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The Karkota Dynasty (c. 625 − 855 CE) ruled over the
Kashmir valley The Kashmir Valley, also known as the ''Vale of Kashmir'', is an intermontane valley concentrated in the Kashmir Division of the Indian- union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The valley is bounded on the southwest by the Pir Panjal Range and ...
and some northern parts of the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
during 7th and 8th centuries. Their rule saw a period of political expansion, economic prosperity and emergence of Kashmir as a centre of culture and scholarship. The Karkota rulers constructed several Vishnu shrines in their dominions. They however also allowed Buddhism to flourish under them. Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara can be found in the ruins of their capital.
Martand Sun Temple The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), India. It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism ...
in the
Anantnag district Anantnag district is a district in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of ten districts which make up the Kashmir Valley. The district headquarters is Anantnag city. As of 2011, it was the third most populous distri ...
were built by Lalitaditya. It is the oldest known Sun temple in India and was also one of the biggest temple complexes at the time. Avanti Varman ascended the throne of Kashmir in 855, establishing the
Utpala dynasty Utpala dynasty was a Kashmiri dynasty which ruled over the Kashmir region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent from 8th to 10th century CE. The kingdom was established by Avanti Varman, ending the rule of Karkota dynasty in 855 CE. ...
and ending the rule of Karkota dynasty.


Sources


Literature

The
Nilamata Purana The Nilamata Purana ( sa, नीलमत पुराण, translit=nīlamata purāṇa), also known as the ''Kasmira Mahatmya'', is an ancient text (6th to 8th century CE) from Kashmir which contains information on its history, geography, religio ...
, believed to have been commissioned by Durlabhavardhana, the first ruler of the dynasty, provides information on contemporary affairs. However, not only that the Purana was penned to reconstruct Kashmir as one of the most sacred space in the subcontinental cosmos by attributing Brahminical divinity to its geographical features and then, establish Durlabhavardhana as its rightful king but also that there have been interpolations as late as the 10th century, the text cannot be treated as objectivist history. The
Vishnudharmottara Purana The Vishnudharmottara Purana (or the ''Vishnudharmottara'') is a Hindu Sanskrit text in the ''Upapuranas'' genre. Like the ''Mahapuranas'', it is also encyclopedic covering a wide range of secular and religious topics in the traditions of Hinduism ...
is another local and contemporary source; it played similar roles in the Karkota polity. Other sources include the chronicles of a multitude of Buddhist pilgrims —
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
(May 631−April 633),
Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
(673−685), Wukong,
Hyecho Hyecho (; 704–787), Sanskrit: Prajñāvikrama; pinyin: Hui Chao, was a Buddhist monk from Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Hyecho studied esoteric Buddhism in Tang China, initially under Śubhakarasiṃha and then under the famous In ...
and others — who visited Kashmir during the dynasty. The Kuttanimata, penned by a court-poet of Jayapida, was a didactic work on erotics but gave a lively account of contemporary Kashmiri life.


Rajatarangini

The ''
Rajatarangini ''Rajatarangini'' ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The ...
'', an 11th-century work by Kalhana, was aimed at sketching an outline of Kashmir's history since ancient times, and it did discuss the Karkota dynasty in depth. Kalhana depended on a variety of material including earlier historical works, dynastic genealogies, inscriptions, coins and Puranas. The work has a contested repute of being the only pre-modern work in Sanskrit resembling Western notions of history; however, its historical accuracy is disputed — Zutshi and other scholars find the poem to be a blend of "mythical, political, social, spiritual, and geographical" narratives, which aimed at defining Kashmir as an idealized ethical space. Nonetheless, historical accuracy increases drastically from the fourth book onward, with the narration of Karkota dynasty and Rajatarangini has been heavily used to reconstruct Kashmiri history.
Michael Witzel Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943) is a German-American philologist, comparative mythologist and Indologist. Witzel is the Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University and the editor of the Harvard Oriental Series (volumes 50–80). Witze ...
notes the fourth book to be accurate in its chronology (down to day) in that it aligns perfectly with contemporary Chinese sources; however a correction of +25 years need to be introduced throughout the dynasty.


Coins

Coins issued by all major rulers until Muktapida (and Jayapida) have been excavated; these coins were always inscribed in the name of
Kidara Kidara I (Late Brahmi script: ''Ki-da-ra'') fl. 350-390 CE) was the first major ruler of the Kidarite Kingdom, which replaced the Indo-Sasanians in northwestern India, in the areas of Kushanshahr, Gandhara, Kashmir and Punjab. Reign Kidara hims ...
on the reverse.


Establishment

Scholars disagree on the specifics of establishment of the Karkotas, though it is held that their establishment followed the rule of the
Hunas Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: ''Hūṇā'') was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. The Huna Kin ...
in the region of Kashmir. Kalhana's third book mentions of a
Gonanda dynasty (II) The Second Gonanda dynasty (or Restored Gonanda dynasty), was a Kashmiri Hindu dynasty. According to Kalhana, this dynasty ruled Kashmir just before the Karkotas. Sources Literature No contemporary literature exists. The sole mentions a ...
, which ruled for about 590 years till the establishment of the Karkotas; on cross-vetting with coins and inscriptions, names of some of these rulers are found to correspond with the
Alchon Huns The Alchon Huns, ( Bactrian: αλχον(ν)ο ''Alchon(n)o'') also known as the Alchono, Alxon, Alkhon, Alkhan, Alakhana and Walxon, were a nomadic people who established states in Central Asia and South Asia during the 4th and 6th centuries CE. ...
, who ruled hundreds of years later. Across the first three books, Kalhana reshuffles multiple names, retrofits the same stories, assigns abnormally long reigns, and telescopes some rulers into the past. Durlabhavardhana—the founder of the Karkotas—was held to be under the employment of Baladitya, the last ruler of the Gonanda dynasty (II). Baladitya had no male heir but a daughter Anaṅgalekhā and did not wish his territory to be annexed by in-laws. To avert such a possibility he had her married to Durlabhavardhana, who was from a low caste. However, after Baladitya's death, Durlabhavardhana ascended to the throne with help from a minister, and claimed descent from the mythical Naga king
Karkotaka Karkotaka ( sa, कर्कोटक, translit=Karkoṭaka) is a naga king in Hinduism. One of the children of Kashyapa and Kadru, Karkotaka is regarded to have lived in a forest near the Nishadha Kingdom. According to Hindu mythology, he sti ...
, establishing the Karkota Dynasty. Witzel seems to accept this view. Atreyi Biswas however rejects this literal description of the establishment of the Karkota dynasty as fictitious. In a critical reading of the ''Rajatarangini'', and taking into account numismatic as well as literary sources, the dates of the Gonanda rulers are adjusted and Biswas deems the first ruler of the Karkota dynasty to be Durlabhaka Pratapaditya, who claimed the throne after defeating
Yudhisthira ''Yudhishthira'' (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, IAST: ''Yudhiṣṭhira'') is the eldest among the five Pandava brothers. He is mentioned in the ancient epic Mahabharata. He was sired by King Pandu of the Kuru Dynasty and his first ...
, the last
Alchon Hun The Alchon Huns, ( Bactrian: αλχον(ν)ο ''Alchon(n)o'') also known as the Alchono, Alxon, Alkhon, Alkhan, Alakhana and Walxon, were a nomadic people who established states in Central Asia and South Asia during the 4th and 6th centuries CE. ...
ruler of Kashmir. His father Durlabhavardhana would have been a subordinate king under the-then Huna ruler,
Narendraditya Khinkhila Toramana II (Gupta script: '' Śrī Toramāṇa'', "Lord Toramana") was a ruler of the Alchon Huns in the 6th century CE. Confrontation with the Nezaks Around the middle of the 6th century CE, the Alchons, after having extensively invaded the ...
. Baladitya and his immediate predecessors of the Gonanda dynasty would never have existed at all or were subordinate kings under the Karkotas.
Ahmad Hasan Dani Ahmad Hassan Dani (Urdu: احمد حسن دانی) FRAS, SI, HI (20 June 1920 – 26 January 2009) was a Pakistani archaeologist, historian, and linguist. He was among the foremost authorities on Central Asian and South Asian archaeology ...
follows her interpretation in one of his works. However, Gudrun Melzer notes that Biswas did not take into account a different chronology proposed by two German historians (Humbach and Göbl), which has since received eminence in Huna studies; scholars have disputed her dating and commentary on Narendraditya Khinkhila.


Rule


Durlabhavardhana

Kalhana assigns a regnal span of thirty six years from 625−661/2. He was also known as Prajnaditya and gifted many villages ( ''agraharas'') to Brahmins. Rajatarangini records no military activity during his reign; assuming
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
to have visited Kashmir twice during his reign, Durlabhavardhana controlled vast swaths of territories including modern day
Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
,
Punjab Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising ...
and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (; ps, خېبر پښتونخوا; Urdu, Hindko: خیبر پختونخوا) commonly abbreviated as KP or KPK, is one of the Administrative units of Pakistan, four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, ...
.


Durlabhaka

Per Kalhana, Anaṅgalekhā had him declared as her ''dauhitra'' and Durlabhaka became known as Pratapaditya, adopting the surname of his maternal grandfather. Durlabhaka is assigned a regnal span of 50 years (662−712). He had a brother Malhana. Durlabhaka married Narendraprabhā, who had been earlier married to Nona, a wealthy merchant from outside Kashmir. He had three sons — Chandrapida, Tarapida and Lalitaditya — in descending order of age. Durlabhaka's reign saw increasing trade relation with neighboring polities and the development of the Classical Kārkoṭa style of sculpture. Kalhana records him to have impressive military prowess. Several ''agraharas'' were established by Hanumant, son of his minister Uda (var. Oda, Aida).


Candrapida

Candrapida ruled from 712/13−720 and bore the name Vajraditya. He is otherwise known from the ''Tangshu'' under the name ''Zhentuoluobili''. Kalhana paints a benevolent and virtuous image of the ruler — two stories are narrated to the same effect.
Jayanta Bhatta Jayanta Bhatta ( CE – CE) was a Kashmiri poet, teacher, logician, and an advisor to King Sankaravarman. He was a philosopher of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy. He authored three works on Nyāya philosophy: one of which is not known, an ...
's great-grandfather Saktisvāmin was one of his ministers. In 713,
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756 CE. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. In the early ...
received an embassy from Candrapida requesting aid against Arab invasions. Candrapida did not receive any help but nonetheless, managed to defend his territory. In 720, Xuanzong sent an envoy to bestow upon him, the title "King of Kashmir". These diplomatic exchanges led to the formation of an imperial alliance between the Tangs and Karakotas; in 722, after the Tangs emerged victorious against Tibet, the Chinese court credits Kashmir for having provided ample food to their troops stationed in Gilgit. Kalhana notes him to have been assassinated by his brother, Tarapida, who recruited a Brahmin for the purpose.


Tarapida

Little is noted about his rule in Rajatarangini except that he was tyrannical and oppressed the Brahmins. He bore the name Udayaditya, and was murdered after four years; the practice of magic-rites by Brahmins is held to be the cause. In October–November 724, Chinese chronicles mention of an unhappy
Jincheng Jincheng is a prefecture-level city in the southeast of Shanxi province, China, bordering Henan province to the south and southeast. It is an industrial city in an area where coal mining is an important industry. The entire city has a population ...
seeking defection to Kashmir; the-then King (unnamed) apparently consented and urged for military assistance from
Zabulistan Zabulistan ( fa, زابلستان ''Zābulistān''/''Zābolistān''/''Zāwulistān'' or simply ''Zābul'', ps, زابل ''Zābəl''), was a historical region in southern Afghanistan roughly corresponding to the modern provinces of Zabul and G ...
to ward off the Tibetan troops. Tansen Sen notes this king to be Tarapida; however other scholars have identified him with Candrapida.


Lalitaditya

A world conqueror, Lalitaditya Muktapida (724/725−760/761) is credited by Kalhana with extensive conquests spanning major parts of India, Afghanistan and Central Asia; he is said to have even subdued
Yashovarman Yashovarman (IAST: Yaśovarman) was a medieval Indian ruler of Kannauj, who founded the Varman dynasty of Kannauj. There are few sources that provide information of his life, although he was indubitably a powerful man. Life Yashovarman was ki ...
, winning Kannauj. Kalhana lived around four centuries after Lalitaditya, and popular imagination appears to have embellished Lalitaditya's achievements by then. A century before,
Al-Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973 – after 1050) commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian in scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Co ...
noted the Kashmiris to celebrate an annual festival in commemoration of Lalitaditya, who "defeated the Turks and ruled over the world". Lalitaditya is also known from the ''Tangshu''. Stein had rejected Kalhana's description of Lalitaditya's conquests as "mythology" and noted his ignorance about territories outside Kashmir. However,
Hermann Goetz Hermann Gustav Goetz (7 December 1840 – 3 December 1876) was a German composer who spent much of his career in Switzerland. He is best known for his 1872 opera '' Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung'', based on Shakespeare's ''The Taming of the Shre ...
found little amiss with Kalhana's claims and accepted them as "historical fact"; Goetz's acceptance has since penetrated into the work of numerous scholars like
André Wink André Wink is an emeritus professor of history at University of Wisconsin, Madison. He is known for his studies on India and the Indian Ocean area, particularly over the medieval and early modern age (700 to 1800 CE). He is the author of a series ...
and
Ronald Inden __NOTOC__ Ronald B. Inden is a professor emeritus in the Departments of History and of South Asian Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago and is a major scholar in South Asian and post-colonial studies. Inden has been a lifelong ...
. Sen, comparing Kalhana's account with contemporary Chinese and Tibetan sources including
official histories An official is someone who holds an office (function or mandate, regardless whether it carries an actual working space with it) in an organization or government and participates in the exercise of authority, (either their own or that of their ...
, coins and pilgrim-chronicles, agrees with Stein. Numerous Brahmin immigrants were brought to Kashmir during his time including the ancestors of
Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 Common Era, CE) was a Indian philosophy, philosopher, Mysticism, mystic and Aesthetics, aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential Music of India, musician, Indian poetry, poet, Theatre in ...
. A brilliant intellectual and artistic culture flourished during his reign.


Kuvalayapida

Son of Lalitaditya and his first queen Kamaladevi, his short reign of one year and half a month was marked by a succession struggle between him and his half-brother. No evidence other than the Rajatarangini exists to corroborate his reign. Kalhana held him to be a virtuous ruler. After being subject to treachery by his minister, Kuvalayapida realized the folly of material gains, abdicated the throne, and retreated to a holy forest where he attained ''
siddhi In Indian religions, (Sanskrit: '; fulfillment, accomplishment) are material, paranormal, supernatural, or otherwise magical powers, abilities, and attainments that are the products of yogic advancement through sādhanās such as meditation ...
''.


Vajraditya

Son of Lalitaditya and his second queen Chakramardika, he was also known as Bappiyaka. No evidence other than the Rajatarangini exists to corroborate his reign. Kalhana noted the seven years of his rule to have been cruel. Vajraditya's reign saw a successful raid by the Governor of Sindh and introduction of slave trade. He had numerous concubines and at-least four wives Meghavali, Amrtaprabha, Manjarika and Mamma; his four sons were Tribhuvanapida (from Meghabali), Jayapida (from Amrtaprabha), Prithivyapida I (from Manjarika) and Samgramapida I (from Mamma).


Prithivyapida I

According to Kalhana, he ruled for a span of four years and one month. He was overthrown by Samgramapida I, who ruled for seven days. Tribhuvanapida, despite being the eldest, had abdicated the throne. Kalhana does not note any additional detail except not finding either of them to be worthy of wielding royal power, and Stein reiterates that no other evidence of these rulers have been located.


Jayapida

Jayapida ruled for 31 years and partook in multiple conquests to faraway territories in an apparent bid to out-rival Muktapida; however, Kalhana's narrative is noted to be excessively exaggerated and in absence of other corroborating sources from across a vast geographical region, the authenticity of the raids and other events must be disputed. He was also known by the name Vinayaditya. Brahmin immigrants from Indus and Dravida regions were settled in Kashmir during Jayapida's reign;
Kshemendra Kshemendra (; ) was an 11th-century Sanskrit polymath-poet, satirist, philosopher, historian, dramatist, translator and art-critic from Kashmir in India. Biography Kshemendra was born into an old, cultured, and affluent family. His father was ...
's great-great-grandfather Narendra was a minister in his court. Jayapida married Kalyanadevi, daughter of King Jayanta of
Cooch Behar Cooch Behar (), or Koch Bihar, is a city and a municipality in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the headquarters of the Cooch Behar district. It is in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas at . Cooch Behar is the only planned city in the ...
, whilst away in a conquest. Returning to Kashmir, he found his brother-in-law Jajja to have usurped the throne but went on to defeat him. Kalhana notes his later years to be tyrannical when Jayapida sought to (unsuccessfully) rescind ''agraharas'' and imposed a cruel taxation regime on Brahmins, forcing them to emigrate; he was cursed to death by a Brahmin. Jayapida had two sons — Lalitapida (from Durga) and Samgramapida II (from Kalyanadevi).


Lalitapida

Kalhana condemns Lalitapida as a recklessly extravagant ruler, whose court was infested with courtesans/concubines and jesters, and provided no patronage to learning. He ruled for twelve years and had donated ''agraharas''. He had one son Cippatajayapida, from his concubine Jayadevi, who was the daughter of a spirit distiller.


Samgramapida II

Lalitapida was succeeded by his step-brother Samgramapida II, also known as Prithivyapida II. He had at least one son - Anangipida and ruled for seven years; Kalhana notes no additional detail.


Cippatajayapida

Cippatajayapida (var. Brhaspati) was crowned in 837/8. However, due to his young age, the real power was vested in the five brothers of Jayadevi — Padma, Utpala, Kalyana, Mamma, and Dharma — who followed the orders of Jayadevi but yet engaged in an acute mismanagement of affairs.


Disintegration

After Cippatajayapida was murdered in around 840, having ruled for twelve years, the brothers gained considerable power but fought each other to retain complete control of the empire, whilst installing puppet kings belonging to the Karkota lineage. Tribhuvanapida's son, Ajitapida was nominated by Utpala immediately after Cippatajayapida's death. A few years afterwards, Mamma waged a successful battle against Utpala, and installed Anangipida. Three years later, Utpala's son Sukhavarman rebelled successfully and installed Utpalapida, a son of Ajitapida. Under his rule, merchants declared independence at the outposts of the territory. Within a few years, Sukhavarman set out to assume the throne for himself but was murdered by a relative; finally, his son Avantivarman deposed Utpalapida and claimed the throne c. 855 with help from minister Sura, thus establishing the
Utpala dynasty Utpala dynasty was a Kashmiri dynasty which ruled over the Kashmir region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent from 8th to 10th century CE. The kingdom was established by Avanti Varman, ending the rule of Karkota dynasty in 855 CE. ...
.


Society

On a reading of Kuttanimata, the society seems to be unequal and dominated by merchant communities. Materialism was in vogue among the elites, and prostitution received state patronage.
Sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
as well as
Devadasi system In India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication took place in a ceremony that was somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taki ...
were prevalent. The dynasty (at least, the earlier rulers) had sought to restore Hinduism after a lengthy span of Buddhist influence in the valley; however a syncretic environment flourished. Hunting was a popular sport for the princely class. Theaters were frequently organized and there were halls for the purpose;
Ratnavali ''Ratnavali'' (Precious Garland) is a Sanskrit drama about a beautiful princess named Ratnavali, and a great king named Udayana. It is attributed to the Indian emperor Harsha (606–648). It is a Natika in four acts. One of the first textual r ...
is noted to be a popular drama.


Economy

Metallic coins as well as cowrie shells were used as currency. The state collected a variety of taxes — customs-levy, prostitution-levy, market-tax etc. — corruption was rampant and Damodaragupta takes frequent digs.


Art and architecture


Literature

The
Nilamata Purana The Nilamata Purana ( sa, नीलमत पुराण, translit=nīlamata purāṇa), also known as the ''Kasmira Mahatmya'', is an ancient text (6th to 8th century CE) from Kashmir which contains information on its history, geography, religio ...
is believed to have been commissioned by Durlabhavardhana. The
Vishnudharmottara Purana The Vishnudharmottara Purana (or the ''Vishnudharmottara'') is a Hindu Sanskrit text in the ''Upapuranas'' genre. Like the ''Mahapuranas'', it is also encyclopedic covering a wide range of secular and religious topics in the traditions of Hinduism ...
, was crafted around the same times. A famed patron of arts, Lalitaditya invited scholars from abroad to his court and promoted study of religions. Kalhana notes Jayapida to be a liberal patron of arts and even invited scholars from abroad;
Yigal Bronner Yigal and Yigael are given names. People with those names include: *Yigal Allon (1918–80), Israeli politician, acting Prime Minister, a commander of the Palmach, and general *Yigal Amir (born 1970), Israeli assassin of Prime Minister of Israel Yi ...
notes his court to have ushered a breakthrough moment in Kashmiri poetics. Daniel Ingalls writes that Jayapada's court was responsible for birthing the "school of literary criticism in Kashmir". Two literary theorists were installed in his office: Vāmana as a minister and Udbhaṭa as the chief scholar. Udbhata wrote four works — Kumārasambhava, a poem on the theme of the marriage of Śiva and Pārvatī; Kāvyālaṃkārasaṃgraha, a short commentary on Bhāmaha's Kāvyālaṃkāra; another (now-lost) commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra; and a mostly-lost but extensive Vivaraṇa on Bhāmaha — in what Bronner notes to be an unprecedented volume of literature production by contemporary standards. Vāmana composed sūtra texts. Both aimed at an audience of literary scholars and engaged (for the first time) in critical discussions surrounding poetic theory, praxis and semantic cognition using tools from mīmāṃsā etc; a grand universe of poetry, rigidly theorizing the many elements of aesthetics, their scopes and inter-relation was sought to be created. Kuttanimata was penned by Damodaragupta in his court. Among other noted figures were the grammarian Kṣīra, the poets Manoratha, Śaṅkhadatta, Caṭaka, and Sandhimat, and a Buddhist philosopher Dharmottara. Ratnakara wrote Haravijaya, under the patronage of Cippatajayapida; in fifty cantos and 4351 verses, it is the largest surviving Mahākāvya and is based on the defeat of
Andhaka In Hindu literature, Andhaka (Sanskrit: अन्धक, IAST: Andhaka; lit. "He who darkens") refers to a malevolent asura, whose pride is vanquished by Shiva and Parvati.. His story finds mention in various Hindu texts, including the '' Matsy ...
by
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
.


Sculpture

Sculpting proliferated during the Karkota dynasty, and Rajatarangini notes of several bronzes. Lalitaditya commissioned numerous gold and silver images for temples and monasteries across faiths, and his span is considered to be the zenith of Kashmiri sculpture. Contemporary
terracotta Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based ceramic glaze, unglazed or glazed ceramic where the pottery firing, fired body is porous. In applied art, craft, construction, a ...
works (typically, faces) have been located. Stone sculptures dedicated to Durlabhaka have been excavated.


Shrines and cities

Durlabhavardhana, built a shrine dedicated to Lord
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
at
Srinagar Srinagar (English: , ) is the largest city and the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, India. It lies in the Kashmir Valley on the banks of the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus, and Dal and Anchar lakes. The city is known for its natu ...
named "Durlabhasvāmin"; his wife had constructed a Buddhist monastery - Anangabhavana. He also introduced a distinct style of architecture into Kashmir by borrowing post-Gupta trends from Sarnath, Nalanda etc. Durlabhaka established the city of Pratāpapura (current day Tapar between Baramula and Srinagar) and the shrine of Malhanasvāmin; his wife had established the Narendreśvara Temple. Candrapika had multiple Vishnu shrines installed. Jayapida set up Buddhist Viharas and commissioned the construction of multiple Buddha statues; he also established a new capital town at Jayapura (current day Andrkoth). Lalitaditya commissioned a number of shrines in Kashmir, including the now-ruined
Martand Sun Temple The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), India. It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism ...
and numerous Buddhist structures. He also established several towns, including a new capital at
Parihasapura Parihaspora or Parihaspur or Paraspore or Paraspur was a small town northwest of Srinagar in the Kashmir Valley. It was built on a plateau above the Jhelum River. It was built by Lalitaditya Muktapida (695–731) and served as the capital of K ...
. The five brothers had set up a Shiva shrine - Jayesvara during Cippatajayapida's rule. After coming to the helm, they commissioned multiple towns and temples—Utapalasvāmin, Padmasvāmin, Dharmasvāmin, Kalyanasvāmin, Mamasvāmin, Utpalapura, Padmapura etc. Padma's wife got constructed two mathas. File:Martand Sun Temple approach (6133822315).jpg, Ruins of the
Martand Sun Temple The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), India. It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism ...
File:Martand Sun Temple Central shrine (6133772365).jpg, Central temple of the
Martand Sun Temple The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), India. It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism ...
built by Lalitaditya Muktapida. File:Martand Ruins.JPG, Sculptures in the Martand Temple. The trefoil arch is a characteristic feature of Brahminical temple architecture in Kashmir.


List of rulers


See also

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Karkotaka Karkotaka ( sa, कर्कोटक, translit=Karkoṭaka) is a naga king in Hinduism. One of the children of Kashyapa and Kadru, Karkotaka is regarded to have lived in a forest near the Nishadha Kingdom. According to Hindu mythology, he sti ...
*
History of India According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by m ...
*
Rajatarangini ''Rajatarangini'' ("The River of Kings") is a metrical legendary and historical chronicle of the north-western part of India, particularly the kings of Kashmir. It was written in Sanskrit by Kashmiri historian Kalhana in the 12th century CE. The ...
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Kalhana Kalhana ( sa, कल्हण, translit=kalhaṇa) was the author of ''Rajatarangini'' (''River of Kings''), an account of the history of Kashmir. He wrote the work in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149. All information regarding his life has to be d ...
* List of Monarchs of Kashmir *
Martand Sun Temple The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), India. It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity in Hinduism ...


Notes


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karkota Empire 7th-century establishments in India 9th-century disestablishments in India History of Kashmir Dynasties of India Hindu dynasties Empires and kingdoms of India