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''Carpobrotus edulis'' is a ground-creeping plant with
succulent In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents, are plants with parts that are thickened, fleshy, and engorged, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. The word ''succulent'' comes from the Latin word ''sucus'', meani ...
leaves in the genus '' Carpobrotus'', native to
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
. Its common names include hottentot-fig, sour fig, ice plant or highway ice plant.


Description

''Carpobrotus edulis'' is a creeping, mat-forming
succulent In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents, are plants with parts that are thickened, fleshy, and engorged, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. The word ''succulent'' comes from the Latin word ''sucus'', meani ...
species. It grows year round, with individual shoot segments growing more than 1 m (3 ft) per year. It can grow to at least 50 m (165 ft) in diameter. The
leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...
are a dull-green or yellow-green colour. They are only very slightly curved and have serrated sides near the tips. The yellow flowers are produced from April to October, and range from in diameter. Two of the calyx lobes are longer, extending further than the petals. The flowers open in the morning in bright sunlight and close at night. The receptacle is somewhat wedge-shaped, tapering down to the pedicel. The fruit is multi-chambered, ripening from green to yellow. The species is easily confused with its close relatives, including the more diminutive and less aggressive ''
Carpobrotus chilensis ''Carpobrotus chilensis'' is a species of succulent plant known by the common name sea fig. It grows on coastal sand dunes and bluffs and is used as an ornamental plant, and it is also edible. However, along with its even more troublesome cousi ...
'' (sea fig), with which it hybridizes readily. ''C. edulis'' can, however, be distinguished from most of its relatives by the size and yellow colour of its flowers. The smaller flowers of ''C. chilensis'', in diameter, are deep magenta.


Chemistry

''C. edulis'' contains
rutin Rutin, also called rutoside, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside and sophorin, is the glycoside combining the flavonol quercetin and the disaccharide rutinose (α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranose). It is a flavonoid found in a wide variety of pla ...
,
neohesperidin Neohesperidin is a flavanone glycoside found in citrus fruits. It is the 7-O-neohesperidose derivative of hesperetin, which in turn is the 4'-methoxy derivative of eriodictyol Eriodictyol is a bitter-masking flavanone, a flavonoid extracted from ...
,
hyperoside Hyperoside is a chemical compound. It is the 3-''O''-galactoside of quercetin. Natural occurrences Hyperoside has been isolated from ''Drosera rotundifolia'', from the Lamiaceae ''Stachys sp.'' and ''Prunella vulgaris'', from ''Rumex acetosella ...
,
catechin Catechin is a flavan-3-ol, a type of secondary metabolite providing antioxidant roles in plants. It belongs to the subgroup of polyphenols called flavonoids. The name of the catechin chemical family derives from ''catechu'', which is the tannic ...
and
ferulic acid Ferulic acid is a hydroxycinnamic acid, an organic compound with the formula (CH3O)HOC6H3CH=CHCO2H. The name is derived from the genus ''Ferula'', referring to the giant fennel (''Ferula communis''). Classified as a phenolic phytochemical, ferulic ...
; these contribute to the
antibacterial An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of ...
properties of the plant. It also contains
procyanidin Procyanidins are members of the proanthocyanidin (or condensed tannins) class of flavonoids. They are oligomeric compounds, formed from catechin and epicatechin molecules. They yield cyanidin when depolymerized under oxidative conditions. See the ...
s and
propelargonidin Propelargonidins are a type of condensed tannins formed from epiafzelechin. They yield pelargonidin when depolymerized under oxidative conditions. Propelargonidins can be found in the rhizomes of the fern '' Drynaria fortunei'', in buckwheat (''Fa ...
s.


Taxonomy

The species is a member of the fig-marigold family,
Aizoaceae The Aizoaceae, or fig-marigold family, is a large family of dicotyledonous flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is d ...
, one of about 30 species in the genus '' Carpobrotus''. It was previously classified in ''
Mesembryanthemum ''Mesembryanthemum'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Aizoaceae; like many members of this family, it is characterized by long-lasting flower heads. Flowers of ''Mesembryanthemum'' protect their gametes from night-time dews or frosts ...
'' and is sometimes referred to as ''Mesembryanthemum edule''.


Distribution and habitat

The sour fig grows on coastal and inland slopes in
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
from
Namaqualand Namaqualand (khoekhoe: "Nama-kwa" meaning Nama Khoe people's land) is an arid region of Namibia and South Africa, extending along the west coast over and covering a total area of . It is divided by the lower course of the Orange River into ...
in the Northern Cape through the Western Cape to the Eastern Cape. It is often seen as a pioneer on disturbed sites.


Ecology

The flowers are pollinated by solitary bees,
honey bee A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current co ...
s,
carpenter bee Carpenter bees are species in the genus ''Xylocopa'' of the subfamily Xylocopinae. The genus includes some 500 bees in 31 subgenera. The common name "carpenter bee" derives from their nesting behavior; nearly all species burrow into hard plant m ...
s, and many beetle species. Leaves are eaten by tortoises. Flowers are eaten by antelopes and baboons. Fruits are eaten by baboons, rodents, porcupines, antelopes, who also disperse the seeds. The clumps provide shelter for
snail A snail is, in loose terms, a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name ''snail'' is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastro ...
s,
lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...
s, and
skink Skinks are lizards belonging to the family Scincidae, a family in the infraorder Scincomorpha. With more than 1,500 described species across 100 different taxonomic genera, the family Scincidae is one of the most diverse families of lizards. Ski ...
s. Puff adders and other snakes, such as the
Cape cobra The Cape cobra (''Naja nivea''), also called the yellow cobra, is a moderate-sized, highly venomous species of cobra inhabiting a wide variety of biomes across southern Africa including arid savanna, fynbos, bushveld, desert and semi-desert reg ...
, are often found in ''Carpobrotus'' clumps, where they ambush the small rodents attracted by the fruits.


As an invasive species

''Carpobrotus edulis'' has naturalised in many other regions throughout the world, and is an
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
in several parts, notably
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
,
California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
and the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
, all of which have similar climates. The ice plant has escaped from cultivation and has become invasive, posing a serious ecological problem by forming vast monospecific zones, lowering
biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
, and competing directly with several threatened or endangered plant species for nutrients, water, light, and space.


Ireland

Recorded as a garden escape from County Down, in the south and east and on the cliffs of Howth Head, County Dublin.


Mediterranean

On the Mediterranean coast, ''Carpobrotus'' has spread out rapidly and now parts of the coastline are completely covered. Moreover, another invasive species, the
black rat The black rat (''Rattus rattus''), also known as the roof rat, ship rat, or house rat, is a common long-tailed rodent of the stereotypical rat genus ''Rattus'', in the subfamily Murinae. It likely originated in the Indian subcontinent, but is n ...
, has been shown to enhance the spreading of the ice plant through its feces. As the ice plant represents a food resource for the rat, both benefit from each other which is referred to as invasive mutualism.


New Zealand

In
New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
forms monocultures and has taken over vast areas of coastal sand dune ecosystem. ''C. edulis'' and its hybrids are classed as unwanted organisms and are listed on the
National Pest Plant Accord The National Pest Plant Accord (NPPA) is a New Zealand agreement that identifies pest plants that are prohibited from sale and commercial propagation and distribution. The Accord initially came into effect on 1 October 2001 between regional coun ...
.


United States

Although the ice plant may have arrived by ship as early as the 16th century,Au, Leakhana
''Carpobrotus edulis'' in California Coastal Plant Communities
, ''Restoration and Reclamation Review'', University of Minnesota, Vol. 6, No. 1, Fall 2000.
''C. edulis'' was actively introduced in the early 1900s to stabilize dunes and soil along railroad tracks; it was later put to use by
Caltrans The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is an Executive (government), executive department of the U.S. state of California. The department is part of the Government of California#State agencies, cabinet-level California State Tran ...
for ground cover along freeway embankments. Thousands of acres were planted in California until the 1970s. It easily spreads by seed (hundreds per fruit) and from segmentation (any shoot segment can produce roots). Its succulent foliage, bright yellow flowers, and resistance to some harsh coastal climatic conditions (salt) have also made it a favored garden plant. The ice plant was, for several decades, widely promoted as an ornamental plant, and it is still available at some nurseries. Ice plant foliage can turn a vibrant red to yellow in color. Despite its use as a soil stabilizer, it actually exacerbates and speeds up
coastal erosion Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The landward ...
. It holds great masses of water in its leaves, and its roots are very shallow. In the rainy season, the added weight on unstable sandstone slopes and dunes increases the chances of slope collapse and landslides. The ice plant is still abundant along highways, beaches, on military bases, and in other public and private landscapes. It spreads beyond landscape plantings and has invaded foredune, dune scrub, coastal bluff scrub, coastal prairie, and, most recently, maritime
chaparral Chaparral ( ) is a shrubland plant community and geographical feature found primarily in the U.S. state of California, in southern Oregon, and in the northern portion of the Baja California Peninsula in Mexico. It is shaped by a Mediterranean c ...
communities. In California, the ice plant is found in coastal habitats from north of Eureka, south at least as far as Rosarito in
Baja California Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
. It is intolerant of frost, and is not found far inland or at elevations greater than about 500 ft (150 m). Flowering occurs almost year-round, beginning in February in southern California and continuing until the autumn in northern California, with flowers present for at least a few months in any given population.


Removal of plants

Control of ice plants can be attempted by pulling out individual plants by hand, or with the use of earth-moving machinery such as a
skid-steer A skid loader, skid-steer loader, SSLs or skidsteer is a small, rigid-frame, engine-powered machine with lift arms that can attach to a wide variety of buckets and other labor-saving tools or attachments. Skid-steer loaders are typically four-whee ...
or tractor, though it is necessary to remove buried stems, and mulch the
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former te ...
to prevent re-establishment. For chemical control,
glyphosate Glyphosate (IUPAC name: ''N''-(phosphonomethyl)glycine) is a broad-spectrum Herbicide, systemic herbicide and Crop desiccation, crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plan ...
herbicides are used. Because of the high water content of shoot tissues, burning of live or dead plants is not a useful method of control or disposal.


Cultivation

It needs well-drained soil, a sunny position, and room to spread. It is an excellent evergreen, drought- and wind-resistant
groundcover Groundcover or ground cover is any plant that grows over an area of ground. Groundcover provides protection of the topsoil from erosion and drought. In an ecosystem, the ground cover forms the layer of vegetation below the shrub layer known as t ...
; it can be planted on flat, sandy ground, on loose sand dunes, lime-rich and brackish soils, and gravelly gardens, as well as in containers, rockeries, and embankments, and will cascade over terrace walls.


Uses

The fruit is edible (as with some other members of the family
Aizoaceae The Aizoaceae, or fig-marigold family, is a large family of dicotyledonous flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is d ...
), as are its leaves. In South Africa the sour fig's ripe fruit are gathered and either eaten fresh or made into a very tart jam. The different parts of ''C. edulis'' are used in different forms in traditional medicine, mainly in South Africa. Mostly, the fruits and flowers are eaten raw or cooked for fungal and bacterial infections. The leaves can be ingested orally for digestive problems or the juice can be sucked out to help a sore throat. The juice can also be mixed into a lotion base and used for external issues such as ringworm, bruises, sunburns, and cracked lips.


References


External links


''Carpobrotus edulis''
at the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry
Calflora invasive plants
{{Taxonbar, from=Q1368577 edulis Endemic flora of South Africa Flora of the Cape Provinces Fynbos Garden plants of Africa Drought-tolerant plants Edible plants Leaf vegetables Groundcovers Taxa named by N. E. Brown Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus