Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...

. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of

Borneo Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and eas ...

, west of the

Maluku Islands The Maluku Islands (; Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Maluku'') or the Moluccas () are an archipelago in the east of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located eas ...

, and south of

Mindanao Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...

and the Sulu Archipelago. Within Indonesia, only

Sumatra Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...

, Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only

Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...

and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas: the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, and the Southeast Peninsula. Three gulfs separate these peninsulas: the

Gulf of Tomini The Gulf of Tomini ( id, Teluk Tomini), also known as the Bay of Tomini, is the equatorial gulf which separates the Minahassa Peninsula, Minahassa (Northern) and East Peninsula, Sulawesi, East Peninsulas of the island of Sulawesi (Celebes) in In ...

between the northern Minahasa and East peninsulas, the

Tolo Gulf The Gulf of Tolo ( id, Teluk Tolo or '), also known as the Bay of Tolo, is the body of water lying between the eastern and south-eastern peninsulas of the island of Sulawesi (Celebes) in Indonesia. Unlike the Gulf of Tomini to its north or the ...

between the East and Southeast peninsulas, and the

Bone Gulf __NOTOC__ The Gulf of Boni ( id, Teluk Bone), also known as the Gulf of Bone, Bay of Boni, and Bone Bay, is the gulf which divides the South and Southeast Peninsulas of the island of Sulawesi (Celebes) in Indonesia. It opens on the south into the ...

between the South and Southeast peninsulas. The

Strait of Makassar A strait is an oceanic landform connecting two seas or two other large areas of water. The surface water generally flows at the same elevation on both sides and through the strait in either direction. Most commonly, it is a narrow ocean chann ...

runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo.

Etymology

The name ''Sulawesi'' possibly comes from the words ''sula'' ("island") and ''besi'' ("iron") and may refer to the historical export of

iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...

from the rich

Lake Matano Lake Matano ( id, Danau Matano), also known as Matana, is a natural lake in East Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi province, Indonesia. With a depth of , it is the deepest lake in Indonesia (ranked by maximum depth), the 10th deepest lake in the wo ...

iron deposits. The name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name ''Celebes'' was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers. While its direct translation is unclear, it might be considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name "Sulawesi".

Geography

Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island, covering an area of . The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesi's peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and the Boni. These separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The

runs along the western side of the island. The island is surrounded by

to the west, by the

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by

Flores Flores is one of the Lesser Sunda Islands, a group of islands in the eastern half of Indonesia. Including the Komodo Islands off its west coast (but excluding the Solor Archipelago to the east of Flores), the land area is 15,530.58 km2, and th ...

and

Timor Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is East Timor–Indonesia border, divided between the sovereign states of East Timor on the eastern part and Indonesia on the western p ...

to the south.

Minor islands

The

Selayar Islands Selayar or Saleyer (Indonesian: ''Kabupaten Selayar'', Dutch: ''Saleijer''), is an archipelago of South Sulawesi province, Indonesia. It lies in the Flores Sea, between Sulawesi and Flores, around 150 km southeast of the major city of Makassar ...

make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the

Flores Sea The Flores Sea covers of water in Indonesia. The sea is bounded on the north by the island of Celebes and on the south by Sunda Islands of Flores and Sumbawa. Geography The seas that border the Flores Sea are the Bali Sea (to the west), Java ...

are administratively part of Sulawesi. The

Sangihe Islands The Sangihe Islands (also spelled "Sangir", "Sanghir" or "Sangi") – id, Kepulauan Sangihe – are a group of islands which constitute two regencies within the province of North Sulawesi, in northern Indonesia, the Sangihe Islands Regen ...

and Talaud Islands stretch northward from the northeastern tip of Sulawesi, while

Buton Island Buton (also Butung, Boeton or Button) is an island in Indonesia located off the southeast peninsula of Sulawesi. It covers roughly 4,727 square kilometers in area, or about the size of Madura; it is the 129th largest island in the world and In ...

and its neighbors lie off its southeast peninsula, the Togian Islands are in the Gulf of Tomini, and

Peleng Island Peleng is an island off the east coast of Sulawesi, Indonesia and is the largest island of the Banggai Islands (''Kepulauan Banggai''). It is surrounded by the Banda Sea and Molucca Sea and has an area of 2,406 km². Some of the smaller ...

and Banggai Islands form a cluster between Sulawesi and Maluku. All the above-mentioned islands and many smaller ones are administratively part of Sulawesi's six provinces.

Geology

Tangkoko National Park, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

The island slopes up from the shores of the deep seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic, mountainous interior. Active volcanoes are found in the northern

Minahassa Peninsula The Minahasa Peninsula, also spelled Minahassa, is one of the four principal peninsulas on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. It stretches north from the central part of the island, before turning to the east and forming the northern boundary of th ...

, stretching north to the

. The northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and

Karangetang Karangetang (also known as Api Siau) is a volcano on the north side of Siau Island off the coast of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The island is inhabited by 22,000 people. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia having erupted 41 times since ...

. According to plate reconstructions, the island is believed to have been formed by the collision of

terrane In geology, a terrane (; in full, a tectonostratigraphic terrane) is a crust fragment formed on a tectonic plate (or broken off from it) and accreted or " sutured" to crust lying on another plate. The crustal block or fragment preserves its own ...

s from the

Asian Plate The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate that includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional continents of Europe and Asia), with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent and ...

(forming the west and southwest) and from the

Australian Plate The Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate in the eastern and, largely, southern hemispheres. Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana, Australia remained connected to India and Antarctica until approximately when India broke ...

(forming the southeast and Banggai), with island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). Because of its several tectonic origins, various faults scar the land and as a result the island is prone to

earthquake An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from ...

s, including the deadly

2018 File:2018 Events Collage.png, From top left, clockwise: The 2018 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in PyeongChang, South Korea; Protests erupt following the Assassination of Jamal Khashoggi; March for Our Lives protests take place across the United ...

and

2021 File:2021 collage V2.png, From top left, clockwise: the James Webb Space Telescope was launched in 2021; Protesters in Yangon, Myanmar following the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, coup d'état; A civil demonstration against the October–November 2021 ...

quakes. Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the

biogeographical Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, i ...

region of

Wallacea Wallacea is a biogeographical designation for a group of mainly Indonesian islands separated by deep-water straits from the Asian and Australian continental shelves. Wallacea includes Sulawesi, the largest island in the group, as well as Lo ...

, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia

collision zone A collision zone occurs when tectonic plates meet at a convergent boundary both bearing continental lithosphere. As continental lithosphere is usually not subducted due to its relative low density, the result is a complex area of orogeny involving ...

. Parts of the island were formerly attached to either the

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...

n or Australian continental margin and became separated from these areas by vicariant processes. In the west, the opening of the

Makassar Strait Makassar Strait is a strait between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. To the north it joins the Celebes Sea, while to the south it meets the Java Sea. To the northeast, it forms the Sangkulirang Bay south of the Mangkalihat Pe ...

separated West Sulawesi from

Sundaland Sundaland (also called Sundaica or the Sundaic region) is a biogeographical region of South-eastern Asia corresponding to a larger landmass that was exposed throughout the last 2.6 million years during periods when sea levels were lower. It ...

in the

Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period (geology), Period in the modern Cenozoic Era (geology), Era. The name ''Eocene' ...

c. 45 Mya. In the east, the traditional view of collisions of multiple micro-continental fragments sliced from New Guinea with an active volcanic margin in West Sulawesi at different times since the Early Miocene c. 20 Mya has recently been replaced by the hypothesis that extensional fragmentation has followed a single Miocene collision of West Sulawesi with the

Sula Spur Sula may refer to: Places Norway * Sula (island), an island in Sula municipality, Møre og Romsdal county * Sula, Møre og Romsdal, a municipality in Møre og Romsdal county * Sula, Solund, an island in Solund municipality, Vestland county * Y ...

, the western end of an ancient folded belt of Variscan origin in the Late Paleozoic.

Prehistory

The oldest evidence for humans on Sulawesi are stone tools produced by

archaic humans A number of varieties of ''Homo'' are grouped into the broad category of archaic humans in the period that precedes and is contemporary to the emergence of the earliest early modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') around 300 ka. Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) f ...

, dating from over 200,000 to 100,000 years ago, that were found at the Talepu site in southwestern Sulawesi. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c. 30,000 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. No earlier evidence of human occupation had at that point been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and

New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea). It is a simplified version of ...

by at least 40,000 BC. There is no evidence of ''

Homo erectus ''Homo erectus'' (; meaning "upright man") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Several human species, such as '' H. heidelbergensis'' and '' H. antecessor' ...

'' having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the

Walanae River Walanae River is a river in South Sulawesi on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia, about 1500 km northeast of the capital Jakarta.Barru (now part of

Bone Regency Bone Regency is a regency of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Originally the seat of the Bone state, it joined Indonesia in 1950. The regency covers an area of 4,559.00 km2 and had a population of 717,682 at the 2010 Census, 742,527 at the 2015 Inte ...

), which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils, are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Paalwoning Sulawesi TMnr 10021564

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Paalwoning Sulawesi TMnr 10021564

Following Peter Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN), radiocarbon dates from caves in

Maros Maros is a town in the South Sulawesi province of Indonesia close to the provincial capital of Makassar. It is the capital of the Maros Regency. Maros is the location of the Indonesian Cereals Research Institute, a branch of the Indonesian A ...

suggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for the arrival of a group from east Borneo speaking a Proto- South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested. Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into the eight families of the South Sulawesi language group. If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the

Bugis The Bugis people (pronounced ), also known as Buginese, are an ethnicity—the most numerous of the three major linguistic and ethnic groups of South Sulawesi (the others being Makassar and Toraja), in the south-western province of Sulawe ...

– today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite the fact that today they are closely linked with the Makassarese, the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the Torajans. Tokalalaea Megalith 2007

Pre-1200 Bugis society was most likely organized into

chiefdoms A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These elites form a ...

. Some

anthropologist An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...

s have speculated these chiefdoms would have warred and, in times of peace, interbred. Further, they have speculated that personal security would have been negligible and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been a mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of

wet rice A paddy field is a flooded field (agriculture), field of arable land used for growing Aquatic plant, semiaquatic crops, most notably rice and taro. It originates from the Neolithic rice-farming cultures of the Yangtze River basin in sout ...

may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers. In Central Sulawesi, there are more than 400 granite

megalith A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a prehistoric structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. There are over 35,000 in Europe alone, located widely from Sweden to the Mediterranean sea. The ...

s, which various archaeological studies have dated to be from 3000 BC to AD 1300. They vary in size from a few centimeters to approximately . The original purpose of the megaliths is unknown. Approximately 30 of the megaliths represent human forms. Other megaliths are in form of large pots (''Kalamba'') and stone plates (''Tutu'na'').Sangadji, Ruslan: ''C. Sulawesi's Lore Lindu park, home to biological wealth'', The Jakarta Post, 5 June 2005
, retrieved 11 October 2010 A burial of a woman associated with the hunter-gatherer Toalean culture dating to 7,000 years ago has yielded DNA that has provided rare insight into early migrations in and through the region.

Oldest known cave art

In October 2014, it was announced that cave paintings in Maros had been dated as being approximately 40,000 years old. One of a hand was 39,900 years old, which made it "the oldest hand stencil in the world". Hands in Pettakere Cave

Dr. Maxime Aubert, of Griffith University in

Queensland ) , nickname = Sunshine State , image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , established_ ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

, said that was the minimum age for the outline in Pettakere Cave in

, and added: "Next to it is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one." On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world that is more than 44,000 years old from the

limestone cave A solutional cave, solution cave, or karst cave is a cave usually formed in the soluble rock limestone. It is the most frequently occurring type of cave. It can also form in other rocks, including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt beds, and gypsum. ...

of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive

uranium Uranium is a chemical element with the symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-grey metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weak ...

and

thorium Thorium is a weakly radioactive metallic chemical element with the symbol Th and atomic number 90. Thorium is silvery and tarnishes black when it is exposed to air, forming thorium dioxide; it is moderately soft and malleable and has a high me ...

. In March 2020, two small stone '

plaquette A plaquette (, ''small plaque'') is a small low relief sculpture in bronze or other materials. These were popular in the Italian Renaissance and later. They may be commemorative, but especially in the Renaissance and Mannerist periods were oft ...

s' were found by Griffith University archaeologists in the Leang Bulu Bettue cave, dated to a time between 26,000 and 14,000 years ago. While one of the stones contained an

anoa Anoa, also known as dwarf buffalo and ''sapiutan'', are two species of the genus '' Bubalus'' endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa (''Bubalus quarlesi'') and the lowland anoa (''Bubalus depressicornis''). Both liv ...

(water buffalo) and what may be a flower, star, or eye, another depicted astronomic rays of light. In January 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of cave art that is at least 45,500 years old in a Leang Tedongnge cave. According to the journal ''Science Advances'', the cave painting of a warty pig is the earliest evidence of human settlement of the region. An adult male pig, measuring 136 cm x 54 cm and what is likely a Sulawesi or

Celebes warty pig The Celebes warty pig (''Sus celebensis''), also called Sulawesi warty pig or Sulawesi pig, is a species in the pig genus ('' Sus'') that lives on Sulawesi in Indonesia. It survives in most habitats and can live in altitudes of up to . It has bee ...

(Sus celebensis), was depicted with horn-like facial warts and two hand prints above its hindquarters. According to co-author

Adam Brumm Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...

, there are two other pigs that are partly preserved and it appears the warty pig was observing a fight between the two other pigs.

History

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Lokaal hoofd van de eilanden ten zuiden van Celebes TMnr 10001613

A bronze Amaravathi statue was discovered at Sikendeng, South Sulawesi near

Karama river The Karama River is a river on the island of Sulawesi, in the province of West Sulawesi, Indonesia, about 1400 km northeast of the capital Jakarta.Selayar, South Sulawesi. Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama dated from the

Majapahit Majapahit ( jv, ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀; ), also known as Wilwatikta ( jv, ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia that was ba ...

period. Canto 14 mentioned polities including Gowa, Makassar, Luwu and Banggai. It seems that by the 14th century, polities in the island were connected in an archipelagic maritime trading network, centered in the Majapahit port in East Java. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the west coast near modern Parepare. The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were the Portuguese sailors Simão de Abreu in 1523, and

Gomes de Sequeira Gomes de Sequeira was a Portuguese explorer in the early 16th century. It has been suggested by some historians that Gomes de Sequeira may have sailed to the northeast coast of Australia as part of his explorations, although this is disputed. See ...

(among others) in 1525, sent from the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing. A Portuguese base was installed in Makassar in the first decades of the 16th century, lasting until 1665, when it was taken by the Dutch. The Dutch had arrived in Sulawesi in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar. From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa, the major Makassar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced the ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the

Treaty of Bongaya {{Use mdy dates, date=April 2012 The Treaty of Bongaya (also spelled Bongaja) was signed on November 18, 1667 between Sultan Hasanudin of Gowa and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). This treaty was developed after Dutch imperial forces (allied wit ...

, which handed control of trade to the

Dutch East India Company The United East India Company ( nl, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the VOC) was a chartered company established on the 20th March 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands amalgamating existing companies into the first joint-stock ...

. The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of

Bone A bone is a Stiffness, rigid Organ (biology), organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red blood cell, red and white blood cells, store minerals, provid ...

. The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as a result of the status quo. In 1905, the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the

Netherlands East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies ( nl, Nederlands(ch)-Indië; ), was a Dutch colony consisting of what is now Indonesia. It was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East India Company, which ...

until Japanese occupation in the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

. During the

Indonesian National Revolution The Indonesian National Revolution, or the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during Aftermath of WWII, postw ...

, the Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling led campaigns in which hundreds, maybe thousands died during the South Sulawesi Campaign.Kahin (1952), p. 145 Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949, Sulawesi became part of the

federal Federal or foederal (archaic) may refer to: Politics General *Federal monarchy, a federation of monarchies *Federation, or ''Federal state'' (federal system), a type of government characterized by both a central (federal) government and states or ...

United States of Indonesia The United States of Indonesia ( nl, Verenigde Staten van Indonesië, id, Republik Indonesia Serikat, abbreviated as RIS), was a short-lived federal state to which the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies (except ...

, which in 1950 became absorbed into the

unitary Unitary may refer to: Mathematics * Unitary divisor * Unitary element * Unitary group * Unitary matrix * Unitary morphism * Unitary operator * Unitary transformation * Unitary representation * Unitarity (physics) * ''E''-unitary inverse semigroup ...

Republic of Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Ind ...

Picture gallery

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Tandako' dansers en een muzikant te Pasere Maloku Celebes TMnr 10003462.jpg, ''Tandako'' dancers and a musician in Pasere Maloku, Sulawesi. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Tandako pajogé' danseressen te Pasere Maloku Celebes TMnr 10003461.jpg, ''Tandako pajogé'' dancers from Pasere Maloku, Celebes (now Sulawesi) File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Padjogé' danseressen te Maros Celebes TMnr 10003470 Retouch.jpg, '' Padjogé'' dancers in

, Sulawesi, in the 1870s. File:Tandako dancers and musicians in Gorontalo, North Celebes.jpg, ''Tandako pajogé'' dancers and musicians in Gorontalo, North Celebes, circa 1870s.

Central Sulawesi

The Portuguese were rumoured to have a fort in Parigi in 1555. The Kaili were an important group based in the Palu valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate that their control swayed under Ternate and Makassar, but this might have been a decision by the Dutch to give their vassals a chance to govern a difficult group. Padbruge commented that in the 1700s the Kaili population was significantly high and were a highly militant society. In the 1850s, a civil war erupted between the Kaili groups, including the Banawa, in which the Dutch colonial government decided to intervene. In the late 19th century the Sarasins journeyed through the Palu valley as part of a major initiative to bring the Kaili under Dutch rule. Some very surprising and interesting photographs were taken of shamans called Tadulako. Further Christian religious missions entered the area to make one of the most detailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century. A Swede by the name of Walter Kaudern later studied much of the literature and produced a synthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced a summary of Kruyts and Andrianis work: "The religion of the Bare'e-Speaking Toradja of Central Celebes," which is invaluable for English-speaking researchers. One of the most recent publications is "When the bones are left," a study of the material culture of central Sulawesi, offering extensive analysis. Also worthy of study are the brilliant works of Monnig Atkinson on the Wana shamans who live in the Mori area.

Population

The 2000 census population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population. By the 2010 Census the total had reached 17,371,782, and the 2020 Census produced a total of 19,896,951. The official estimate for mid 2021 was 20,076,987. The largest city on Sulawesi is

Makassar Makassar (, mak, ᨆᨀᨔᨑ, Mangkasara’, ) is the capital of the Indonesian province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, Surabaya, Med ...

Religion

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of the lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to accept Islam in February 1605; the Makassar kingdom of Goa-Talloq, centred on the modern-day city of

, followed suit in September. However, the

Gorontalo Gorontalo (Gorontalo language, Gorontaloan: ''Hulontalo'') is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia on the island of Sulawesi. Located on the Minahasa Peninsula, Gorontalo was formerly part of the province of North Sulawesi until its ...

and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in the 19th century. Most Muslims are

Sunni Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...

Christians Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...

form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is

Protestant Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...

and less than 2% is

Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...

. Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado, which is inhabited by the Minahasa, a predominantly Protestant people, and the northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands. The Toraja people of Tana Toraja in South Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around

Lake Poso Lake Poso ( id, Danau Poso) is a lake in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, and the third-deepest lake in Indonesia. The town of Pendolo is situated at the southern end of the lake, the town of Tentena is located at the northern end, while a numbe ...

in Central Sulawesi, among the

Pamona Pamona (also ''Poso'' or ''Bare’e'') is an Austronesian language spoken in Central and South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is part of the northern group of the Kaili–Pamona languages. Dialects ''Ethnologue'' lists the following as dialects: Laiw ...

speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well. Smaller communities of

Buddhists Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

and

Hindus Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

are also found on Sulawesi, usually among the

Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...

, Balinese and

Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Peoples South Asia * Indian people, people of Indian nationality, or people who have an Indian ancestor ** Non-resident Indian, a citizen of India who has temporarily emigrated to another country * South Asia ...

communities.

Languages

Economy

The economy of Sulawesi is heavily centered around agriculture, fishing, mining, and forestry.

Administration

The island was administered as one province between 1945 and 1960. In 1960 it was divided into two provinces - North and Central Sulawesi, and South and Southeast Sulawesi. In 1964 both of these were again divided, the former into North Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi, and the latter into South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi. Today, it is subdivided into six provinces:

, West Sulawesi,

South Sulawesi South Sulawesi ( id, Sulawesi Selatan) is a province in the southern peninsula of Sulawesi. The Selayar Islands archipelago to the south of Sulawesi is also part of the province. The capital is Makassar. The province is bordered by Central Sula ...

Central Sulawesi Central Sulawesi (Indonesian: ''Sulawesi Tengah'') is a province of Indonesia located at the centre of the island of Sulawesi. The administrative capital and largest city is located in Palu. The 2010 census recorded a population of 2,635,009 for ...

Southeast Sulawesi Southeast Sulawesi ( id, Sulawesi Tenggara) is a province on the island of Sulawesi, forming the southeastern peninsula of that island, together with a number of substantial offshore islands such as Buton, Muna, Kabaena and Wawonii (formerly ca ...

, and

North Sulawesi North Sulawesi ( id, Sulawesi Utara) is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the Minahasa Peninsula of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia. It borders the Philippine province of Davao Occidental and Soccsks ...

. Among these, the newest provinces are Gorontalo, established in 2000 from part of North Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi, established in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi. The largest cities on the island are the provincial capitals of

, Manado, Palu,

Kendari Kendari is the capital city of the Indonesian province of Southeast Sulawesi. With a population of 345,107 according to the 2020 census, it is the most populous city in the province, and the fourth most on Sulawesi. The city covers an area of , o ...

, and

(the provincial capital of West Sulawesi - the town of Mamuju - is not a city); there are six other cities - Bitung, Palopo, Bau-Bau, Parepare, Kotamobagu and Tomohun.

Flora and fauna

Sulawesi is part of

, meaning that it has a mix of both Indomalayan and

Australasian Australasian is the adjectival form of Australasia, a geographical region including Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continen ...

species that reached the island by crossing deep-water oceanic barriers. The flora includes one native eucalypt, '' E. deglupta''. There are 8

national parks A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual ...

on the island, of which 4 are mostly

marine Marine is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the sea or ocean. Marine or marines may refer to: Ocean * Maritime (disambiguation) * Marine art * Marine biology * Marine debris * Marine habitats * Marine life * Marine pollution Military * ...

. The parks with the largest terrestrial area are Bogani Nani Wartabone with 2,871 km² and

Lore Lindu National Park Lore Lindu National Park is a protected area of forest on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, in the province of Central Sulawesi. The Indonesian national park is 2,180 km2 covering both lowland and montane forests (200 to 2,610 meters abov ...

with 2,290 km². Bunaken National Park, which protects a rich coral ecosystem, has been proposed as a UNESCO

World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...

Mammals

Early in the Pleistocene, Sulawesi had a

dwarf elephant Dwarf elephants are prehistoric members of the order Proboscidea which, through the process of allopatric speciation on islands, evolved much smaller body sizes (around ) in comparison with their immediate ancestors. Dwarf elephants are an example ...

and a

dwarf Dwarf or dwarves may refer to: Common uses *Dwarf (folklore), a being from Germanic mythology and folklore * Dwarf, a person or animal with dwarfism Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities * Dwarf (''Dungeons & Dragons''), a humanoid ...

form of '' Stegodon'', (an elephant relative, ''S. sompoensis''); later both were replaced by larger forms. A giant

suid The Unix access rights flags setuid and setgid (short for ''set user identity'' and ''set group identity'') allow users to run an executable with the file system permissions of the executable's owner or group respectively and to change behaviour ...

, ''

Celebochoerus ''Celebochoerus'' is an extinct genus of giant suid artiodactyl that existed during the Pliocene and Pleistocene in Sulawesi, Indonesia (''Celebochoerus heekereni''), and the middle Pleistocene of Luzon, in the Philippines (''Celebochoerus caga ...

'', was also formerly present. It is thought that many of the migrants to Sulawesi arrived via the

, while Sulawesi in turn served as a way station for migrants to

. A Pleistocene faunal turnover is recognized, with the competitive displacement of several indigenous tarsiers by more recently arriving ones and of ''

'' by other medium-sized herbivores like the

babirusa The babirusas, also called deer-pigs ( id, babi rusa), are a genus, ''Babyrousa'', in the swine family found in the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi, Togian, Sula and Buru. All members of this genus were considered part of a single species until ...

and

There are 127 known extant native mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage, 62% (79 species) are

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

, meaning that they are found nowhere else in the world. The largest of these are the two species of

or dwarf buffalo. Other artiodactyl species inhabiting Sulawesi are the warty pig and the

babirusas The babirusas, also called deer-pigs ( id, babi rusa), are a genus, ''Babyrousa'', in the swine family found in the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi, Togian, Sula and Buru. All members of this genus were considered part of a single species until ...

, which are aberrant pigs. The only native

carnivora Carnivora is a Clade, monophyletic order of Placentalia, placental mammals consisting of the most recent common ancestor of all felidae, cat-like and canidae, dog-like animals, and all descendants of that ancestor. Members of this group are f ...

n is the

Sulawesi palm civet The Sulawesi palm civet (''Macrogalidia musschenbroekii''), also known as Sulawesi civet, musang and brown palm civet is a little-known palm civet endemic to Sulawesi. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List due to population decline est ...

( Asian palm and Malayan civets have been introduced). Primates present include a number of

nocturnal Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite. Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed sens ...

tarsier Tarsiers ( ) are haplorhine primates of the family Tarsiidae, which is itself the lone extant family within the infraorder Tarsiiformes. Although the group was once more widespread, all of its species living today are found in Maritime Southeast ...

s ('' T. fuscus'', Dian's, Gursky's, Jatna's, Wallace's, the Lariang and pygmy tarsiers) as well as diurnal

macaque The macaques () constitute a genus (''Macaca'') of gregarious Old World monkeys of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. The 23 species of macaques inhabit ranges throughout Asia, North Africa, and (in one instance) Gibraltar. Macaques are principally ...

s ( Heck's, the booted, crested black,

moor Moor or Moors may refer to: Nature and ecology * Moorland, a habitat characterized by low-growing vegetation and acidic soils. Ethnic and religious groups * Moors, Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during ...

, and Tonkean macaques). While most of Sulawesi's mammals are placental and have Asian relatives, several species of cuscus, arboreal

marsupials Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a po ...

of Australasian origin, are also present (''

Ailurops ursinus The Sulawesi bear cuscus, also known as the Sulawesi bear phalanger (''Ailurops ursinus''), is a species of arboreal marsupial in the family Phalangeridae that is endemic to Sulawesi and nearby islands in Indonesia. It lives in tropical moist lo ...

'' and ''

Strigocuscus celebensis The Sulawesi dwarf cuscus (''Strigocuscus celebensis'') is a species of arboreal marsupial in the family Phalangeridae that is endemic to Sulawesi and nearby islands in Indonesia. It inhabits tropical moist lowland forest and is nocturnal, folivo ...

'', which are diurnal and nocturnal, respectively). Sulawesi is home to a large number of endemic

rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...

genera. Murid rodent genera endemic to Sulawesi and immediately adjacent islands (such as the Togian Islands,

, and

Muna Island Muna (Pulau Muna) is an island in the Southeast Sulawesi province of Indonesia with an area of and had a population of 316,293 at the 2010 Census and 368,654 at the 2020 Census.Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021. It is just southeast of the i ...

) are '' Bunomys'', '' Echiothrix'', ''

Margaretamys ''Margaretamys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Muridae endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Up until 1973, it was known from only few examples of one species. Then Guy G. Musser collected more examples of this species during his ...

'', ''

Taeromys ''Taeromys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Muridae found exclusively in Sulawesi, Indonesia. It contains the following species: * Salokko rat (''Taeromys arcuatus'') * Lovely-haired rat (''Taeromys callitrichus'') * Celebes rat (''Taeromys ...

'' and ''

Tateomys ''Tateomys'' is a genus of rodent from Sulawesi. Both species have been classified as vulnerable by IUCN. It includes the following species: *Long-tailed shrew rat – ''Tateomys macrocercus'' Musser, 1982 *Tate's shrew rat Tate's shrew rat ...

'' as well as the single-species genera ''

Eropeplus The Sulawesi soft-furred rat (''Eropeplus canus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is the only species in the genus ''Eropeplus''. It is found only in Indonesia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forest. It is t ...

'', '' Hyorhinomys'', ''

Melasmothrix The Sulawesian shrew rat (''Melasmothrix naso'') is a species of rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upp ...

'', ''

Paucidentomys ''Paucidentomys'' is a genus of rodents of a type commonly known as shrew-rats which was discovered in 2012 in a remote rainforest on the Indonesian island, Sulawesi. The genus is monotypic, consisting of the species ''Paucidentomys vermidax'', ...

'', '' Paruromys'', ''

Sommeromys Sommer's Sulawesi rat (''Sommeromys macrorhinos'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae from Sulawesi. It is the only species in the monotypic genus ''Sommeromys'' and was described by Musser & Durden in 2002. Distribution ''S. macrorhi ...

'' and the semiaquatic ''

Waiomys ''Waiomys'' is a genus of rodents from the family Muridae. It is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. The genus is monotypic, consisting of the species ''Waiomys mamasae'' (Sulawesi water rat). It is known only from Mount Gandangdewata, Mamasa Regency ...

''. All nine

sciurid Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrels. Sq ...

s are from three endemic genera, ''

Hyosciurus ''Hyosciurus'' is a genus of rodent in the family Sciuridae endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of ...

'', ''

Prosciurillus ''Prosciurillus'' is a genus of rodent in the family Sciuridae, endemic to Sulawesi and nearby small islands, Indonesia. It contains the following species: * Secretive dwarf squirrel (''Prosciurillus abstrusus'') * Alston’s Sulawesi dwarf sq ...

'' and ''

Rubrisciurus The red-bellied squirrel or Sulawesi giant squirrel (''Rubrisciurus rubriventer'') is a species of squirrel. Until recently, it was described as a species in the genus ''Callosciurus'', but since the 1990s it is generally placed in its own genu ...

''. While over 20 bat species are present on Sulawesi, only a portion of these are endemic: '' Rhinolophus

tatar The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different

'', ''

Scotophilus celebensis The Sulawesi yellow bat (''Scotophilus celebensis'') is a species of vesper bat. It is found only in Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oce ...

'' and the megabats ''

Acerodon celebensis The Sulawesi flying fox or Sulawesi fruit bat (''Acerodon celebensis'') is a species of megabat endemic to Indonesia. It is classified as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN due to unsustainable levels of hunting. Distribution and habitat The species is e ...

'', '' Boneia bidens'', ''

Dobsonia exoleta The Sulawesi naked-backed fruit bat (''Dobsonia exoleta'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between ...

'', ''

Harpyionycteris celebensis The Sulawesi harpy fruit bat (''Harpyionycteris celebensis'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to Indonesia where it is found in Sulawesi and in Soloi on Buton Buton (also Butung, Boeton or Button) is an isla ...

'', ''

Neopteryx frosti The small-toothed fruit bat or small-toothed Flying fox (''Neopteryx frosti'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. It is the only species within the genus ''Neopteryx''. It is endemic to central Indonesia. It is known only from t ...

'', ''

Rousettus celebensis The Sulawesi rousette or Sulawesi fruit bat (''Pilonycteris celebensis'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae endemic to Sulawesi, an island in Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Sout ...

'' and ''

Styloctenium wallacei The Wallace's or Sulawesi stripe-faced fruit bat (''Styloctenium wallacei'') is a species of megabat in the family Pteropodidae. It is endemic to Sulawesi and the nearby Togian Islands of Indonesia. Cave paintings resembling these bats have been ...

''. Several endemic shrews, the

Sulawesi shrew The Sulawesi shrew (''Crocidura lea'') is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to the central and northern provinces of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is a fairly common species and the International Union for Conservation of Na ...

Sulawesi tiny shrew The Sulawesi tiny shrew (''Crocidura levicula'') is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oce ...

and the

Sulawesi white-handed shrew The Sulawesi white-handed shrew or Temboan shrew (''Crocidura rhoditis'') is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is a fairly common species and the population seems stable so the ...

, are found on the island. Sulawesi has no

gliding mammal A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. This trait has appeared by evolution many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals: inse ...

s, being situated between Borneo with its colugos and

flying squirrel Flying squirrels (scientifically known as Pteromyini or Petauristini) are a tribe of 50 species of squirrels in the family Sciuridae. Despite their name, they are not in fact capable of full flight in the same way as birds or bats, but they ar ...

s, and Halmahera with its sugar gliders.

Birds

Trichoglossus ornatus -Nahsville Zoo-8a-4c

By contrast, Sulawesian bird species tend to be found on other nearby islands as well, such as

; 31% of Sulawesi's birds are found nowhere else. One endemic (also found on small neighboring islands) is the largely ground-dwelling, chicken-sized

maleo The maleo (''Macrocephalon maleo'') is a large megapode and the only member of the monotypic genus ''Macrocephalon''. The maleo is endemic to Sulawesi and the nearby smaller island of Buton in Indonesia. It is found in the tropical lowland and ...

, a megapode which sometimes uses hot sand close to the island's volcanic vents to incubate its eggs. An international partnership of conservationists, donors, and local people have formed the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation, in an effort to raise awareness and protect the nesting grounds of these birds on the central-eastern arm of the island. Other endemic birds include the flightless

snoring rail The snoring rail (''Aramidopsis plateni''), also known as the Celebes rail or Platen's rail, is a large flightless rail and the only member of the genus ''Aramidopsis''. The species is endemic to Indonesia, and it is found exclusively in dense ...

, the fiery-browed starling, the

Sulawesi masked owl The Sulawesi masked owl (''Tyto rosenbergii'') is a species of owl in the family Tytonidae. It is endemic to the Indonesian islands of Sulawesi, Sangihe and Peleng. It is listed by the IUCN as being of least concern. Taxonomy The Sulawesi mask ...

, the Sulawesi myna, the satanic nightjar and the grosbeak starling. There are around 350 known bird species in Sulawesi.

Reptiles

The larger reptiles of Sulawesi are not endemic and include

reticulated Reticulation is a net-like pattern, arrangement, or structure. Reticulation or Reticulated may refer to: * Reticulation (single-access key), a structure of an identification tree, where there are several possible routes to a correct identificatio ...

and

Burmese Burmese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Myanmar, a country in Southeast Asia * Burmese people * Burmese language * Burmese alphabet * Burmese cuisine * Burmese culture Animals * Burmese cat * Burmese chicken * Burmese (hor ...

pythons, the

Pacific ground boa ''Candoia carinata'', known commonly as the Pacific ground boa, Pacific keel-scaled boa, or Indonesian tree boa, is a species of snake in the family Boidae. Distribution and habitat ''C. carinata'' is found in Indonesia, New Guinea, and the Bis ...

, king cobras, water monitors,

sailfin lizard ''Hydrosaurus'', commonly known as the sailfin dragons or sailfin lizards, is a genus in the family Agamidae.

saltwater crocodile The saltwater crocodile (''Crocodylus porosus'') is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been listed ...

s and

green sea turtle The green sea turtle (''Chelonia mydas''), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus ''Chelonia''. Its range exten ...

s. An extinct giant

tortoise Tortoises () are reptiles of the family Testudinidae of the order Testudines (Latin: ''tortoise''). Like other turtles, tortoises have a turtle shell, shell to protect from predation and other threats. The shell in tortoises is generally hard, ...

, '' Megalochelys atlas'', was formerly present, but disappeared by 840,000 years ago, possibly because of the arrival of

. Similarly,

komodo dragon The Komodo dragon (''Varanus komodoensis''), also known as the Komodo monitor, is a member of the monitor lizard family Varanidae that is endemic to the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang. It is the largest extant ...

s or similar lizards appear to have inhabited the island, being among its apex predators. The smaller snakes of Sulawesi include nonendemic forms such as the gliding species '' Chrysopelea paradisi'' and endemic forms such as ''

Calamaria ''Calamaria'' is a large genus of dwarf burrowing snakes of the family Colubridae. The genus contains 66 recognized species. The genus is endemic to Asia. Description Species in the genus ''Calamaria'' share the following characteristics. The e ...

boesemani'', ''

Calamaria muelleri ''Calamaria muelleri'', Mueller's reed snake, is a species of snake in the family, Colubridae. It is found in Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pac ...

'', ''

Calamaria nuchalis ''Calamaria'' is a large genus of dwarf burrowing snakes of the family Colubridae. The genus contains 66 recognized species. The genus is endemic to Asia. Description Species in the genus ''Calamaria'' share the following characteristics. The ei ...

'', ''

Cyclotyphlops ''Cyclotyphlops deharvengi'', or Deharveng’s blind snake, is a species of blind snake placed in the monotypic genus ''Cyclotyphlops''. It is found in southeastern Sulawesi, Indonesia. No subspecies are currently recognized. Etymology The s ...

'', '' Enhydris matannensis'', ''

Ptyas ''Ptyas'' is a genus of colubrid snakes. This genus is one of several colubrid genus, genera colloquially called "rat snakes" or "ratsnakes". The generic name derives from Ancient Greek πτυάς, meaning "Spitting, spitter", which referred to ...

dipsas'', ''

Rabdion grovesi ''Rabdion grovesi'' is a species of snake in the family Colubridae. Geographic range ''R. grovesi'' is only known from the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia an ...

'', ''

Tropidolaemus laticinctus ''Tropidolaemus laticinctus'' is a species of venomous snake in the pit viper subfamily, Crotalinae. Its common names are Sulawesi pit viper, broad-banded temple pitviper, or broad-banded pit viper. It is endemic to the Indonesian island of Sula ...

'' and ''

Typhlops conradi Conrad's worm snake (''Ramphotyphlops conradi'') is a species of snake in the family Typhlopidae. McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré TA (1999). ''Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Volume 1''. Washington, District ...

''. Similarly, the smaller lizards of Sulawesi include nonendemic species such as ''

Bronchocela jubata ''Bronchocela jubata'', commonly known as the maned forest lizard, is a species of agamid lizard found mainly in Indonesia on the islands of Singkep, Java, Bali, Sulawesi, Karakelang, Salibabu; Nias Island, Singkap Island, Borneo ( Kaliman ...

'', ''

Dibamus novaeguineae ''Dibamus novaeguineae'', is a legless lizard found in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of M ...

'' and ''

Gekko smithii ''Gekko smithii'', commonly known as Smith's green-eyed gecko or the large forest gecko, is a species of lizard in the family Gekkonidae. The species is native to mainland Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Description ''G. smithii'' is one of the ...

'', as well as endemic species such as ''

Lipinia ''Lipinia'' is a genus of skinks, lizards in the family Scincidae. Species in the genus ''Lipinia'' are commonly called lipinias. Taxonomy The genus ''Lipinia'' belongs to the ''Sphenomorphus'' group of genera in which ''Lipinia'' has a rat ...

infralineolata'' and ''

Gekko iskandari Pak Djoko's flap-legged gecko (''Gekko iskandari''), also known commonly as Iskandar's wolf gecko, is a species of gecko, a lizard in the family Gekkonidae. The species is endemic to Sulawesi. Etymology The specific name, ''iskandari'', is in ...

''. Sulawesi also harbours several species of freshwater chelonians, two of which are endemic. They include the '' Forsten's tortoise'' and the '' Sulawesi forest turtle'', both of which likely attribute their respective origins to the dispersal of the mainland Asian '' elongated tortoise'' and ''

Malayan flat-shelled turtle The Malayan flat-shelled turtle (''Notochelys platynota'') is a species of turtle found in Southeast Asia. Distribution Myanmar, Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a countr ...

'' from the then-exposed subcontinent of ''

'' during the ''

Pleistocene epoch The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed in ...

''. The remaining two species consist of the non-endemic '' Malayan box turtle'' of the Wallacean subspecies, and the '' Asiatic softshell turtle''.

Amphibians

The amphibians of Sulawesi include the endemic frogs ''

Hylarana celebensis ''Papurana celebensis'', also known as the Celebes frog, is a species of true frog in the family Ranidae. Prior to being reclassified into the genus ''Papurana'' in 2020, it was referred to as ''"Hylarana" celebensis''. It is endemic to Sulawesi ...

'', '' H. macrops'', '' H. mocquardi'', ''

Ingerophrynus celebensis The Sulawesian toad or Celebes toad (''Ingerophrynus celebensis'') is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Ocea ...

'', '' Limnonectes arathooni'', '' L. larvaepartus'', '' L. microtympanum'', ''

Occidozyga celebensis The Sulawesian puddle frog or Celebes Oriental frog (''Occidozyga celebensis'') is a species of frog in the family Dicroglossidae. It is endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southe ...

'', '' O. semipalmata'' and '' O. tompotika'' as well as the endemic "

flying frog A flying frog (also called a gliding frog) is a frog that has the ability to achieve gliding flight. This means it can descend at an angle less than 45° relative to the horizontal. Other nonflying arboreal frogs can also descend, but only at angle ...

s" ''

Rhacophorus edentulus ''Rhacophorus edentulus'' (Celebes flying frog) is a species of frog in the family Rhacophoridae endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its natural habitats are rivers, freshwater marsh A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rath ...

'' and '' R. georgii''.

Freshwater fish

Nomorhamphus liemi liemi (Wroclaw zoo)-2

Sulawesi is home to more than 70

freshwater fish Freshwater fish are those that spend some or all of their lives in fresh water, such as rivers and lakes, with a salinity of less than 1.05%. These environments differ from marine conditions in many ways, especially the difference in levels of s ...

species, including more than 55 endemics.Parenti, L.R. (2011)
Endemism and Conservation of the Native Freshwater Fish Fauna of Sulawesi, Indonesia
Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ikan IV: 1-10. Among these are the genus ''

Nomorhamphus ''Nomorhamphus'' is a southeast Asian genus of viviparous halfbeaks from streams, rivers and lakes in Sulawesi (Indonesia) and the Philippines. They are all viviparous, producing small clutches of around a dozen fry about 10 to 15 mm long a ...

'', a

species flock In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...

viviparous halfbeak Zenarchopteridae, the viviparous halfbeaks, is a family in the order Beloniformes. The Zenarchopteridae exhibit strong sexual dimorphism, practicing internal fertilisation, and in some cases ovoviviparous or viviparous (the family also includes ...

s containing 12 species that only are found on Sulawesi (others are from the Philippines).
The Systematic Review of the Fish Genus Nomorhamphus
'' – Louie, Kristina, research paper, Colgate University, Hamilton, New York, 1993 In addition to ''Nomorhamphus'', the majority of Sulawesi's freshwater fish species are

ricefish The ricefishes are a family (Adrianichthyidae) of small ray-finned fish that are found in fresh and brackish waters from India to Japan and out into the Malay Archipelago, most notably Sulawesi (where the Lake Poso and Lore Lindu species are kn ...

es, gobies ('' Glossogobius'' and ''

Mugilogobius ''Mugilogobius'' is a genus of fish in the family Gobiidae. They are found in fresh, brackish and marine water of the Indo-Pacific region. Several of the freshwater species have highly restricted distributions. Species There are currently 33 re ...

'') and Telmatherinid sail-fin silversides. The last family is almost entirely restricted to Sulawesi, especially the Malili Lake system, consisting of Matano and Towuti, and the small Lontoa (Wawantoa), Mahalona and Masapi. Another unusual endemic is ''

Lagusia micracanthus ''Lagusia micracanthus'' is a species of fish from the grunter family, Terapontidae, and the only member of the genus ''Lagusia''. It is endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as ...

'' from rivers in

, which is the sole member of its genus and among the smallest grunters. The

gudgeon A gudgeon is a socket-like, cylindrical (i.e., ''female'') fitting attached to one component to enable a pivoting or hinging connection to a second component. The second component carries a pintle fitting, the male counterpart to the gudgeon, ...

Bostrychus microphthalmus ''Bostrychus microphthalmus'' is a species of fish from the family Butidae. It is endemic to Maros karst in southern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It was the first documented cave-dwelling fish in Sulawesi, but since then the brotula '' Diancistrus typ ...

'' from the

Karst is the only described species of cave-adapted fish from Sulawesi, but an apparently undescribed species from the same region and genus also exists.

Freshwater crustaceans and snails

Many species of ''

Caridina ''Caridina'' is a genus of freshwater atyid shrimp. They are widely found in tropical or subtropical water in Asia, Oceania and Africa. They are filter-feeders and omnivorous scavengers. They range from 0.9–9.8 mm ('' C. cantonensis'') t ...

'' freshwater shrimp and parathelphusid freshwater crabs (''

Migmathelphusa ''Migmathelphusa olivacea'' is a species of freshwater crab found in Lake Poso on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.Chia, Oliver KS, and Peter KL Ng. "The freshwater crabs of Sulawesi, with descriptions of two new genera and four new species ...

'', '' Nautilothelphusa'', '' Parathelphusa'', '' Sundathelphusa'' and ''

Syntripsa ''Syntripsa'' is a genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and be ...

'') are endemic to Sulawesi.von Rintelen, K., and Y. Cai (2009). ''Radiation of endemic species flocks in ancient lakes: systematic revision of the freshwater shrimp Caridina H. Milne Edwards, 1837 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Atyidae) from the ancient lakes of Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the description of eight new species.'' Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 57: 343–452.Chia, O.C.K. and P.K.L. Ng (2006). ''The freshwater crabs of Sulawesi, with descriptions of two new genera and four new species (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae).'' Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 54: 381–428. Several of these species have become very popular in the aquarium hobby, and since most are restricted to a single lake system, they are potentially vulnerable to

habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...

and

overexploitation Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish. The term app ...

. There are also several endemic cave-adapted shrimp and crabs, especially in the Maros Karst. This includes ''

Cancrocaeca xenomorpha ''Cancrocaeca xenomorpha'' is a species of troglobitic (cave-dwelling) freshwater crab from Sulawesi, the only species in the monotypic genus ''Cancrocaeca''. It has been described as the world's "most highly cave-adapted species of crab". Descri ...

'', which has been called the "most highly cave-adapted species of crab known in the world". The genus ''

Tylomelania ''Tylomelania'' is a genus of freshwater snails which have an operculum, aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family Pachychilidae. In the aquarium hobby, snails from this genus are commonly known as "rabbit snails" (not to be confused with sea ...

'' of

freshwater snail Freshwater snails are gastropod mollusks which live in fresh water. There are many different families. They are found throughout the world in various habitats, ranging from ephemeral pools to the largest lakes, and from small seeps and springs ...

s is also endemic to Sulawesi, with the majority of the species restricted to

and the Malili Lake system.

Insects

The ''

Trigonopterus selayarensis ''Trigonopterus'' is a genus of flightless weevils placed in the Cryptorhynchinae of Curculionidae. It is distributed in Australia, Indonesia and Melanesia. About 90 species had been formally described until March 2013, when a single paper more t ...

'' is a flightless

weevil Weevils are beetles belonging to the Taxonomic rank, superfamily Curculionoidea, known for their elongated snouts. They are usually small, less than in length, and Herbivore, herbivorous. Approximately 97,000 species of weevils are known. They b ...

endemic to Sulawesi.

Miscellaneous

The

Indonesian coelacanth The Indonesian coelacanth (''Latimeria menadoensis'', Indonesian: ''raja laut'') is one of two living species of coelacanth, identifiable by its brown color. It is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN, while the other species, ''L. chalumnae'' (Wes ...

and the

mimic octopus The mimic octopus (''Thaumoctopus mimicus'') is a species of octopus from the Indo-Pacific region. Like other octopuses, it uses its chromatophores to disguise itself with its background. However, it is noteworthy for being able to impersonate a ...

are present in the waters off Sulawesi's coast.

Conservation

Sulawesi island was recently the subject of an Ecoregional Conservation Assessment, coordinated by

The Nature Conservancy The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a global environmental organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. it works via affiliates or branches in 79 countries and territories, as well as across every state in the US. Founded in 1951, The Natu ...

. Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available. The assessment produced a detailed and annotated list of 'conservation portfolio' sites. This information was widely distributed to local government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Detailed conservation priorities have also been outlined in a recent publication. The lowland forests on the island have mostly been removed. Because of the relative geological youth of the island and its dramatic and sharp topography, the lowland areas are naturally limited in their extent. The past decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare and endangered habitat. The island also possesses one of the largest outcrops of

serpentine soil Serpentine soil is an uncommon soil type produced by weathered ultramafic rock such as peridotite and its metamorphic derivatives such as serpentinite. More precisely, serpentine soil contains minerals of the serpentine subgroup, especially anti ...

in the world, which support an unusual and large community of specialized plant species. Overall, the flora and fauna of this unique center of global biodiversity is very poorly documented and understood and remains critically threatened. The islands of Pepaya, Mas, and Raja islands, located in Sumalata Village –

North Gorontalo Regency North Gorontalo (''Gorontalo Utara'') is a regency of Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, stretching along the entire northern coast of the province. It is located on the northern peninsula of the island of Sulawesi. It was established in 2007 under L ...

(about 30 km from Saronde Island), have been named a nature reserve since the Dutch colonial time in 1936. Four of the only seven species of

sea turtle Sea turtles (superfamily Chelonioidea), sometimes called marine turtles, are reptiles of the order Testudines and of the suborder Cryptodira. The seven existing species of sea turtles are the flatback, green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerhead, ...

s can be found in the islands, the world's best turtle habitat. They include penyu hijau ('' Chelonia midas''), penyu sisik ('' Eretmochelys imbricata''), penyu tempayan ('' Caretta caretta'') and penyu belimbing (''

Dermochelys coriacea The leatherback sea turtle (''Dermochelys coriacea''), sometimes called the lute turtle or leathery turtle or simply the luth, is the largest of all living turtles and the heaviest non-crocodilian reptile, reaching lengths of up to and weights ...

''). In 2011, the habitat was threatened by human activities such as illegal poaching and fish bombing activities; furthermore, many coral reefs, which represent a source of food for turtles, have been damaged.

Environment

The largest environmental issue in Sulawesi is

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated d ...

. In 2007, scientists found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest had been lost or degraded, especially centered in the lowlands and the mangroves. Sulawesi Profile
– mongabay.com Forests have been felled for logging and large agricultural projects. Loss of forest has resulted in many of Sulawesi's endemic species becoming endangered. In addition, 99 percent of Sulawesi's wetlands have been lost or damaged. Other environmental threats included bushmeat hunting and mining.
– mongabay.com

Parks

The island of Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves. In addition, Sulawesi has three marine protected areas. Many of Sulawesi's parks are threatened by logging, mining, and deforestation for agriculture.

Explanatory notes

Citations

General sources

* . * .

External links

* {{Authority control Greater Sunda Islands Islands of Indonesia Maritime Southeast Asia Wallacea

Etymology

Geography

Minor islands

Geology

Prehistory

Oldest known cave art

History

Picture gallery

Central Sulawesi

Population

Religion

Languages

Economy

Administration

Flora and fauna

Mammals

Birds

Reptiles

Amphibians

Freshwater fish

Freshwater crustaceans and snails

Insects

Miscellaneous

Conservation

Environment

Parks

See also

Explanatory notes

Citations

General sources

External links