Rusyn (; rue, label=
Carpathian Rusyn, русиньскый язык, translit=rusîn'skyj jazyk; rue, label=
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn ( rsk, label=Pannonian Rusyn, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik), also historically referred to as Yugoslav Rusyn, is a variety of the Rusyn language, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns, primarily in the regions of Vojvodina ...
, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik),
[http://theses.gla.ac.uk/2781/1/2011BaptieMPhil-1.pdf , p. 8.] is an
East Slavic language spoken by
Rusyns
Rusyns (), also known as Carpatho-Rusyns (), or Rusnaks (), are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group from the Carpathian Rus', Eastern Carpathians in Central Europe. They speak Rusyn language, Rusyn, an East Slavic languages, East Slavi ...
in parts of
Central
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
and
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. The vast majority of the region is covered by Russ ...
, and written in the
Cyrillic script
The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic languages, Slavic, Turkic languages, Turkic, Mongolic languages, ...
. Within the community, the language is also referred to by the older folk term, rue, label=none, руснацькый язык, rusnac'kyj jazyk, Rusnak language, or simply referred to as speaking ''our way'' ( rue, label=
Carpathian Rusyn, по-нашому, translit=po nashomu). The majority of speakers live in an area known as
Carpathian Rus'
Carpathian Ruthenia ( rue, Карпатьска Русь, Karpat'ska Rus'; uk, Закарпаття, Zakarpattia; sk, Podkarpatská Rus; hu, Kárpátalja; ro, Transcarpatia; pl, Zakarpacie); cz, Podkarpatská Rus; german: Karpatenukrai ...
that spans from
Transcarpathia
Transcarpathia may refer to:
Place
* relative term, designating any region beyond the Carpathians (lat. ''trans-'' / beyond, over), depending on a point of observation
* Romanian Transcarpathia, designation for Romanian regions on the inner or ...
, westward into eastern Slovakia and south-east Poland. There is also a sizeable
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn ( rsk, label=Pannonian Rusyn, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik), also historically referred to as Yugoslav Rusyn, is a variety of the Rusyn language, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns, primarily in the regions of Vojvodina ...
linguistic island in
Vojvodina
Vojvodina ( sr-Cyrl, Војводина}), officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province that occupies the northernmost part of Serbia. It lies within the Pannonian Basin, bordered to the south by the national capital ...
,
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
, as well as a Rusyn
diaspora
A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of origin. Historically, the word was used first in reference to the dispersion of Greeks in the Hellenic world, and later Jews after ...
throughout the world. Per the
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty (CETS 148) adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. However, the ...
, Rusyn is officially recognized as a protected minority language by
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and H ...
,
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
,
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
,
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
,
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
(as Lemko),
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
, and
Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
.
In the
English language
English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the is ...
, the term ''Rusyn'' is recognized officially by the
ISO
ISO is the most common abbreviation for the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO or Iso may also refer to: Business and finance
* Iso (supermarket), a chain of Danish supermarkets incorporated into the SuperBest chain in 2007
* Iso ...
. Other names are sometimes also used to refer to the language, mainly deriving from
exonym
An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
s such as ''Ruthenian'' or ''Ruthene'' (, ),
that have more general meanings, and thus (by adding regional adjectives) some specific designations are formed, such as: Carpathian Ruthenian/Ruthene or Carpatho-Ruthenian/Ruthene.
The categorization of Rusyn as a language or dialect is a source of controversy. Czech, Slovak, and Hungarian, as well as American and some Polish and Serbian linguists treat it as a distinct language (with its own
ISO 639-3
ISO 639-3:2007, ''Codes for the representation of names of languages – Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages'', is an international standard for language codes in the ISO 639 series. It defines three-letter codes for i ...
code), whereas other scholars (in Ukraine, Poland, Serbia, and Romania) treat it as a Southwestern dialect of
Ukrainian
Ukrainian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Ukraine
* Something relating to Ukrainians, an East Slavic people from Eastern Europe
* Something relating to demographics of Ukraine in terms of demography and population of Ukraine
* So ...
.
Geographic distribution
In terms of geographic distribution, Rusyn language is represented by two specific clusters: the first is encompassing Carpathian Rusyn or Carpatho-Rusyn varieties, and the second is represented by
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn ( rsk, label=Pannonian Rusyn, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik), also historically referred to as Yugoslav Rusyn, is a variety of the Rusyn language, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns, primarily in the regions of Vojvodina ...
.
Carpathian Rusyn is spoken in:
* the
Zakarpattia Oblast
The Zakarpattia Oblast ( uk, Закарпатська область, Zakarpatska oblast) is an administrative oblast located in western Ukraine, mostly coterminous with the historical region of Carpathian Ruthenia. Its administrative centre is ...
of
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
.
* northeastern regions of
Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
.
* southeastern regions of
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
. The variety of Rusyn spoken in Poland is generally known as ''
Lemko
Lemkos ( rue, Лeмкы, translit= Lemkŷ; pl, Łemkowie; uk, Лемки, translit=Lemky) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Lemko Region ( rue, Лемковина, translit=Lemkovyna; uk, Лемківщина, translit=Lemkivshchyna) of C ...
'' language ( ).
* northeastern regions of
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
.
* northern regions of
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
(in
Maramureș
Maramureș or Marmaroshchyna ( ro, Maramureș ; uk, Мармарощина, Marmaroshchyna; hu, Máramaros) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpath ...
).
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn ( rsk, label=Pannonian Rusyn, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik), also historically referred to as Yugoslav Rusyn, is a variety of the Rusyn language, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns, primarily in the regions of Vojvodina ...
is spoken by the
Pannonian Rusyns
Pannonian Rusyns ( rue, Русини, translit=Rusynŷ), also known as Pannonian Rusnaks ( rue, Руснаци, translit=Rusnat͡sŷ), and formerly known as ''Yugoslav'' Rusyns (during the existence of former Yugoslavia), are ethnic Rusyns from ...
in the region of
Vojvodina
Vojvodina ( sr-Cyrl, Војводина}), officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, is an autonomous province that occupies the northernmost part of Serbia. It lies within the Pannonian Basin, bordered to the south by the national capital ...
(in
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
), and in a nearby region of
Slavonia
Slavonia (; hr, Slavonija) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria, one of the four historical regions of Croatia. Taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with five Croatian counties: Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja ...
(in
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
).
History
The
Niagovo Postilla (Njagovskie poučenija), dated to 1758, is one of the earliest texts possessing significant phonetic and morphological characteristics of modern Rusyn (specifically the Subcarpathian variant) and is potentially "linguistically traceable" to the 16th century.
By the 18th century, the Rusyn language was "clearly in evidence" and "quite recognizable in a more systematic fashion".
The first books produced exclusively for Rusyn readership were printed under the direction of bishop of
Mukachevo
Mukachevo ( uk, Мукачево, ; hu, Munkács; see name section) is a city in the valley of the Latorica river in Zakarpattia Oblast (province), in Western Ukraine. Serving as the administrative center of Mukachevo Raion (district), the city ...
,
Joseph Decamillis
Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the mo ...
(r. 1690 - 1706). Under his direction, the printshop at the
University of Trnava
The University of Trnava (in Trnava) ( sk, Trnavská univerzita v Trnave) is one of the oldest universities in Slovakia. It is based in Trnava, in the west of Slovakia.
Historical university
The original Jesuit university was founded in 1635 by ...
published a catechism (Katekhisis dlia naouki Ouhorouskim liudem, 1698) and an elementary language primer (Boukvar’ iazyka slaven’ska, 1699). For decades, these would be the only textbooks available to Rusyn students.
Later, in 1767
Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (german: Maria Theresia; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was ruler of the Habsburg dominions from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position ''suo jure'' (in her own right). ...
's
Urbarium
An urbarium (german: Urbar, English: ''urbarium'', also ''rental'' or ''rent-roll'', pl, urbarz, sk, urbár, hu, urbárium), is a register of fief ownership and includes the rights and benefits that the fief holder has over his serfs and peasant ...
was published throughout the
Habsburg Empire
The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
in a variety of languages, including Rusyn.
Finally, under Bishop
Andriy Bachynskyi
Andriy Bachynskyi ( uk, Андрій Бачинський, hu, Bacsinszky András; 11 November 1732 – 19 November 1809) was a Ruthenian Greek Catholic hierarch. He was bishop of the Ruthenian Catholic Eparchy of Mukacheve from 1773 to 1809.
Bio ...
's tenure (r. 1773 - 1809) in the
Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo
The Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo is an eparchy (diocese) associated with the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church under an unidentified status and territory located in the west of Ukraine, roughly equivalent with Zakarpatska Oblast. The epar ...
, new texts for Rusyn student readership were published. These several editions of
Ioann Kutka's primer and catechism were published in Rusyn vernacular, though with heavy influence from
Church Slavonic
Church Slavonic (, , literally "Church-Slavonic language"), also known as Church Slavic, New Church Slavonic or New Church Slavic, is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Eastern Orthodox Church in Belarus, Bosnia and Herzeg ...
.
19th century
By the 19th century, "attempts to write in a form of Russo-Church Slavonic with a Rusyn flavor, or a type of 'Subcarpathian Russian' with Rusyn phonetic features," began to be made. Notably,
Myxajlo Lučkaj's grammar of the Subcarpathian variety of Church Slavonic, ''Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena'', of 1830 had a "distinctly Rusyn flavor". And while Lučkaj did not support use of vernacular as a literary language (commenting on the proper usage of either la, label=none, lingua eruditorum et Communis plebis, translation=the languages of the learned and the languages of the common people in his ''Praefatio''), he ''did'' include examples of "Rusyn paradigms" in his work to attempt demonstrate its similarity to Church Slavonic. Lučkaj in effect sought to prove the two languages were close sisters of a common ancestor.
In 1847, Greek Catholic priest
Alexander Dukhnovych
Alexander Vasilyevich Dukhnovych ( rue, Александер Васильєвич Духновiч, ''Aleksander Vasyl’jevyč Duxnovič''; uk, Олександр Васильович Духнович, ''Oleksandr Vasylovych Dukhnovych''; sk, A ...
published the first textbook written almost fully in common Rusyn vernacular, ''Knyzhytsia chytalnaia dlia nachynaiushchykh'' (A Reader for Beginners). Further editions of the primer followed in 1850 and 1852, as well as the establishment of "the first Carpatho-Rusyn cultural organization", the
Prešov Literary Society, in 1850. Over the next four years of its existence, the Society would go on to publish a further 12 works, including Dukhnovych's ''Virtue is More Important than Riches'' (the very first play written in Carpatho-Rusyn), as well Carpatho-Rusyn's first literary anthologies in 1850, 1851, and 1852, titled ''Greetings to the Rusyns''.
Classification
The classification of the Rusyn language has historically been both linguistically and politically controversial. During the 19th century, several questions were raised among linguists, regarding the classification of
East Slavic dialects that were spoken in the northeastern (Carpathian) regions of the
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
, and also in neighbouring regions of the
Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria,, ; pl, Królestwo Galicji i Lodomerii, ; uk, Королівство Галичини та Володимирії, Korolivstvo Halychyny ta Volodymyrii; la, Rēgnum Galiciae et Lodomeriae also known as ...
. From those questions, three main theories emerged:
* Some linguists claimed that East Slavic dialects of the Carpathian region should be classified as specific varieties of the
Russian language
Russian (russian: русский язык, russkij jazyk, link=no, ) is an East Slavic languages, East Slavic language mainly spoken in Russia. It is the First language, native language of the Russians, and belongs to the Indo-European langua ...
.
* Other linguists argued that those dialects should be classified as western varieties of a distinctive
Ukrainian language
Ukrainian ( uk, украї́нська мо́ва, translit=ukrainska mova, label=native name, ) is an East Slavic language of the Indo-European language family. It is the native language of about 40 million people and the official state langu ...
.
* A third group claimed that those dialects are specific enough to be recognized as a distinctive East Slavic language.
In spite of these linguistic disputes, official terminology used by the
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy
Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1 ...
that ruled the Carpathian region remained unchanged. For Austro-Hungarian state authorities, the entire East Slavic linguistic body within the borders of the Monarchy was classified as ''
Ruthenian'' language (german: ruthenische Sprache, hu, Rutén nyelv), an archaic and
exonym
An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
ic term that remained in use until 1918.
20th century
After the
dissolution of Austria-Hungary
The dissolution of Austria-Hungary was a major geopolitical event that occurred as a result of the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts of Austria-Hungary. The reason for the collapse of the state was Worl ...
(1918), the newly proclaimed
Hungarian Republic
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
recognized Rusyn regional autonomy in Subcarpathian regions and created, at the beginning of 1919, a department for Rusyn language and literature at the
Budapest University.
By the end of 1919, the region of
Subcarpathian Ruthenia was appended to the newly formed
Czechoslovak
Czechoslovak may refer to:
*A demonym or adjective pertaining to Czechoslovakia (1918–93)
**First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–38)
**Second Czechoslovak Republic (1938–39)
**Third Czechoslovak Republic (1948–60)
**Fourth Czechoslovak Repub ...
state, as its easternmost province. During the next twenty years, linguistic debates were continued between the same three options (pro-Russian, pro-Ukrainian, and local Rusyn), with Czechoslovak state authorities occasionally acting as arbiters.
In March 1939, the region proclaimed independence under the name
Carpatho-Ukraine
Carpatho-Ukraine or Carpathian Ukraine ( uk, Карпа́тська Украї́на, Karpats’ka Ukrayina, ) was an autonomous region within the Second Czechoslovak Republic, created in December 1938 by renaming Subcarpathian Rus' whose full ...
, but it was immediately
occupied and annexed by Hungary. The region was later occupied (1944) and annexed (1945) by the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
, and incorporated into the
Ukrainian SSR
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( uk, Украї́нська Радя́нська Соціалісти́чна Респу́бліка, ; russian: Украи́нская Сове́тская Социалисти́ческая Респ ...
, which proceeded with implementation of Ukrainian linguistic standards. In Soviet Ukraine, Rusyns were not recognized as a distinctive ethnicity, and their language was considered a dialect of Ukrainian language. Poland employed similar policies, using internal deportations to move many Eastern Slavs from southeastern to newly acquired western regions (
Operation Vistula
Operation Vistula ( pl, Akcja Wisła; uk, Опера́ція «Ві́сла») was a codename for the 1947 forced resettlement of 150,000 Ukrainians (Boykos and Lemkos) from the south-eastern provinces of post-war Poland, to the Recovered Terri ...
), and switch their language to Polish, and Ukrainian at school.
During that period, the only country that was officially recognizing the Rusyn minority and its language was
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (; sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Jugoslavija, Југославија ; sl, Jugoslavija ; mk, Југославија ;; rup, Iugoslavia; hu, Jugoszlávia; rue, label=Pannonian Rusyn, Югославия, translit=Juhoslavija ...
.
Post-Soviet Developments
![Vojvodina rusyn croatian czech map](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Vojvodina_rusyn_croatian_czech_map.png)
After the
dissolution of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union, also negatively connoted as rus, Разва́л Сове́тского Сою́за, r=Razvál Sovétskogo Soyúza, ''Ruining of the Soviet Union''. was the process of internal disintegration within the Sov ...
in 1991, modern standards of minority rights were gradually applied throughout the Eastern Europe, thus affecting the attitude of several states towards the Rusyn language. As successors of Yugoslavia,
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
and
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
continued to recognize the Rusyn language as an official minority language.
Scholars with the former Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies in Moscow (now the Institute of Slavonic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) formally acknowledged Rusyn as a separate language in 1992, and trained specialists to study the language. These studies were financially supported by the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Since 1995, Rusyn has been recognized as a
minority language
A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a territory. Such people are termed linguistic minorities or language minorities. With a total number of 196 sovereign states recognized internationally (as of 2019) and ...
in
Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
, enjoying the status of an
official language
An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...
in municipalities where more than 20 percent of the inhabitants speak Rusyn.
Contemporary status
Ukrainian state authorities do not recognize
Rusyns
Rusyns (), also known as Carpatho-Rusyns (), or Rusnaks (), are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group from the Carpathian Rus', Eastern Carpathians in Central Europe. They speak Rusyn language, Rusyn, an East Slavic languages, East Slavi ...
as a separate ethnicity, regardless of Rusyn self-identification. Ukraine officially considered Rusyn a dialect of Ukrainian. In 2012, Ukraine adopted a new law, recognizing Rusyn as one of several minority and regional languages, but that law was revoked in 2014.
Rusyn is recognized as an officially protected, minority language by the
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) is a European treaty (CETS 148) adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe. However, the ...
in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and H ...
(2011),
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
(1997),
Hungary
Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia a ...
(1998),
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
(2008),
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
(as Lemko, 2009),
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
(2006), and
Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
(2002).
It is not possible to estimate accurately the number of fluent speakers of Rusyn; however, their number is estimated to be in the tens of thousands.
ISO 639-9 Identifiers
The
International Organization for Standardization
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ) is an international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Membership requirements are given in Ar ...
(ISO) has assigned the
ISO 639-3
ISO 639-3:2007, ''Codes for the representation of names of languages – Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages'', is an international standard for language codes in the ISO 639 series. It defines three-letter codes for i ...
code 'rue' for Carpathian Rusyn.
Varieties
Carpathian Rusyn varieties
The main continuum of Rusyn varieties stretches from
Transcarpathia
Transcarpathia may refer to:
Place
* relative term, designating any region beyond the Carpathians (lat. ''trans-'' / beyond, over), depending on a point of observation
* Romanian Transcarpathia, designation for Romanian regions on the inner or ...
and follows the
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
westward into
South-Eastern Poland and
Eastern Slovakia
Eastern may refer to:
Transportation
*China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai
* Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways
* Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991
*Eastern Air ...
, forming an area referred to as
Carpathian Rus'
Carpathian Ruthenia ( rue, Карпатьска Русь, Karpat'ska Rus'; uk, Закарпаття, Zakarpattia; sk, Podkarpatská Rus; hu, Kárpátalja; ro, Transcarpatia; pl, Zakarpacie); cz, Podkarpatská Rus; german: Karpatenukrai ...
. As with any language, all three major
varieties
Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats
* Variety (radio)
* Variety show, in theater and television
Films
* ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont
* ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
of Rusyn vary with respect to
phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
,
morphology
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to:
Disciplines
* Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts
* Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...
, and
syntax
In linguistics, syntax () is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure ( constituency) ...
, and have various features unique to themselves, while of course also containing their own, more local sub-varieties. The
continuum
Continuum may refer to:
* Continuum (measurement), theories or models that explain gradual transitions from one condition to another without abrupt changes
Mathematics
* Continuum (set theory), the real line or the corresponding cardinal number ...
of Rusyn is agreed to include the varieties known historically as
Lemko
Lemkos ( rue, Лeмкы, translit= Lemkŷ; pl, Łemkowie; uk, Лемки, translit=Lemky) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Lemko Region ( rue, Лемковина, translit=Lemkovyna; uk, Лемківщина, translit=Lemkivshchyna) of C ...
and
Bojko, and is also generally accepted to end at or with the
Hucul
The Hutsuls (sometimes the spelling variant: Gutsuls; uk, Гуцули, translit=Hutsuly; pl, Huculi, Hucułowie; ro, huțuli) are an ethnic group spanning parts of western Ukraine and Romania (i.e. parts of Bukovina and Maramureș). They ...
variety, which is "not included in the Rusyn continuum per se, but represent
a linguistic variant .. better seen as a dialect of Ukrainian". As the westernmost member of the family of
East Slavic languages, it has also acquired a number of
West Slavic features—unique to East Slavic languages—due to prolonged contact with the coterritorial languages of
Polish
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Poles, people from Poland or of Polish descent
* Polish chicken
*Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin screenwr ...
and
Slovak.
Literary languages
Today, there are three formally codified Rusyn
literary varieties and one de facto (Subcarpathian Rusyn). These varieties reflect the culmination of nearly two centuries of activist and academic labor, during which a literary Rusyn language was desired, discussed, and addressed (time and again) by a dedicated intelligentsia. Linguist Stefan M. Pugh notes, "...at every stage someone was thinking of writing in Rusyn; approximately every generation a grammar of some sort would be written but not find wide acceptance, primarily for reasons of a political nature (and of course logistical practicalities)."
Some of these earlier grammars include those by
Dmytrij Vyslockij (''Karpatorusskij bukvar ''), Vanja Hunjanky'' (1931),
Metodyj Trochanovskij
Metodyj Trochanovskij (Методий Трохановский; May 5, 1885, Binczarowa - February 15, 1948, Wroclaw) was a Lemko activist and teacher.
Biography
Metodyj Trochanovskij was born in Binczarowa, Poland, when it was part of the King ...
''(Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnıx škol''; 1935), and
Ivan Harajda (1941). Harajda's grammar is particularly notable for having arrived in the midst of a five-year linguistic furvor for Carpatho-Rusyn. From 1939 through 1944 an estimated 1,500 to 3,000 Rusyn-language publications (mostly centered around
Uzhhorod
Uzhhorod ( uk, У́жгород, , ; ) is a city and municipality on the river Uzh in western Ukraine, at the border with Slovakia and near the border with Hungary. The city is approximately equidistant from the Baltic, the Adriatic and the B ...
, Ukraine) entered print and from 1941 onward, Harajda's grammar was the accepted standard.
Prešov Rusyn
In Slovakia, the Prešov literary variety has been under continuous codification since 1995 when first published by Vasyl Jabur, Anna Plíšková and Kvetoslava Koporová. Its namesakes are both the city and region of Prešov, Slovakia—historically, each have been respective centers for Rusyn academia and the Rusyn population of Slovakia.
Prešov Rusyn was based on varieties of Rusyn found in a relatively compact area within the Prešov Region. Specifically, the variety is based on the language spoken in the area between the West Zemplin and East Zemplin Rusyn dialects (even more specifically: a line along the towns and villages of
Osadne,
Hostovice,
Parihuzovce,
Čukalovce
Čukalovce ( rue, Чукалівцї) is a village and municipality in Snina District in the Prešov Region of north-eastern Slovakia.
History
In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1567.
Geography
The municipality lies at an ...
,
Pcoline,
Pichne
Pichne ( rue, Пыхнї) is a village and municipality in Snina District in the Prešov Region of north-eastern Slovakia.
History
In historical records the village was first mentioned in 1312.
Geography
The municipality lies at an altitude of ...
,
Nechvalova Polianka,
Zubne,
Nizna Jablonka,
Vysna Jablonka,
Svetlice, and
Zbojne). And though the many Rusyn dialects of Slovakia entirely surpass the limited set of features prescribed in the standard, this comparatively small sample size was consciously chosen by codifiers in order to provide a structured ecosystem within which a variety of written and spoken language would inevitably (and already did) thrive.
Its orthography is largely based on
Zhelekhivka
Zhelekhivka ( uk, Желехі́вка) was Ukrainian phonetic orthography in Western Ukraine from 1886 to 1922 (sometimes until the 1940s), created by on the basis of the Civil Script and phonetic spelling common in the Ukrainian language at tha ...
, a late 19th century variety of the Ukrainian alphabet.
Lemko-Rusyn
In Poland, a standard
Lemko-Rusyn grammar and dictionary were published in 2000 by
Mirosława Chomiak and
Henryk Fontański, with a second edition issued in 2004.
Subcarpathian Rusyn
In Transcarpathia, Ukraine, M. Alamašij's and Igor Kerča's ''Materyns'kyj jazyk - pysemnycja rusyns'koho jazyka'', serves as the ''de facto'' literary standard for Subcarpathian, though "unofficial". Published in 1999, with a second edition in 2004, and a 58,000 word Rusyn-Russian dictionary in 2007, Kerča's work has been used by prominent Rusyn publishers in Uzhorod—albeit with variations between published works that are typical of the spoken language.
= Common usage
=
Despite the above codified varieties, many Carpatho-Rusyn publications will use a combination of the three Carpathian standards (most notably in Hungary and in Transcarpathia). There have even attempts to revitalize the pre-war etymological orthography with archaic Cyrillic orthography (i.e. usage of the letter ѣ, or ''yat); the latter can be observed throughout Rusyn Wikipedia, where even a single article may be written in several different codified varieties. And while somewhat archaic, used of Harajda's grammar is even promoted by some in
Rusyn Wikipedia (although parts of the articles are written using other standards).
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn, has variously been referred to as an incredible distinct dialect of Carpathian Rusyn or a separate language altogether. In the
ISO 639-9 identifier application for Pannonian Rusyn (or "Ruthenian" as it is referred to in that document), the authors note that "Ruthenian is closest to
linguistic entity sometimes called
, ... (the speeches of
Trebišov
Trebišov ( hu, Tőketerebes; german: Trebischau; russian: Требишев) is a small industrial town in the easternmost part of Slovakia, with a population of around 25,000. The town is an administrative, economic and cultural center with machi ...
and
Prešov
Prešov (, hu, Eperjes, Rusyn language, Rusyn and Ukrainian language, Ukrainian: Пряшів) is a city in Eastern Slovakia. It is the seat of administrative Prešov Region ( sk, Prešovský kraj) and Šariš, as well as the historic Sáros Cou ...
istricts."
Literary language
The literary variety of Serbian and Croatian Rusyns is, again, significantly different from the above three Carpathian varieties in both vocabulary and grammar. It was first standardized in 1923 by G. Kostelnik. The modern standard has been continuously developed since the 1980s by Julian Ramač, Helena Međeši and Mihajlo Fejsa of Serbia, and Mihály Káprály of Hungary.
Phonology
Consonants
A soft consonant combination sound [] exists more among the northern and western dialects. In the eastern dialects the sound is recognized as [], including the area on which the standard dialect is based. It is noted that a combination sound like this one, could have evolved into a soft fricative sound [].
Vowels
* // and // tend to be more towards centralized as [], [].
Grammar
Noun declension
Declension in Rusyn is based on grammatical
number
A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual numbers c ...
,
gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures u ...
, and
case.
Like English, only two types of grammatical number are expressed: singular and
plural
The plural (sometimes abbreviated pl., pl, or ), in many languages, is one of the values of the grammatical category of number. The plural of a noun typically denotes a quantity greater than the default quantity represented by that noun. This de ...
. And like other Slavic languages, Rusyn has three grammatical genders: feminine, masculine, and neuter. Furthermore, like those languages, Rusyn uses a seven-case system of
nominative
In grammar, the nominative case (abbreviated ), subjective case, straight case or upright case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or (in Latin and formal variants of Engl ...
,
accusative
The accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: 'me,' 'him,' 'her,' 'us,' and ‘the ...
,
genitive
In grammar, the genitive case (abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can al ...
,
dative
In grammar, the dative case (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "Maria Jacobo potum dedit", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a ...
,
locative
In grammar, the locative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by". The locative case belongs to the general local cases, together with the ...
,
instrumental
An instrumental is a recording normally without any vocals, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a big band setting. Through semantic widening, a broader sense of the word song may refer to instru ...
, and
vocative
In grammar, the vocative Grammatical case, case (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed, or occasionally for the noun modifiers ...
cases.
One final point of note is that the masculine gender (and only the masculine gender) is further subdivided into
animate and inanimate types. While there are no
suffix
In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry ...
es ''specific'' to animacy, declension between the two differs in that for ''animates'', the form of the accusative case copies that of the genitive case.
Grammatical cases
As mentioned in the preceding section, Rusyn cases are similar to those of other Slavic languages. A ''very general'' summary of usage is given in the table below, though proper usage depends on a particular situation, prepositions, and verbs used, as well as other extenuating circumstances.
Nouns will generally decline differently to indicate each case (e.g. English ''they/them/their/theirs''). Based on ''how'' they decline, nouns can be grouped into one of four "types".
* Type I: feminine nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular
* Type II:
** masculine nouns ending in a consonant in the nominative singular
** neuter and masculine nouns ending in a consonant or -o in the nominative singular
** neuters ending in -e or -а/-я in the nominative singular
* Type III:
** feminine nouns ending in a ''paired consonant'' (-cons.+ь), an ''unpaired
palato-alveolar consonant'' (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж), or -ов in the nominative singular
** the feminine noun rue, label=none, translit-std=BGN/PCGN, мати, maty, mother
* Type IV: neuter nouns ending in -а/-я in the nominative singular
Declension type I: feminines ending in -а/-я
This type consists of grammatically feminine nouns ending in -а (hard) or -я (
soft) in the nominative case. The table below includes four examples of such nouns. The first two represent the ''archetypal'' feminine paradigm, while the second two represent a "common" or "two-fold gender" paradigm.
It is important to note that this second paradigm has atypical dative, locative, and instrumental singular suffixes which are actually representative of the male/neuter declension paradigm (visible later in this article). According to Pugh, this peculiarity developed as a result of the societal roles of "judge" and "elder" being traditionally patriarchal. This phenomenon is in contrast to grammatically feminine nouns of ambiguous gender where a particular role was not historically male-oriented, such as rue, label=none, сирота, orphan. In these cases, the typical feminine paradigm is ''maintained''.
Declension type II: masculines and neuters
This declension type encompasses a very large set of vocabulary as it contains nouns of both masculine and neuter genders, hard and soft stems, as well as animate and inanimate beings (for the masculine gender).
= Masculines ending in consonants
=
This declension contains a large amount of identical forms (
syncretism
Syncretism () is the practice of combining different beliefs and various school of thought, schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merging or religious assimilation, assimilation of several originally discrete traditions, especially in t ...
) between cases. Depending on the noun, the number of distinct forms may number from as few as 3 to as many as 6. For singular animate nouns, there is a single form for the accusative and genitive cases, as well as a single form for the dative and locative cases. Similarly, singular inanimate nouns share a form for nominative and locative cases.
= Neuters or masculines ending in -o, neuters ending in -e or -а/-я
=
The following table demonstrates the declension paradigm for nouns with hard stems which end in -o in the nominative case. Though there are some masculine nouns in this category, these nouns are predominantly neuter.
Declension type III: other feminines
All nouns in this type are feminine. The paradigm can be identified by the following suffixes in the nominative singular case: a ''paired consonant'' (-cons.+ь), an ''unpaired
palato-alveolar consonant'' (-ш, -ч, щ, -ж, or -дж), or the suffix -ов. Additionally, the noun rue, label=none, translit-std=BGN/PCGN, мати, maty, mother is also part of this type.
Declension type IV: neuters ending in -а/-я
This declension paradigm is used very rarely. It entirely consists of grammatically neuter nouns. This paradigm can be identified by the -a suffix in the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the appearance of the
affix
In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ar ...
-t- between the stem and suffix in other cases. There is ''no variation'' in this paradigm: all nouns decline in an identical manner.
Type IV is predominantly made up of words referring to the young of animals and humans. However, this should not be taken as a hard rule as some nouns which ''historically'' declined differently (e.g. rue, label=none, translit-std=BGN/PCGN, вымя, vŷmja, udder and rue, label=none, translit-std=BGN/PCGN, горня, hornja, cup, mug), now decline according to this paradigm instead.
Verbal conjugation
Verbs may be divided into two major conjugation types, which may be identified based on the "stem-marker" that appears during conjugation. Unfortunately, the
infinitive
Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
verb forms are often ambiguous and as such, there is no ''general'' system that allows an infinitive to be identified as either Type I or Type II. Some infinitive suffixes, however, are unique to at least Type I, i.e. -ути, -овати, -нути, etc. In the following sections, the stem-markers are given in Latin as Cyrillic often obscures the markers in the conjugated forms.
Conjugation type I
Type I may be divided into several sub-types, the most notable of which are the ''vowel+j'' stem-markers: -uj-, -ij-, -yj-, etc. It is important to remember that in the infinitive and some conjugations that the consonant, -j-, is truncated when followed by another consonant, e.g. ''-aj-ty → -a-ty''.
= UJ stem markers
=
The -uj- set of verbs can be divided into two groups based the presence of the suffixal markers -ova- or -uj- in the infinitive. The former group representing the overwhelming majority of verbs in this type.
= IJ stem markers
=
= YJ stem markers
=
= ЫJ stem markers
=
= A(J) stem markers
=
= AVA stem markers
=
= A stem markers
=
= NU stem markers
=
= Non-syllabic stem markers
=
= Consonant stems
=
Conjugation type II
= Y-type I
=
= Y-type II
=
= I-type
=
= Palato-Alveolar Stems
=
Irregular Verbs
Alphabet
Each of the Rusyn standard varieties has its own
Cyrillic
, bg, кирилица , mk, кирилица , russian: кириллица , sr, ћирилица, uk, кирилиця
, fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs
, fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic
, fam3 = Phoenician
, fam4 = G ...
alphabet. The table below shows the Rusyn alphabet of the
Prešov
Prešov (, hu, Eperjes, Rusyn language, Rusyn and Ukrainian language, Ukrainian: Пряшів) is a city in Eastern Slovakia. It is the seat of administrative Prešov Region ( sk, Prešovský kraj) and Šariš, as well as the historic Sáros Cou ...
Standard, with notes on other varieties. The alphabets of the other Carpathian Rusyn varieties,
Lemko
Lemkos ( rue, Лeмкы, translit= Lemkŷ; pl, Łemkowie; uk, Лемки, translit=Lemky) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Lemko Region ( rue, Лемковина, translit=Lemkovyna; uk, Лемківщина, translit=Lemkivshchyna) of C ...
Rusyn and
Subcarpathian Rusyn, differ from the Prešov Standard in lacking
ё and
ї. For the
Pannonian Rusyn
Pannonian Rusyn ( rsk, label=Pannonian Rusyn, руски язик, translit=ruski jazik), also historically referred to as Yugoslav Rusyn, is a variety of the Rusyn language, spoken by the Pannonian Rusyns, primarily in the regions of Vojvodina ...
alphabet, see .
Romanization
Romanization or romanisation, in linguistics, is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and ...
(transliteration) is given according to
ALA-LC
ALA-LC (American Library AssociationLibrary of Congress) is a set of standards for romanization, the representation of text in other writing systems using the Latin script.
Applications
The system is used to represent bibliographic information by ...
, BGN/PCGN, generic European, ISO/R9 1968 (IDS), and
ISO 9
ISO 9 is an international standard establishing a system for the transliteration into Latin characters of Cyrillic characters constituting the alphabets of many Slavic and non-Slavic languages.
Published on February 23, 1995 by the International ...
.
})
or ірь
, ′ , , ’ , , ' , , ′ , , ′ , ,
, -
,
Ъ , , ъ , , твердый знак (ір)
, ″ , , ’ , , " , , – , , ″ , ,
Usage notes
Number of letters and relationship to the Ukrainian alphabet
The Prešov Rusyn alphabet of Slovakia has 36 letters. It includes all the letters of the
Ukrainian alphabet
The Ukrainian alphabet ( uk, абе́тка, áзбука алфа́ві́т, abetka, azbuka alfavit) is the set of letters used to write Ukrainian, which is the official language of Ukraine. It is one of several national variations of the C ...
plus
ё,
ы, and
ъ.
The Lemko Rusyn alphabet of Poland has 34 letters. It includes all the Ukrainian letters with the exception of
ї, plus ы and ъ.
The
Pannonian Rusyn alphabet has 32 letters, namely all the Ukrainian letters except
і.
Alphabetical order
The Rusyn alphabets all place
ь after
я, as the
Ukrainian alphabet
The Ukrainian alphabet ( uk, абе́тка, áзбука алфа́ві́т, abetka, azbuka alfavit) is the set of letters used to write Ukrainian, which is the official language of Ukraine. It is one of several national variations of the C ...
did until 1990. The vast majority of
Cyrillic alphabets
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the Byzantine theologians Saints Cyril and Methodius, Cyril ...
place ь before
э (if present),
ю, and я.
The Lemko and Prešov Rusyn alphabets place
ъ at the very end, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after
щ. They also place
ы before
й, while the vast majority of Cyrillic alphabets place it after
ш, щ (if present), and ъ (if present).
In the Prešov Rusyn alphabet,
і and
ї come before
и, and likewise, і comes before и in the Lemko Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have ї). In the Ukrainian alphabet, however, и precedes і and ї, and the
Pannonian Rusyn alphabet (which doesn't have і) follows this precedent by placing и before ї.
Newspapers
* ''
Amerikansky Russky Viestnik
''Amerikansky Russky Viestnik'' (1892–1952) was the longest-running Rusyn-American newspaper in the United States.
The paper was the official publication of the Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods, a fraternal benefit society based in Pe ...
'' (defunct)
*''
Besida
''Besida'' ( rue, Бесіда) is a journal edited by Petro Trochanowski in Krynica, Poland. It is known as a source of information about the Lemko people.
References
1989 establishments in Poland
Magazines established in 1989
Quarterly ...
'', a Lemko journal
*''
Karpatska Rus'
''Karpatska Rus (Карпатска Русь) is a Rusyn language newspaper published in the United States for the Rusyn-speaking Lemko immigrant community. It is the successor to ''Lemko'', which began publication in 1927.
Originally, the ...
''
*Lem.fm, Gorlice, Poland
* ''
Lemko
Lemkos ( rue, Лeмкы, translit= Lemkŷ; pl, Łemkowie; uk, Лемки, translit=Lemky) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Lemko Region ( rue, Лемковина, translit=Lemkovyna; uk, Лемківщина, translit=Lemkivshchyna) of C ...
'', Philadelphia, US (defunct)
*''Narodnȳ novynkȳ'' (Народны новинкы)
* ''Podkarpatská Rus'' (Подкарпатська Русь)
*Ruske slovo (Руске слово), Ruski Krstur, Serbia
*''Rusnatsi u Shvetse'' (Руснаци у Швеце)
* ''Rusynska besida'' (Русинська бесіда)
See also
*
Alexander Duchnovič's Theatre
*
Eastern Slovak dialects
Eastern Slovak dialects ( sk, východoslovenské nárečia, východniarčina), are dialects of the Slovak language spoken natively in the historical regions of Spiš, Šariš, Zemplín and Abov, in the east of Slovakia. In contrast to other dia ...
*
Petro Trochanowski
Petro Trochanowski or Piotr Trochanowski (born 10 August 1947) was born in Parchów, Silesia in the southwestern part of Poland to Lemko parents from Binczarowa. He is the editor of ''Besida'', published in Krynica since 1989. He is a spokespe ...
, contemporary Rusyn poet
*
Metodyj Trochanovskij
Metodyj Trochanovskij (Методий Трохановский; May 5, 1885, Binczarowa - February 15, 1948, Wroclaw) was a Lemko activist and teacher.
Biography
Metodyj Trochanovskij was born in Binczarowa, Poland, when it was part of the King ...
, Lemko Grammarian
*
Iazychie
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Aleksandr Dmitrievich Dulichenko. ''Jugoslavo-Ruthenica. Роботи з рускей филолоґиї.'' Нови Сад 1995.
*
* Геровский Г.Ю. Язык Подкарпатской Руси – Москва, 1995
*
*
* Taras Kuzio,
The Rusyn question in Ukraine: sorting out fact from fiction, Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, XXXII (2005)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
ttps://uk.wiktionary.org/wiki/Додаток:Русинсько-український_словник Rusyn-Ukrainian DictionaryLemko-Rusyn Language Course (in Polish and Lemko)
{{Use dmy dates, date=April 2020
Rusyns
Rusyn language
East Slavic languages
Rusyn culture
Languages of Ukraine
Languages of Poland
Vulnerable languages