan saw both the formation of Mayan provinces and the imperial expansion ofPosterior to Classic collapse
Columbian
{{main, Spanish conquest of YucatánFirst contacts with Spaniards
The first Spaniard known to have arrived in Chetumal wasCuban expeditions to Yucatan
Hispano-Mayan hostilities commenced on 5 March 1517 inMontejo entrada, 1527–1528
On 8 December 1526, the= Northern campaign, autumn 1527 – summer 1528
= They watered in Cozumel for a few days, upon their warm reception by residents and Naum Pat, an influential ''batab'' or mayor in Cozumel, and thereafter proceeded to the mainland.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=35–36 It has been suggested that the Pat ''ch'ibal'' or noble house were the most influential house in the Ekab Province, which is thought to have encompassed Cozumel {{harv, Roys, 1957, p=143 . At least two towns are known to have existed in Cozumel prior to the Spanish conquest. These were later known as San Miguel Xamancab and Santa María Oycib. A third town, possibly Tantun, has been suggested {{harv, Roys, 1957, p=155 . They explored the immediate area, being well received by the nearby towns of= Southern campaign, summer 1528
= Montejo was to hug the coast with eight to ten men aboard the brigantine or caravel ''La Gavarra''. Dávila was to take a parallel route by land, with the majority of the soldiers.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=60 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, p=26 A small contingent of twenty men stayed at Salamanca, under Alonso de Luján. They were to build a small craft and follow Montejo post haste {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=60 . It is not immediately clear how many men constituted the Dávila party. The ''La Gavarra'', which provisioned the men from Santo Domingo, is thought to have found seventy to seventy-five men at Salamanca, suggesting a party of fifty to fifty-five men accompanied Dávila southwards {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=59–60 . On the other hand, {{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=26 gives the number as circa forty soldiers in the Dávila party. The provincial capital of Chetumal, which had been set as the parties’ rendezvous point, was first reached by Montejo.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=60 The details of their crossing theDavila entrada, 1531–1533
In early 1531, the adelantado, having brought the Chakan,= Waymil–Chetumal campaign, summer 1531
= Dávila set out from the provincial capital of= Settlement and siege of ''Villa Real'', summer 1531 – autumn 1532
= In the next two months, the Governor of Chetumal, Nachan Kan, rallied the provincial forces at Chequitaquil, a coastal town four leagues north of the capital. On learning this, Dávila ordered a pre-emptive strike. A unit of circa twenty-five soldiers took the encampment by surprise. The assault was a partial success, resulting in the death of many of the provinces men, imprisonment of over sixty, and dispersal of all others. The principal target, Gov. Kan, had nonetheless made his escape.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=104 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, p=33 The assault yielded over sixty prisoners and loot worth circa 600 to 1,000 pesos. The capital's commander-in-chief, Gonzalo Guerrero, is presumed to have been with Gov. Kan at Chequitaquil, and to have likewise escaped. The captives, however, informed Dávila that Guerrero had previously died ({{harvnb, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=104–105 , {{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=33 ). Now safely ensconced at the Chetumal capital (now ''Villa Real''), Dávila set out with twenty men on a survey of the newly-Spanish territory towards Maçanahau. Upon reaching Bacalar, Dávila, to his great surprise, was informed that residents of Maçanahau and other provincial towns of Waymil had resolved to oppose him. The towns and their access roads had been barricaded. The opposition, though, was soon routed.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=105–106 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, p=34 First at Maçanahau, then at Chable {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=105–106 . In the meantime, the recently-conquered Cochuah Province had revolted. Dávila resupplied at Villa Real and set off with twenty-two men to suppress the revolt.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=107–108 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, pp=34–36 Leaving some twenty-odd men at Villa Real. At Bacalar, some 600 locals from the various towns of Waymil, including many provincial or municipal officers, accompanied Dávila to Cochuah {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=107–108 . Some to most of the Waymil allies would later desert Dávila to join the Cochuah revolt {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=109–110 . It has been suggested that the Governor of Chetumal, Nachan Kan, and his commander-in-chief, Gonzalo Guerrero, played a part in spreading the revolt {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=116 . Unlike the limited rebellion in Waymil, the Cochuah revolt proved serious and widespread, forcing Dávila to retreat to Villa Real.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=112–113, 116 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, pp=36–38 The Spanish settlement was now under heavy siege. With only some thirty men fit for combat, five horses, and depleting stores, their situation was precarious.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=116–117 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, p=33 Eleven of the fifty-odd men who had set out from the Can Pech capital in mid-1531 had died, leaving some forty men at Villa Real, of whom ten were reportedly maimed {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=116–117 . Dávila soon learnt of a sizeable convoy preparing to set sail near Villa Real for trade towards the= Retreat from ''Villa Real'', autumn 1532 – spring 1533
= The siege wore on for months, as it became increasingly clear to the men that the situation was untenable.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=118 In autumn 1532, Dávila and the ''cabildo'' or town council resolved to retreat to Trujillo by sea.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=119–120 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, pp=38–39 ''Villa Real'' was to be re-established somewhere south of the Chetumal capital, if possible {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=119–120 . They reachedPacheco entrada, 1543–1544
{{main article, 1543–1544 Pachecos entrada In April 1543, the Adelantado commissioned Gaspar Pacheco to conquer Chetumal and Waymil. Pacheco enlisted twenty-five to thirty men in Merida, and named Melchor Pacheco his principal subordinate, and Alonso Pacheco third in command.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=232 The date is given as 3 January 1543 in {{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=41 . The expedition set out in late 1543 or early 1544.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=232–233 Pacheco and his men first reached the Spanish-controlled Cochuah Province. Their demands on the war-stricken residents here proved impossible to meet. The party nonetheless impressed men and women as servants, and seized so much food as to reduce the province to famine.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=233 At this point, having fallen ill, Gaspar Pacheco tasked Melchor Pacheco, his second-in-command, with the conquest of Waymil and Chetumal.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=233 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, p=42 Gaspar Pacheco returned to Merida to recuperate. Alonso Pacheco was now Melchor Pacheco's principal subordinate {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=233 . Marching onwards to Waymil and Chetumal, the Pachecos soon discovered that residents had burnt their crops and fled to the woods, determined on guerrilla warfare to oppose them.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=233–234 Exasperated, the Pachecos now resorted to wanton acts of cruelty, including: * clubbing captives to death, * drowning captives, * sicking dogs on unarmed civilians, and allowing the dogs to maul them to death, and * mutilating captives.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=234 It has been suggested that Melchor Pacheco's second-in-command, Alonso Pacheco, was the officer most responsible for these acts {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=234 . The lack of clergymen in the expedition has further been cited as a contributing factor {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=234 . The Pacheco entrada is now commonly described as one of, if not the, bloodiest and cruelest campaigns in the Spanish conquest of Yucatan ({{harvnb, Chamberlain, 1948, p=233 , {{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=42 ). On 10 February 1548, Franciscan Fray Lorenzo de Bienvenida described it to(Fray Bienvenida established a mission in Bacalar in circa 1546, and may have stayed there for about a year {{harv, Jones, 1989, pp=42–43.) In circa 1566 inNero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...was not more cruel than this man lonso Pacheco He passed forward rom the Cochuah Provinceand reached a province called Chetumal, which was at peace. Even though the natives did not make war, he robbed the province and consumed the foodstuffs of the natives, who fled into the bush in fear of the Spaniards, since as soon as . Pachecocaptured any of them, he set the dogs on them. And the Indians fled from all this and did not sow their crops, and all died of hunger. I say all, because there were towns n Chetumalof five hundred and one thousand houses, and now 0 Feb. 1548one which has one hundred is large. This province f Chetumalwas also rich in cacao. This captain . Pacheco with his own hands committed outrages: he killed many with the ''garrote'', saying, "This is a good rod with which to punish these people," and, after he had killed them, he said, "Oh how well I finished them off." Tying them to stakes, he cut the breasts off many women, and hands, noses, and ears off the men, and he tied squashes to the feet of women and threw them in the lakes to drown merely to amuse himself. He committed other great cruelties which I shall not mention for lack of space. He destroyed the entire province. hen the Spaniardsfounded a town of eight ''vecino 'Vecino' means either "neighbour" or resident in modern Spanish. Historically in the Spanish Empire it referred instead to a householder of considerable social position in a town or a city, and was similar to "freeman" or "freeholder." Histori ...s'', which is calledSalamanca Salamanca () is a city in western Spain and is the capital of the Province of Salamanca in the autonomous community of Castile and León. The city lies on several rolling hills by the Tormes River. Its Old City was declared a UNESCO World Heritag ..., a halting town which has neither a cleric nor a church, nor do the Spaniards there confess, since the town is sixty leagues from this city f Merida If he Chetumal Provincehad not been destroyed it would have supported town ofthirty men 'vecinos'' And for his cruelties they he ''cabildo'' of Meridareturned this captain . Pachecoto the province which he destroyed and gave him its best Indians, and in doing this they did not give him something which was of small value. Such is the justice rendered in this land. {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=235 .
The Indians of the provinces of Cochua and Chetuma revolted, the Spaniards pacified them in such a way, that these provinces which were formerly the thickest settled and the most populous, remained the most desolate of all the country; committing upon them unheard-of cruelties, cutting off noses, arms and legs, and the breasts of women; throwing them into deep lagoons with gourds tied to their feet; stabbing the little children because they did not walk as fast as their mothers; and if those whom they drove along, chained together around the neck, fell sick or did not move along as fast as the others they cut off their heads between the others, so as not to stop and untie them. With like inhuman treatment as this did they drag along in their train for their service a large number of male and female captives. And it is said the Don Francisco de Montejo did not commit any of these barbarities nor was he present at them. On the contrary they seemed very evil to him, but he could do nothing more. {{harv, Jones, 1989, pp=43, 301Criminal charges were brought against the Pachecos for cruelties committed during their entrada. The Spanish Crown further commissioned an enquiry {{harv, Chamberlain, 1948, p=236 . The ''Adelantado'', Francisco de Montejo, was ultimately held responsible for these and other alleged crimes ({{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=301, loc=no. 23 , {{harvnb, García Bernal, 2018, loc=para. 24 ). The Spanish thus avoided a war of attrition. By early 1544, local opposition was so inconsequential as to convince the Pachecos to establish a town, christened ''Salamanca'', in the ruins of Bacalar.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, p=234 The date of the founding of ''Salamanca'' is broadly given as prior to the end of 1544 in {{harvnb, Jones, 1989, p=43 . Its founding ''alcaldes'' or mayors were Alonso and Melchor Pacheco. Its ''regidores'' or councilmen then were Pedro de Avila, Alonso Hernández, and Juan Farfán {{harv, Jones, 1989, p=44 . The victory proved pyrrhic, as the entrada resulted in very significant depopulation of the Waymil and Chetumal Provinces, thereby ensuring the permanent poverty of ''Salamanca''.{{sfn, Chamberlain, 1948, pp=235–236 {{sfn, Jones, 1989, pp=5–6, 45
Society
Religion
Chichen Itza is known to have (coercively) sponsored the pre-eminent worship of K'uk'ulkan.{{sfn, Aimers, 2007, pp=339–340 Though the god's introduction to the Mayan pantheon likely preceded the arrival of the Itza to Yucatan, via pre-existing trade links with theGovernment
Pre-Columbian
Chichen Itza is believed to have been governed either by a ''multepal'' or council of lords, or by a king and a privy council.{{sfn, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, pp=580–581 {{sfn, Aimers, 2007, p=339 That is, the city-state was likely not ruled solely by a king. Despite this, one of Chichen Itza's known rulers, K'ak' u Pakal, may have been a divine king ({{harvnb, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=581 , {{harvnb, Barrera Vásquez, Bastarrachea Manzano, Brito Sansores, Vermont Salas, Dzul Góngora, Dzul Poot, 1980, p=367 ). Furthermore, it has been proposed that ''K'uk'ulkan'' or Feathered Serpent was a title for Chichen Itza's (non-divine) kings ({{harvnb, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=581 , {{harvnb, Barrera Vásquez, Bastarrachea Manzano, Brito Sansores, Vermont Salas, Dzul Góngora, Dzul Poot, 1980, p=420 . In the case of rule by a king and privy council, it has been further suggested that the balance of power lay with the council during the city's earlier history, and thereafter lay with the king {{harv, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=581 . It has been suggested that the city-state's realm was administered as a confederacy of provinces.{{sf, Milbrath, Peraza Lope, 2003, p=31 Mayapan is commonly held to have been ruled by a ''multepal'' or council of lords, composed of members from the Canul, Chel, Cocom, Cupul, and Xiu ''ch'ibalo'ob'' or noble houses.{{sfn, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=601 {{sfn, Milbrath, Peraza Lope, 2003, p=31 {{sfn, Barrera Vásquez, Bastarrachea Manzano, Brito Sansores, Vermont Salas, 1980, p=540 {{sfn, Aimers, 2007, p=338 It has been suggested that, of these five houses, the Xius were initially the pre-eminent one, followed sometime thereafter by the Cocoms {{harv, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=602 . On the other hand, this Xiu–Cocom pre-eminence may have been at least a ''de facto'' monarchy {{harv, Milbrath, Peraza Lope, 2003, pp=31–32 . Its realm is believed to have been organised as a confederation of provinces, called the League of Mayapan, each of which was overseen by a ''kalwak'' or governor.{{sfn, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=602 Governors, though, were apparently required to reside in Mayapan, so it is unclear who exactly delegated for them in provincial capitals {{harv, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=602 . Later Columbian-period accounts commonly hold the League of Mayapan to have been ruled jointly by Mayapan, Chichen Itza, and Uxmal. Archaeological evidence, however, indicates that the latter cities were virtually deserted during Mayapan's rule {{harv, Sharer, Traxler, 2006, p=602Columbian
Chetumal's form of government as a sovereign province is presumed to have (i) remained significantly the same throughout its sovereign period, and (ii) not been significantly different from that of nearby provinces with a ''halach winik'' or governor, likeState offices
Chetumal's head of state and government was the ''halach winik'' or governor, who would also have been the ''batab'' or mayor of the province's eponymous capital.{{sfn, Roys, 1957, pp=6–7 His office and title ( ''Ahaw'' or Lord) were hereditary, and his rule considered a divine right.The office passed from father to first-born son (ieLocal offices
Immediately subject to the governor were the ''batabo'ob'' or mayors of the cities, towns and hamlets of the province.In some neighbouring provinces, a ''hol pop'' (lit. "head of the mat") would sometimes be mayor, acting mayor, or mayor ''ad interim''. This office is not well understood. Prof. Roys suggests the patriarch of the pre-eminent ''ch'ibal'' or noble house in town held the office. Its Columbian-period duties were purely social or ceremonial {{harv, Roys, 1957, p=7. This office was likewise hereditary.Inherited via primogeniture. Some mayors are known to have been appointed by the governor in neighbouring provinces, so this may have also been possible in Chetumal {{harv, Roys, 1957, p=7. The office's powers and duties included– # having a town farm kept for his pecuniary benefit, # keeping houses and farms in order, # sitting as a tribunal of original civil and criminal jurisdiction, # maintaining the military or militia in times of peace.{{sfn, Roys, 1957, pp=6–7 The constitution of local government has not been fully elucidated. The following offices were nonetheless known to have been involved in at least some cities, towns or hamlets— # ''nakomo'ob'' or commanders-in-chief, who exercised municipal military authority in the mayor's stead in times of war, # ''kuch kabo'ob'' or aldermen, who severally exercised at least executive authority over ''kuchteelo'ob'' or wards, and who jointly, in court or council assembled, exercised veto power over at least some of the mayor's executive, judicial, or military decisionsThe court or council's full range of powers and duties, and its form of decision-making, are not understood. Its pre-Columbian Yucatecan Mayan name is not clear. A Spanish ''cabildo'' was called a ''molay'', ''mulkan'', ''tankab kabil'' or ''tan kah'' {{harv, Barrera Vásquez, Bastarrachea Manzano, Brito Sansores, Vermont Salas, Dzul Poot, 1980, p=60. The Columbian-period term for aldermen was ''chun t'ano'ob'', per {{harvnb, Roys, 1957, p=7 and {{harvnb, Barrera Vásquez, Bastarrachea Manzano, Brito Sansores, Vermont Salas, Dzul Poot, 1980, pp=116–117. # ''kulelo'ob'' or town officers, who carried out the mayor's orders.Town officers ranked below aldermen, but it is not clear whether the officers also deputised for the aldermen. Local government were also responsible for administering theEconomy
Capital
At least since circa 1450, the provincial capital was a major port of call for the peninsular coasting trade from theProvincial
The province was the only significant cacao-producer in Yucatan.{{sfn, Scholes, Roys, 1968, p=83 It provided the capital's merchants with cacao, honey, wax, and marine products.{{sfn, Nielsen, Andersen, 2004, p=86 Articles for local consumption are thought to have included– # pottery fromLegacy
Scholarly
None of Chetumal's records are extant.These are presumed to have been copious, given known pre-Columbian record-keeping practice in other Mayan states of the Yucatan peninsula. Most were likely burnt or otherwise destroyed during the Spanish conquest and ensuing proselytising efforts. Any which may have survived are presumed to have decayed past recognition, Chetumal'sSocial
In Mexico
The modern city ofIn Belize
On 20 December 2012, the National Institute of Culture and History and the Belize Tourism Industry Association held a public re-enactment of the Guerrero-Kan wedding atNotes
{{reflist, group=noteCitations
{{reflistReferences
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S. , title=The history of the Maya : from the earliest times to the present day , date=1931 , publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons , location=London , edition=1st , oclc= 911759759 # {{cite web , last=García Bernal , first=Manuela Cristina , date=2018 , url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/13067/francisco-de-montejo , title=Francisco de Montejo , website=Diccionario Biográfico electrónico , publisher=Real Academia de la Historia , access-date=10 August 2021 # {{cite book , editor-last1=García Cruzado , editor-first1=Eduardo , title=Jornadas IV, V y VI (2008, 2009 y 2010) , date=2011 , publisher=Universidad Internacional de Andalucía : Ayuntamiento de Palos de la Frontera , location=Palos de la Frontera , isbn=9788479932114 , edition=1st , url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=485937 , series=Actas de las Jornadas de Historia sobre el Descubrimiento de América , volume=2 # {{cite book , last1=Gerhard , first1=Peter , title=The southeast frontier of New Spain , date=1979 , publisher=Princeton University Press , location=Princeton, NJ , isbn=0691052735 , edition=1st # {{cite web , last1=González Hernández , first1=Cristina , title=Gonzalo Guerrero , url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/85636/gonzalo-guerrero , website=Diccionario Biográfico electrónico , publisher=Real Academia de la Historia , access-date=3 August 2021 , date=2018 # {{cite web , last1=González Ochoa , first1=José María , title=Alonso González Dávila , url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/11022/alonso-gonzalez-davila , website=Diccionario Biográfico electrónico , publisher=Real Academia de la Historia , access-date=10 August 2021 , date=2018 # {{cite thesis , last1=González Vázquez , first1=David Anuar , date=November 2018 , type=MA , title=LA EXPEDICIÓN CIENTÍFICA MEXICANA AL TERRITORIO DE QUINTANA ROO (1936-1938): PRÁCTICAS CIENTÍFICAS Y RELACIONES POLÍTICAS EN LA FORMACIÓN DEL ESTADO-NACIÓN , publisher=Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social , place=Mexico City , url=http://ciesas.repositorioinstitucional.mx/jspui/handle/1015/893 # {{cite book , last1=Graham , first1=Elizabeth A. , title=Maya Christians and Their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize , date=2011 , publisher=University Press of Florida , location=Gainesville, FL , isbn=978-0813041834 , edition=1st , series=Maya Studies # {{cite journal , last1=Guderjan , first1=Thomas H. , date=March–June 1995 , title=Maya Settlement and Trade on Ambergris Caye, Belize , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , volume=6 , pages=147–159 , doi=10.1017/S0956536100002157 , s2cid=163598928 # {{cite journal , last=Haberland , first=Wolfgang , title=An Early Mound at Luisville, British Honduras , date=August 1958 , journal=Man , doi=10.2307/2796273 , jstor=2796273 , volume=58 , pages=128–129 # {{cite journal , last1=Hammond , first1=Norman , title=The development of Belizean archaeology , journal=Antiquity , date=March 1983 , volume=57 , issue=219 , pages=19–27 , doi=10.1017/S0003598X00054946 , s2cid=163374681 # {{Cite ODNB , doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/33319, title=Gann, Thomas William Francis , last=Hammond , first=Norman , date=23 September 2004 # {{cite journal , last1=Helmke , first1=Christophe , title=Under the Lordly Monarchs of the North: The Epigraphy of Northern Belize , date=September–December 2020 , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , volume=31 , issue=2 , pages=261–286 , doi=10.1017/S0956536119000348 , s2cid=213203582 # {{cite thesis , last1=Jakeman , first1=M. Wells , date=May 1938 , title=The Maya states of Yucatan, 1441-1545 , type=PhD , publisher=University of California , place=Berkeley, CA , oclc=14464076 # {{cite book , last1=Jones , first1=Grant D. , title=Maya resistance to Spanish rule : time and history on a colonial frontier , date=1989 , publisher=University of New Mexico Press , location=Albuquerque, NM , isbn=082631161X , edition=1st # {{cite journal , last1=Kelly , first1=Thomas C. , title=Preceramic Projectile-Point Typology in Belize , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , date=September 1993 , volume=4 , issue=2 , pages=205–227 , doi=10.1017/S0956536100000900 , s2cid=161869542 # {{cite web , last1=Lehmann , first1=Christian , title=Ortografía , url=https://www.christianlehmann.eu/ling/sprachen/maya/sistema_expres/ort/ , website=La lengua maya de Yucatán , publisher=Christian Lehmann , access-date=5 August 2021 , date=16 December 2018 # {{cite book , last1=López de Cogolludo , first1=Diego , editor1-last=Rubio Mañé , editor1-first=Jorge I. , date=1957 , edition=5th , series=Colección de grandes crónicas mexicanas , volume=3 , title=Historia de Yucatán , place=Mexico City , publisher=Editorial Academia Literaria , oclc=9367712 # {{cite journal , last1=Masson , first1=Marilyn A. , title=Postclassic Maya Ritual at Laguna de on Island, Belize , date=January 1999 , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , volume=10 , issue=1 , pages=51–68 , doi=10.1017/S0956536199101068 , s2cid=162417682 # {{cite book , last=Masson , first=Marilyn A. , date=2000 , title=In the realm of Nachan Kan : Postclassic Maya archaeology at Laguna de On, Belize , place=Boulder, CO , publisher=University Press of Colorado , series=Mesoamerican Worlds , isbn=0870815679 # {{cite journal , last1=Meissner , first1=Nathan J. , date=September–December 2020 , title=THE POROUS BOUNDARY: COMPARING LATE POSTCLASSIC–EARLY COLONIAL MAYA PROJECTILE TECHNOLOGIES ACROSS PETEN AND BELIZE , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , volume=31 , issue=3 , pages=526–542 , doi=10.1017/S0956536120000140 , s2cid=229332603 # {{cite journal , last1=Milbrath , first1=Susan , last2=Peraza Lope , first2=Carlos , title=REVISITING MAYAPAN: Mexico's last Maya capital , journal=Ancient Mesoamerica , volume=14 , issue=1 , date=January 2003 , pages=1–46 , doi=10.1017/S0956536103132178 , s2cid=154673143 # {{cite book , first=Juan Francisco , last=Molina Solís , date=1896 , title=Historia del descubrimiento y conquista de Yucatán, con una reseña de la historia antigua de esta península , place=Mérida de Yucatán , publisher=Impr. y lit. 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