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The English modal verbs are a subset of the
English auxiliary verbs English auxiliary verbs are a small set of English verbs, which include the English modal verbs and a few others. Although definitions vary, as generally conceived an auxiliary lacks inherent semantic meaning but instead modifies the meaning of an ...
used mostly to express
modality Modality may refer to: Humanities * Modality (theology), the organization and structure of the church, as distinct from sodality or parachurch organizations * Modality (music), in music, the subject concerning certain diatonic scales * Modalitie ...
(properties such as possibility, obligation, etc.). They can be distinguished from other verbs by their defectiveness (they do not have
participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
or
infinitive Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
forms) and by their neutralizationQuirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Jan Svartvik, & Geoffrey Leech. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman. (that they do not take the ending ''-(e)s'' in the third-person singular). The principal English modal verbs are ''can'', ''could'', ''may'', ''might'', ''shall'', ''should'', ''will'', ''would'', and ''must''. Certain other verbs are sometimes classed as modals; these include ''ought'', ''had better'', and (in certain uses) ''dare'' and ''need''. Verbs which share only some of the characteristics of the principal modals are sometimes called "quasi-modals", "semi-modals", or "pseudo-modals".


Modal verbs and their features

The verbs customarily classed as modals in English have the following properties: * They do not
inflect In linguistic morphology, inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and def ...
(in the modern language) except insofar as some of them come in present–past (present–
preterite The preterite or preterit (; abbreviated or ) is a grammatical tense or verb form serving to denote events that took place or were completed in the past; in some languages, such as Spanish, French, and English, it is equivalent to the simple pas ...
) pairs. They do not add the ending ''-(e)s'' in the third-person singular (the present-tense modals therefore follow the
preterite-present The Germanic language family is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It in turn divided into North, West and East Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of mediaeval and modern lan ...
paradigm). * They are
defective Defective may refer to:: *Defective matrix, in algebra *Defective verb, in linguistics *Defective, or ''haser'', in Hebrew orthography, a spelling variant that does not include mater lectionis *Something presenting an anomaly, such as a product de ...
: they are not used as
infinitive Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
s or
participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...
s (except occasionally in non-standard English; see below), nor as imperatives, nor (in the standard way) as
subjunctive The subjunctive (also known as conjunctive in some languages) is a grammatical mood, a feature of the utterance that indicates the speaker's attitude towards it. Subjunctive forms of verbs are typically used to express various states of unreality ...
s. * They function as
auxiliary verb An auxiliary verb (abbreviated ) is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which it occurs, so as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary verbs usually accompany an infinitive verb or a p ...
s: they modify the modality of another verb, which they govern. This verb generally appears as a bare infinitive, although in some definitions, a modal verb can also govern the ''to''-infinitive (as in the case of ''ought''). * They have the
syntactic In linguistics, syntax () is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituency), ...
properties associated with auxiliary verbs in English, principally that they can undergo
subject–auxiliary inversion Subject–auxiliary inversion (SAI; also called subject–operator inversion) is a frequently occurring type of inversion in English, whereby a finite auxiliary verb – taken here to include finite forms of the copula ''be'' – appears to "inve ...
(in questions, for example) and can be negated by the appending of ''not'' after the verb. The following verbs have all of the above properties, and can be classed as the principal modal verbs of English. They are listed here in present–preterite pairs where applicable: * ''can'' and ''could'' * ''may'' and ''might'' * ''shall'' and ''should'' * ''will'' and ''would'' * ''must'' (no preterite; see
etymology Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...
below) Note that the preterite forms are not necessarily used to refer to past time, and in some cases, they are near-synonyms to the present forms. Note that most of these so-called preterite forms are most often used in the
subjunctive mood The subjunctive (also known as conjunctive in some languages) is a grammatical mood, a feature of the utterance that indicates the speaker's attitude towards it. Subjunctive forms of verbs are typically used to express various states of unreality ...
in the present tense. The auxiliary verbs ''may'' and ''let'' are also used often in the subjunctive mood. Famous examples of these are "May The Force be with you." and "Let God bless you with good." These are both sentences that express some uncertainty; hence they are subjunctive sentences. The verbs listed below mostly share the above features but with certain differences. They are sometimes, but not always, categorized as modal verbs. They may also be called "semi-modals". * The verb ''ought'' differs from the principal modals only in that it governs a ''to''-infinitive rather than a bare infinitive (compare ''he should go'' with ''he ought to go''). * The verbs ''dare'' and ''need'' can be used as modals, often in the negative (''Dare he fight?''; ''You dare not do that.''; ''You need not go.''), although they are more commonly found in constructions where they appear as ordinary inflected verbs (''He dares to fight''; ''You don't need to go''). There is also a dialect verb, nearly obsolete but sometimes heard in
Appalachia Appalachia () is a cultural region in the Eastern United States that stretches from the Southern Tier of New York State to northern Alabama and Georgia. While the Appalachian Mountains stretch from Belle Isle in Newfoundland and Labrador, Ca ...
and the
Deep South The Deep South or the Lower South is a cultural and geographic subregion in the Southern United States. The term was first used to describe the states most dependent on plantations and slavery prior to the American Civil War. Following the war ...
of the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
: ''darest'', which means "dare not", as in "You darest do that." * The verb ''had'' in the expression ''had better'' behaves like a modal verb, hence ''had better'' (considered as a
compound verb In linguistics, a compound verb or complex predicate is a multi-word compound that functions as a single verb. One component of the compound is a ''light verb'' or ''vector'', which carries any inflections, indicating tense, mood, or aspect, bu ...
) is sometimes classed as a modal or semi-modal. * The verb ''used'' in the expression ''used to (do something)'' can behave as a modal, but is more often used with ''do''-support than with auxiliary-verb syntax: ''Did she used to do it?'' (or ''Did she use to do it?'') and ''She didn't used to do it'' (or ''She didn't use to do it'') are more common than ''Used she to do it?'' and ''She used not (usedn't) to do it''. Other
English auxiliaries English auxiliary verbs are a small set of English verbs, which include the English modal verbs and a few others. Although definitions vary, as generally conceived an auxiliary lacks inherent semantic meaning but instead modifies the meaning of an ...
appear in a variety of different forms and are not regarded as modal verbs. These are: * ''be'', used as an auxiliary in
passive voice A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the ''theme'' or ''patient'' of the main verb – that is, the person or thing t ...
and
continuous aspect The continuous and progressive aspects (abbreviated and ) are grammatical aspects that express incomplete action ("to do") or state ("to be") in progress at a specific time: they are non-habitual, imperfective aspects. In the grammars of many l ...
constructions; it follows auxiliary-verb syntax even when used as a copula, and in auxiliary-like formations such as ''be
going to The ''going-to'' future is a grammatical construction used in English to refer to various types of future occurrences. It is made using appropriate forms of the expression ''to be going to''.Fleischman, Suzanne, ''The Future in Thought and Langua ...
'', ''is to'' and ''be about to''; * ''have'', used as an auxiliary in
perfect aspect The perfect tense or aspect (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated or ) is a verb form that indicates that an action or circumstance occurred earlier than the time under consideration, often focusing attention on the resulting state rather ...
constructions, including the idiom ''
have got This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
(to)''; it is also used in ''have to'', which has modal meaning, but here (as when denoting
possession Possession may refer to: Law * Dependent territory, an area of land over which another country exercises sovereignty, but which does not have the full right of participation in that country's governance * Drug possession, a crime * Ownership * ...
) ''have'' only rarely follows auxiliary-verb syntax (see also ' below); * ''do''; see ''do''-support. For more general information about English verb inflection and auxiliary usage, see
English verbs Verbs constitute one of the main parts of speech (word classes) in the English language. Like other types of words in the language, English verbs are not heavily inflected. Most combinations of tense, aspect, mood and voice are expressed perip ...
and
English clause syntax This article describes the syntax of clauses in the English language, chiefly in Modern English. A clause is often said to be the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. But this semantic idea of a clause leaves out ...
. For details of the uses of the particular modals, see below.


Etymology

The modals ''can'' and ''could'' are from Old English ''can(n)'' and ''cuþ'', which were respectively present and preterite forms of the verb '' cunnan'' ("to be able"). The silent ''l'' in the spelling of ''could'' results from analogy with ''would'' and ''should''. Similarly, ''may'' and ''might'' are from Old English ''mæg'' and ''meahte'', respectively present and preterite forms of ''
magan Magan may refer to: Places *Magan (civilization), also written Makan or Makkan, an ancient region referred to in Sumerian texts *Magan, Russia, a rural locality (a ''selo'') in the Sakha Republic, Russia *Magan Airport, an airport in the Sakha Re ...
'' ("may, to be able"); ''shall'' and ''should'' are from ''sceal'' and ''sceolde'', respectively present and preterite forms of '' sculan'' ("to owe, be obliged"); and ''will'' and ''would'' are from ''wille'' and ''wolde'', respectively present and preterite forms of ''
willan Willan is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: *Anne Willan (born 1938), founded the Ecole de Cuisine La Varenne *Frank Willan (1915–1981), English pilot, Royal Air Force officer and Conservative politician *Frank Willan (rower) (1 ...
'' ("to wish, want"). The aforementioned Old English verbs ''cunnan'', ''magan'', ''sculan'', and ''willan'' followed the
preterite-present The Germanic language family is one of the language groups that resulted from the breakup of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). It in turn divided into North, West and East Germanic groups, and ultimately produced a large group of mediaeval and modern lan ...
paradigm (or, in the case of ''willan'', a similar but irregular paradigm), which explains the absence of the ending ''-s'' in the third person on the present forms ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'', and ''will''. (The original Old English forms given above were first and third person singular forms; their descendant forms became generalized to all persons and numbers.) The verb ''must'' comes from Old English ''moste'', part of the verb '' motan'' ("to be able to, be obliged to"). This was another preterite-present verb, of which ''moste'' was in fact the preterite (the present form ''mot'' gave rise to '' mote'', which was used as a modal verb in Early Modern English; but ''must'' has now lost its past connotations and has replaced ''mote''). Similarly, ''ought'' was originally a past form—it derives from ''ahte'', preterite of ''
agan The Agan (russian: Аган) is a river in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug in Russia. It is long, and its basin covers . Course The Agan is a left tributary of the Tromyogan, of the Ob basin. To the south of its course lies the basin of the Vat ...
'' ("to own"), another Old English preterite-present verb, whose present tense form ''ah'' has also given the modern (regular) verb ''owe'' (and ''ought'' was formerly used as a past tense of ''owe''). The verb ''dare'' also originates from a preterite-present verb, ''durran'' ("to dare"), specifically its present tense ''dear(r)'', although in its non-modal uses in Modern English it is conjugated regularly. However, ''need'' comes from the regular Old English verb ''neodian'' (meaning "to be necessary")—the alternative third person form ''need'' (in place of ''needs''), which has become the norm in modal uses, became common in the 16th century.


Syntax

A modal verb serves as an auxiliary to another verb, which appears in the
infinitive Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
form (the bare infinitive, or the ''to''-infinitive in the cases of ''ought'' and ''used'' as discussed above). Examples: ''You must escape''; ''This may be difficult''. The verb governed by the modal may be another auxiliary (necessarily one that can appear in infinitive form—this includes ''be'' and ''have'', but not another modal, except in the non-standard cases described below under ). Hence a modal may introduce a chain (technically
catena Catena (Latin for chain) or catenae (plural) may refer to: Science * ''Catena'' (fly), a genus in the family Tachinidae *Catena (linguistics) is a unit of syntax and morphology, closely associated with dependency grammars * Catena (computing), nu ...
) of verb forms, in which the other auxiliaries express properties such as
aspect Aspect or Aspects may refer to: Entertainment * ''Aspect magazine'', a biannual DVD magazine showcasing new media art * Aspect Co., a Japanese video game company * Aspects (band), a hip hop group from Bristol, England * ''Aspects'' (Benny Carter ...
and
voice The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal tract, including talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, shouting, humming or yelling. The human voice frequency is specifically a part of human sound production in ...
, as in ''He must have been given a new job''. Modals can appear in tag questions and other elliptical sentences without the governed verb being expressed: ''...can he?''; ''I mustn't.''; ''Would they?'' Like other auxiliaries, modal verbs are
negated In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a proposition P to another proposition "not P", written \neg P, \mathord P or \overline. It is interpreted intuitively as being true when P is false, and false ...
by the addition of the word ''not'' after them. (The modification of meaning may not always correspond to simple negation, as in the case of ''must not''.) The modal word ''can'' combine with ''not'' forms the single word ''cannot''. Most of the modals have contracted negated forms in ''n't'' which are commonly used in informal English: ''can't'', ''mustn't'', ''won't'' (from ''will''), etc. Again like other auxiliaries, modal verbs undergo inversion with their subject, in forming questions and in the other cases described in the article on
subject–auxiliary inversion Subject–auxiliary inversion (SAI; also called subject–operator inversion) is a frequently occurring type of inversion in English, whereby a finite auxiliary verb – taken here to include finite forms of the copula ''be'' – appears to "inve ...
: ''Could you do this?''; ''On no account may you enter.'' When there is negation, the contraction with ''n't'' may undergo inversion as an auxiliary in its own right: ''Why can't I come in?'' (or: ''Why can I not come in?''). More information on these topics can be found at
English clause syntax This article describes the syntax of clauses in the English language, chiefly in Modern English. A clause is often said to be the smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. But this semantic idea of a clause leaves out ...
.


Past forms

The preterite (past) forms given above (''could'', ''might'', ''should'', and ''would'', corresponding to ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'', and ''will'', respectively) do not always simply modify the meaning of the modal to give it past time reference. The only one regularly used as an ordinary
past tense The past tense is a grammatical tense whose function is to place an action or situation in the past. Examples of verbs in the past tense include the English verbs ''sang'', ''went'' and ''washed''. Most languages have a past tense, with some hav ...
is ''could'', when referring to ability: ''I could swim'' may serve as a past form of ''I can swim''. All the preterites are used as past equivalents for the corresponding present modals in
indirect speech In linguistics, indirect speech (also reported speech or indirect discourse) is a grammatical mechanism for reporting the content of another utterance without directly quoting it. For example, the English sentence ''Jill said she was coming'' i ...
and similar clauses requiring the rules of
sequence of tenses The sequence of tenses (known in Latin as ''consecutio temporum'', and also known as agreement of tenses, succession of tenses and tense harmony) is a set of grammatical rules of a particular language, governing the agreement between the tenses of ...
to be applied. For example, in 1960, it might have been said that ''People think that we will all be driving hovercars by the year 2000'', whereas at a later date it might be reported that ''In 1960, people thought we would all be driving hovercars by the year 2000.'' This "future-in-the-past" (also known as the past prospective, see: prospective) usage of ''would'' can also occur in independent sentences: ''I moved to Green Gables in 1930; I would live there for the next ten years.'' In many cases, in order to give modals past reference, they are used together with a "perfect infinitive", namely the auxiliary ''have'' and a past participle, as in ''I should have asked her''; ''You may have seen me''. Sometimes these expressions are limited in meaning; for example, ''must have'' can refer only to certainty, whereas past obligation is expressed by an alternative phrase such as ''had to'' (see below).


Conditional sentences

The preterite forms of modals are used in
counterfactual conditional Counterfactual conditionals (also ''subjunctive'' or ''X-marked'') are conditional sentences which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactua ...
sentences, in the apodosis (''then''-clause). The modal ''would'' (sometimes ''should'' as a first-person alternative) is used to produce the conditional construction which is typically used in clauses of this type: ''If you loved me, you would support me.'' It can be replaced by ''could'' (meaning "would be able to") and ''might'' (meaning "would possibly") as appropriate. When the clause has past time reference, the construction with the modal plus perfect infinitive (see above) is used: ''If they (had) wanted to do it, they would (could/might) have done it by now.'' (The ''would have done'' construction is called the
conditional perfect The conditional perfect is a grammatical construction that combines the conditional mood with perfect aspect. A typical example is the English ''would have written''.Gail Stein, ''Webster's New World Spanish Grammar Handbook'', John Wiley & Sons, 20 ...
.) The
protasis In drama, a protasis is the introductory part of a play, usually its first act. The term was coined by the fourth-century Roman grammarian Aelius Donatus. He defined a play as being made up of three separate parts, the other two being epitasis and ...
(''if''-clause) of such a sentence typically contains the past tense of a verb (or the
past perfect The pluperfect (shortening of plusquamperfect), usually called past perfect in English, is a type of verb form, generally treated as a grammatical tense in certain languages, relating to an action that occurred prior to an aforementioned time i ...
construction, in the case of past time reference), without any modal. The modal ''could'' may be used here in its role as the past tense of ''can'' (''if I could speak French''). However all the modal preterites can be used in such clauses with certain types of hypothetical future reference: ''if I should lose'' or ''should I lose'' (equivalent to ''if I lose''); ''if you would/might/could stop doing that'' (usually used as a form of request). Sentences with the verb ''wish'' (and expressions of wish using ''if only...'') follow similar patterns to the ''if''-clauses referred to above, when they have counterfactual present or past reference. When they express a desired event in the near future, the modal ''would'' is used: ''I wish you would visit me''; ''If only he would give me a sign.'' For more information see
English conditional sentences Prototypical conditional sentences in English are those of the form ''"If X, then Y".'' The clause ''X'' is referred to as the ''antecedent'' (or ''protasis''), while the clause ''Y'' is called the ''consequent'' (or ''apodosis''). A conditional ...
and
English subjunctive While the English language lacks distinct inflections for mood, an English subjunctive is recognized in most grammars. Definition and scope of the concept vary widely across the literature, but it is generally associated with the description of ...
.


Replacements for defective forms

As noted above, English modal verbs are
defective Defective may refer to:: *Defective matrix, in algebra *Defective verb, in linguistics *Defective, or ''haser'', in Hebrew orthography, a spelling variant that does not include mater lectionis *Something presenting an anomaly, such as a product de ...
in that they do not have infinitive, participle, imperative, or (standard) subjunctive forms, and, in some cases, past forms. However in many cases there exist equivalent expressions that carry the same meaning as the modal, and can be used to supply the missing forms. In particular: *The modals ''can'' and ''could'', in their meanings expressing ability, can be replaced by ''am/is/are able to'' and ''was/were able to''. Additional forms can thus be supplied: the infinitive ''(to) be able to'', the subjunctive and (rarely) imperative ''be able to'', and the participles ''being able to'' and ''been able to''. *The modals ''may'' and ''might'', in their meanings expressing permission, can be replaced by ''am/is/are allowed to'' and ''was/were allowed to''. *The modal ''must'' in most meanings can be replaced by ''have/has to''. This supplies the past and past participle form ''had to'', and other forms ''(to) have to'', ''having to''. *''Will'' can be replaced by ''am/is/are going to''. This can supply the past and other forms: ''was/were going to'', ''(to) be going to'', ''being/been going to''. *The modals ''should'' and ''ought to'' might be replaced by ''am/is/are supposed to'', thus supplying the forms ''was/were supposed to'', ''(to) be supposed to'', ''being/been supposed to''.


Contractions and reduced pronunciation

As already mentioned, most of the modals in combination with ''not'' form commonly used
contraction Contraction may refer to: Linguistics * Contraction (grammar), a shortened word * Poetic contraction, omission of letters for poetic reasons * Elision, omission of sounds ** Syncope (phonology), omission of sounds in a word * Synalepha, merged ...
s: ''can't'', ''won't'', etc. Some of the modals also have contracted forms themselves: * The verb ''will'' is often contracted to '' 'll''; the same contraction may also represent ''shall''. * The verb ''would'' (or ''should'', when used as a first-person equivalent of ''would'') is often contracted to ''d''. * The ''had'' of ''had better'' is also often contracted to ''d''. (The same contraction is also used for other cases of ''had'' as an auxiliary.) Certain of the modals generally have a weak pronunciation when they are not stressed or otherwise prominent; for example, ''can'' is usually pronounced . The same applies to certain words following modals, particularly auxiliary ''have'': a combination like ''should have'' is normally reduced to or just "shoulda". Also ''ought to'' can become "oughta". See
weak and strong forms in English Stress is a prominent feature of the English language, both at the level of the word ''(lexical stress)'' and at the level of the phrase or sentence ''(prosodic stress)''. Absence of stress on a syllable, or on a word in some cases, is frequently ...
.


Usage of specific verbs


''Can'' and ''could''

The modal verb ''can'' expresses possibility in a
dynamic Dynamics (from Greek δυναμικός ''dynamikos'' "powerful", from δύναμις ''dynamis'' "power") or dynamic may refer to: Physics and engineering * Dynamics (mechanics) ** Aerodynamics, the study of the motion of air ** Analytical dynam ...
,
deontic In moral philosophy, deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek language, Greek: + ) is the normative ethics, normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a s ...
, or
epistemic Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...
sense, that is, in terms of innate ability, permissibility, or possible circumstance. For example: *''I can speak English'' means "I am able to speak English" or "I know how to speak English." *''You can smoke here'' means "you may (are permitted to) smoke here" (in formal English ''may'' or ''might'' is sometimes considered more correct than ''can'' or ''could'' in these senses). *''There can be strong rivalry between siblings'' means that such rivalry is possible. The preterite form ''could'' is used as the past tense or conditional form of ''can'' in the above meanings (see above). It is also used to express possible circumstance: ''We could be in trouble here.'' It is preferable to use ''could'', ''may'' or ''might'' rather than ''can'' when expressing possible circumstance in a particular situation (as opposed to the general case, as in the "rivalry" example above, where ''can'' or ''may'' is used). Both ''can'' and ''could'' can be used to make requests: ''Can/could you pass me the cheese?'' means "Please pass me the cheese" (where ''could'' indicates greater politeness). It is common to use ''can'' with verbs of perception such as ''see'', ''hear'', etc., as in ''I can see a tree''. Aspectual distinctions can be made, such as ''I could see it'' (ongoing state) vs. ''I saw it'' (event). See ''
can see This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
''. The use of ''could'' with the perfect infinitive expresses past ability or possibility, either in some
counterfactual Counterfactual conditionals (also ''subjunctive'' or ''X-marked'') are conditional sentences which discuss what would have been true under different circumstances, e.g. "If Peter believed in ghosts, he would be afraid to be here." Counterfactual ...
circumstance (''I could have told him if I had seen him''), or in some real circumstance where the act in question was not in fact realized: ''I could have told him yesterday'' (but in fact I didn't). The use of ''can'' with the perfect infinitive, ''can have...'', is a rarer alternative to ''may have...'' (for the negative see below). The negation of ''can'' is the single word ''cannot'', only occasionally written separately as ''can not''. Though ''cannot'' is preferred (as ''can not'' is potentially ambiguous), its irregularity (all other uncontracted verbal negations use at least two words) sometimes causes those unfamiliar with the nuances of English spelling to use the separated form. Its contracted form is ''can't'' (pronounced in RP and some other dialects). The negation of ''could'' is the regular ''could not'', contracted to ''couldn't''. The negative forms reverse the meaning of the modal (to express inability, impermissibility or impossibility). This differs from the case with ''may'' or ''might'' used to express possibility: ''it can't be true'' has a different meaning than ''it may not be true''. Thus ''can't'' (or ''cannot'') is often used to express disbelief in the possibility of something, as ''must'' expresses belief in the certainty of something. When the circumstance in question refers to the past, the form with the perfect infinitive is used: ''he can't (cannot) have done it'' means "I believe it impossible that he did it" (compare ''he must have done it''). Occasionally ''not'' is applied to the infinitive rather than to the modal (
stress Stress may refer to: Science and medicine * Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition * Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
would then be applied to make the meaning clear): ''I could not do that, but I'm going to do it anyway.''


''May'' and ''might''

The verb ''may'' expresses possibility in either an
epistemic Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...
or
deontic In moral philosophy, deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek language, Greek: + ) is the normative ethics, normative ethical theory that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a s ...
sense, that is, in terms of possible circumstance or permissibility. For example: *''The mouse may be dead'' means that it is possible that the mouse is dead. *''You may leave the room'' means that the listener is permitted to leave the room. In expressing possible circumstance, ''may'' can have future as well as present reference (''he may arrive'' means that it is possible that he will arrive; ''I may go to the mall'' means that I am considering going to the mall). The preterite form ''might'' is used as a synonym for ''may'' when expressing possible circumstance (as can ''could'' – see above). It is sometimes said that ''might'' and ''could'' express a greater degree of doubt than ''may''. For uses of ''might'' in conditional sentences, and as a past equivalent to ''may'' in such contexts as indirect speech, see above. ''May'' (or ''might'') can also express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: ''He may be taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger'' could mean "While it is (or may be) true that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger." ''May'' can indicate presently given permission for present or future actions: ''You may go now''. ''Might'' used in this way is milder: ''You might go now if you feel like it.'' Similarly ''May I use your phone?'' is a request for permission (''might'' would be more hesitant or polite). A less common use of ''may'' is to express wishes, as in ''May you live long and happy'' or ''
May the Force be with you The Force is a metaphysical and ubiquitous power in the ''Star Wars'' fictional universe. "Force-sensitive" characters use the Force throughout the franchise. Heroes like the Jedi seek to "become one with the Force", matching their personal will ...
'' (see also
English subjunctive While the English language lacks distinct inflections for mood, an English subjunctive is recognized in most grammars. Definition and scope of the concept vary widely across the literature, but it is generally associated with the description of ...
). When used with the perfect infinitive, ''may have'' indicates uncertainty about a past circumstance, whereas ''might have'' can have that meaning, but it can also refer to possibilities that did not occur but could have in other circumstances (see also
conditional sentences Conditional sentences are natural language sentences that express that one thing is contingent on something else, e.g. "If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled." They are so called because the impact of the main clause of the sentence is ''cond ...
above). * ''She may have eaten the cake'' (the speaker does not know whether she ate cake). * ''She might have eaten cake'' (this means either the same as the above, or else means that she did not eat cake but that it was or would have been possible for her to eat cake). Note that the above perfect forms refer to possibility, not permission (although the second sense of ''might have'' might sometimes imply permission). The negated form of ''may'' is ''may not''; this does not have a common contraction (''mayn't'' is obsolete). The negation of ''might'' is ''might not''; this is sometimes contracted to ''mightn't'', mostly in tag questions and in other questions expressing doubt (''Mightn't I come in if I took my boots off?''). The meaning of the negated form depends on the usage of the modal. When possibility is indicated, the negation effectively applies to the main verb rather than the modal: ''That may/might not be'' means "That may/might not-be," i.e. "That may fail to be true." But when permission is being expressed, the negation applies to the modal or entire verb phrase: ''You may not go now'' means "You are not permitted to go now" (except in rare, spoken cases where ''not'' and the main verb are both stressed to indicate that they go together: ''You may go or not go, whichever you wish'').


''Shall'' and ''should''

The verb ''shall'' is used in some varieties of English in place of ''will'', indicating futurity when the subject is first person (''I shall, we shall''). With second- and third-person subjects, ''shall'' indicates an order, command or prophecy: ''Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!'' It is often used in writing laws and specifications: ''Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of not less than three years''; ''The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within a normal temperature range.'' ''Shall'' is sometimes used in questions (in the first person) to ask for advice or confirmation of a suggestion: ''Shall I read now?''; ''What shall we wear?'' ''Should'' is sometimes used as a first-person equivalent for ''would'' (in its conditional and "future-in-the-past" uses), in the same way that ''shall'' can replace ''will''. ''Should'' is also used to form a replacement for the present subjunctive in some varieties of English, and also in some conditional sentences with hypothetical future reference – see
English subjunctive While the English language lacks distinct inflections for mood, an English subjunctive is recognized in most grammars. Definition and scope of the concept vary widely across the literature, but it is generally associated with the description of ...
and
English conditional sentences Prototypical conditional sentences in English are those of the form ''"If X, then Y".'' The clause ''X'' is referred to as the ''antecedent'' (or ''protasis''), while the clause ''Y'' is called the ''consequent'' (or ''apodosis''). A conditional ...
. ''Should'' is often used to describe an expected or recommended behavior or circumstance. It can be used to give advice or to describe
normative Normative generally means relating to an evaluative standard. Normativity is the phenomenon in human societies of designating some actions or outcomes as good, desirable, or permissible, and others as bad, undesirable, or impermissible. A norm in ...
behavior, though without such strong obligatory force as ''must'' or ''have to''. Thus ''You should never lie'' describes a social or ethical norm. It can also express what will happen according to theory or expectations: ''This should work.'' In these uses it is equivalent to ''ought to''. Both ''shall'' and ''should'' can be used with the perfect infinitive (''shall/should have (done)'') in their role as first-person equivalents of ''will'' and ''would'' (thus to form future perfect or conditional perfect structures). Also ''shall have'' may express an order with perfect aspect (''you shall have finished your duties by nine o'clock''). When ''should'' is used in this way it usually expresses something which would have been expected, or normatively required, at some time in the past, but which did not in fact happen (or is not known to have happened): ''I should have done that yesterday'' ("it would have been expedient, or expected of me, to do that yesterday"). The formal negations are ''shall not'' and ''should not'', contracted to ''shan't'' and ''shouldn't''. The negation effectively applies to the main verb rather than the auxiliary: ''you should not do this'' implies not merely that there is no need to do this, but that there is a need not to do this. The logical negation of ''I should'' is ''I ought not to'' or ''I am not supposed to''.


''Will'' and ''would''

* ''Will'' as a tense marker is often used to express futurity (''The next meeting will be held on Thursday''). Since this is an expression of time rather than modality, constructions with ''will'' (or sometimes ''shall''; see above and at ''shall'' and ''will'') are often referred to as the
future tense In grammar, a future tense (abbreviated ) is a verb form that generally marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future. An example of a future tense form is the French ''aimera'', meaning ...
of English, and forms like ''will do'', ''will be doing'', ''will have done'' and ''will have been doing'' are often called the
simple future This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
,
future progressive This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
(or future continuous),
future perfect The future perfect is a verb form or construction used to describe an event that is expected or planned to happen before a time of reference in the future, such as ''will have finished'' in the English sentence "I will have finished by tomorrow." ...
, and
future perfect progressive This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
(continuous). With first-person subjects (''I'', ''we''), in varieties where ''shall'' is used for simple expression of futurity, the use of ''will'' indicates particular willingness or determination. (Future events are also sometimes referred to using the present tense (see
Uses of English verb forms This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
), or using the ''going to'' construction.) * ''Will'' can express
habitual aspect In linguistics, the aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state. As its name suggests, the habitual aspect (abbreviated ), not to be confused with iterative aspect ...
; for example, ''he will make mistakes'' may mean that he frequently makes mistakes (here the word ''will'' is usually stressed somewhat, and often expresses annoyance). ''Will'' also has these uses as a modal:Fleischman, Suzanne, ''The Future in Thought and Action'', Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982, pp. 86–97.Comrie, Bernard, ''Tense'', Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985, pp. 21, 47–48. * It can express strong probability with present time reference, as in ''That will be John at the door''. * It can be used to give an indirect order, as in ''You will do it right now''. Modal uses of the preterite form ''would'' include: * ''Would'' is used in some
conditional sentences Conditional sentences are natural language sentences that express that one thing is contingent on something else, e.g. "If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled." They are so called because the impact of the main clause of the sentence is ''cond ...
. * Expression of politeness, as in ''I would like...'' (for "I want") and ''Would you (be so kind as to) do this?'' (for "Please do this"). As a tense marker ''would'' is used as * Future of the past, as in ''I knew I would graduate two years later''. This is a past form of future ''will'' as described above under . (It is sometimes replaced by ''should'' in the first person in the same way that ''will'' is replaced by ''shall''.) As an aspect marker, ''would'' is used for * Expression of habitual aspect in past time, as in ''Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school.'' Both ''will'' and ''would'' can be used with the perfect infinitive (''will have'', ''would have''), either to form the future perfect and conditional perfect forms already referred to, or to express
perfect aspect The perfect tense or aspect (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated or ) is a verb form that indicates that an action or circumstance occurred earlier than the time under consideration, often focusing attention on the resulting state rather ...
in their other meanings (e.g. ''there will have been an arrest order'', expressing strong probability). The negated forms are ''will not'' (often contracted to ''won't'') and ''would not'' (often contracted to ''wouldn't''). In the modal meanings of ''will'' the negation is effectively applied to the main verb phrase and not to the modality (e.g. when expressing an order, ''you will not do it'' expresses an order not to do it, rather than just the absence of an order to do it). For contracted forms of ''will'' and ''would'' themselves, see above.


''Must''

The modal ''must'' expresses obligation or necessity: ''You must use this form''; ''We must try to escape''. It can also express a conclusion reached by indirect evidence (e.g. ''Sue must be at home''). An alternative to ''must'' is the expression ''have to'' or ''has to'' depending on the pronoun (in the present tense sometimes ''
have got This article describes the uses of various verb forms in modern standard English language. This includes: * Finite verb forms such as ''go'', ''goes'' and ''went'' * Nonfinite forms such as ''(to) go'', ''going'' and ''gone'' * Combinations of s ...
to''), which is often more idiomatic in informal English when referring to obligation. This also provides other forms in which ''must'' is defective (see above) and enables simple negation (see below). When used with the perfect infinitive (i.e. with ''have'' and the past participle), ''must'' has only an epistemic flavor: ''Sue must have left'' means that the speaker concludes that Sue has left. To express obligation or necessity in the past, ''had to'' or some other synonym must be used. The formal negation of ''must'' is ''must not'' (contracted to ''mustn't''). However the negation effectively applies to the main verb, not the modality: ''You must not do this'' means that you are required not to do this, not just that you are not required to do this. To express the lack of requirement or obligation, the negative of ''have to'' or ''need'' (see below) can be used: ''You don't have to do this''; ''You needn't do this''. The above negative forms are not usually used in the sense of a factual conclusion; here it is common to use ''can't'' to express confidence that something is not the case (as in ''It can't be here'' or, with the perfect, ''Sue can't have left''). ''Mustn't'' can nonetheless be used as a simple negative of ''must'' in tag questions and other questions expressing doubt: ''We must do it, mustn't we? Mustn't he be in the operating room by this stage?''


''Ought to'' and ''had better''

''Ought'' is used with meanings similar to those of ''should'' expressing expectation or requirement. The principal grammatical difference is that ''ought'' is used with the ''to''-
infinitive Infinitive (abbreviated ) is a linguistics term for certain verb forms existing in many languages, most often used as non-finite verbs. As with many linguistic concepts, there is not a single definition applicable to all languages. The word is deri ...
rather than the bare infinitive, hence ''we should go'' is equivalent to ''we ought to go''. Because of this difference of syntax, ''ought'' is sometimes excluded from the class of modal verbs, or is classed as a semi-modal. The reduced pronunciation of ''ought to'' (see above) is sometimes given the eye dialect spelling ''oughtta''. ''Ought'' can be used with perfect infinitives in the same way as ''should'' (but again with the insertion of ''to''): ''you ought to have done that earlier''. The grammatically negated form is ''ought not'' or ''oughtn't'', equivalent in meaning to ''shouldn't'' (but again used with ''to''). The expression ''had better'' has similar meaning to ''should'' and ''ought'' when expressing recommended or expedient behavior: ''I had better get down to work'' (it can also be used to give instructions with the implication of a threat: ''you had better give me the money or else''). The ''had'' of this expression is similar to a modal: it governs the bare infinitive, it is defective in that it is not replaceable by any other form of the verb ''have'', and it behaves syntactically as an auxiliary verb. For this reason the expression ''had better'', considered as a kind of
compound verb In linguistics, a compound verb or complex predicate is a multi-word compound that functions as a single verb. One component of the compound is a ''light verb'' or ''vector'', which carries any inflections, indicating tense, mood, or aspect, bu ...
, is sometimes classed along with the modals or as a semi-modal. The ''had'' of ''had better'' can be contracted to '' 'd'', or in some informal usage (especially American) can be omitted. The expression can be used with a perfect infinitive: ''you'd better have finished that report by tomorrow''. There is a negative form ''hadn't better'', used mainly in questions: ''Hadn't we better start now?'' It is more common for the infinitive to be negated by means of ''not'' after ''better'': ''You'd better not do that'' (meaning that you are strongly advised not to do that).


''Dare'' and ''need''

The verbs ''dare'' and ''need'' can be used both as modals and as ordinary conjugated (non-modal) verbs. As non-modal verbs they can take a ''to''-infinitive as their complement (''I dared to answer her''; ''He needs to clean that''), although ''dare'' may also take a bare infinitive (''He didn't dare go''). In their uses as modals they govern a bare infinitive, and are usually restricted to questions and negative sentences. Examples of the modal use of ''dare'', followed by equivalents using non-modal ''dare,'' where appropriate: *''Dare he do it?'' ("Does he dare to do it?") *''I daren't'' (or ''dare not'' or ''dasn't'') ''try''. ("I don't dare to try") *''How dare you!'' (idiomatic expression of outrage) *''I dare say''. (another idiomatic expression, here exceptionally without negation or question syntax) The modal use of ''need'' is close in meaning to ''must'' expressing necessity or obligation. The negated form ''need not'' (''needn't'') differs in meaning from ''must not'', however; it expresses lack of necessity, whereas ''must not'' expresses prohibition. Examples: *''Need I continue?'' ("Do I need to continue? Must I continue?") *''You needn't water the grass'' ("You don't have to water the grass"; compare the different meaning of ''You mustn't water...'') Modal ''need'' can also be used with the perfect infinitive: ''Need I have done that?'' It is most commonly used here in the negative, to denote that something that was done was (from the present perspective) not in fact necessary: ''You needn't have left that tip''.


''Used to''

The verbal expression ''used to'' expresses past states or past habitual actions, usually with the implication that they are no longer so. It is followed by the infinitive (that is, the full expression consists of the verb ''used'' plus the ''to''-infinitive). Thus the statement ''I used to go to college'' means that the speaker formerly habitually went to college, and normally implies that this is no longer the case. While ''used to'' does not express
modality Modality may refer to: Humanities * Modality (theology), the organization and structure of the church, as distinct from sodality or parachurch organizations * Modality (music), in music, the subject concerning certain diatonic scales * Modalitie ...
, it has some similarities with modal auxiliaries in that it is invariant and defective in form and can follow auxiliary-verb syntax: it is possible to form questions like ''Used he to come here?'' and negatives like ''He used not'' (rarely ''usedn't'') ''to come here''. More common, however, (though not the most formal style) is the syntax that treats ''used'' as a past tense of an ordinary verb, and forms questions and negatives using ''did'': ''Did he use(d) to come here? He didn't use(d) to come here''. Note the difference in pronunciation between the ordinary verb ''use'' and its past form ''used'' (as in ''scissors are used to cut paper''), and the verb forms described here: . The verbal use of ''used to'' should not be confused with the adjectival use of the same expression, meaning "familiar with", as in ''I am used to this'', ''we must get used to the cold''. When the adjectival form is followed by a verb, the gerund is used: ''I am used to going to college in the mornings''.


Deduction

In English, modal verbs as ''must, have to, have got to, can't'' and ''couldn't'' are used to express deduction and contention. These modal verbs state how sure the speaker is about something. *You're shivering—you must be cold. *Someone must have taken the key: it is not here. *I didn't order ten books. This has to be a mistake. *These aren't mine—they've got to be yours. * It can't be a burglar. All the doors and windows are locked.


Double modals

In formal standard English usage, since modals are followed by a base verb, which modals are not, modal verbs cannot be used consecutively. That requirement then dictates they can be followed by only non-modal verbs. ''Might have to'' is acceptable ("have to" is not a modal verb), but ''*might must'' is not, even though ''must'' and ''have to'' can normally be used interchangeably. Two rules from different grammatical models supposedly disallow the construction. Proponents of
Phrase structure grammar The term phrase structure grammar was originally introduced by Noam Chomsky as the term for grammar studied previously by Emil Post and Axel Thue (Post canonical systems). Some authors, however, reserve the term for more restricted grammars in the ...
see the surface clause as allowing only one modal verb, while main verb analysis would dictate that modal verbs occur in finite forms. A greater variety of double modals appears in some regional dialects. In
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...
, for example, phrases such as ''would dare to'' and ''should have to'' are sometimes used in conversation and are grammatically correct. The double modal may sometimes be in the future tense, as in ''We must be able to work'' with ''must'' being the main auxiliary and ''be able to'' as the infinitive. Other examples include ''You may not dare to run'' or ''I would need to have help''. To put double modals in past tense, only the first modal is changed as in ''I could ought to''. Double modals are also referred to as multiple modals.Kosur, Heather Marie. 2011. Structure and meaning of periphrastic modal verbs in modern American English: Multiple modals as single-unit constructions. Illinois State University. Department of English - Theses (Master's). To form questions, the subject and the first verb are swapped if the verb requires no
do-support ''Do''-support (or ''do''-insertion), in English grammar, is the use of the auxiliary verb ''do'', including its inflected forms ''does'' and ''did'', to form negated clauses and questions as well as other constructions in which subject–auxili ...
, such as ''Will you be able to write?'' If the main auxiliary requires do-support, the appropriate form of ''to do'' is added to the beginning, as in ''Did he use to need to fight?'' If modals are put in the perfect tense, the past participle of the infinitive is used, as in ''He had been going to swim'' or ''You have not been able to skate''. In questions, the main verb and subject are swapped, as in ''Has she had to come?'' "I might could do something," for instance, is an example of a double modal construction that can be found in varieties of Southern American and
Midland American English Midland American English is a regional dialect or super-dialect of American English, geographically lying between the traditionally-defined Northern United States, Northern and Southern United States. The boundaries of Midland American English a ...
.


Comparison with other Germanic languages

Many English modals have
cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymology, etymological ancestor in a proto-language, common parent language. Because language c ...
s in other
Germanic languages The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively by a population of about 515 million people mainly in Europe, North America, Oceania and Southern Africa. The most widely spoken Germanic language, Engli ...
, albeit with different meanings in some cases. Unlike the English modals, however, these verbs are not generally defective; they can inflect, and have forms such as infinitives, participles and future tenses (for example using the auxiliary in German). Examples of such cognates include: * In
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
: ; cognates of ''may'', ''must'', ''can'', ''shall'', and ''will''. Although German shares five modal verbs with English, their meanings are often quite different. does not mean "to be allowed" but "may" as epistemic modal and "to like" as a normal verb followed by a noun. It can be followed by an infinitive with the meaning of "to have a desire to". means "will" only in the sense of "to want to" and is not used to form the future tense, for which is used instead. , and are used similarly as English "must", "can", and "shall". Note, however, that the negation of is a literal one in German, not an inverse one as in English. This is to say that German ("I must") means "I need to", and (literally the same as "I must not") accordingly means "I don't need to." In English, "to have to" behaves the same way, whereas English "must" expresses an interdiction when negated. (need) is sometimes used like a modal verb, especially negated ( "He need not come."). * In
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
: ; cognates of ''may'', ''must'', ''can'', ''shall'', and ''will''. * In
Danish Danish may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark People * A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark * Culture of Denmark * Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ance ...
: , cognates of ''may/must'', ''can'', ''will'', ''shall''. They generally have the same corresponding meanings in English, with the exception of , which usually means "to want to" (but which can also mean "will"). * In
Swedish Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
: (past tense: ), , cognates of ''may/might'', ''must'', ''can'', ''will'', ''shall''. They generally have the same corresponding meanings in English, with the exception of , which means "to want to". Since modal verbs in other Germanic languages are not defective, the problem of ''double modals'' (see above) does not arise: the second modal verb in such a construction simply takes the infinitive form, as would any non-modal verb in the same position. Compare the following translations of English "I want to be able to dance", all of which translate literally as "I want can dance" (except German, which translates as "I want dance can"): * german: Ich will tanzen können. * nl, Ik wil kunnen dansen. * da, Jeg vil kunne danse. * sv, Jag vill kunna dansa.


See also

*


Notes


References


External links

* Verbs in English Grammar,
wikibook Wikibooks (previously called ''Wikimedia Free Textbook Project'' and ''Wikimedia-Textbooks'') is a wiki-based Wikimedia project hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation for the creation of free content digital textbooks and annotated texts that an ...

modal auxiliaries
Website/Project that collects phrases containing modal auxiliaries on the web (in German and English)
modal auxiliaries
Website/Project that collects phrases containing modal auxiliaries on the web (in German and English)
''Modal auxiliary verbs: special points''
{{DEFAULTSORT:English Modal Verb English modal and auxiliary verbs