Among ''Buddhists'', death is regarded as one of the occasions of major religious significance, both for the deceased and for the survivors. For the deceased, it marks the moment when the transition begins to a new mode of existence within the round of rebirths (see
Bhavacakra
The bhavacakra (Sanskrit: भवचक्र; Pāli: ''bhavacakka''; Tibetan: སྲིད་པའི་འཁོར་ལོ, Wylie: ''srid pa'i 'khor lo'') is a symbolic representation of saṃsāra (or cyclic existence). It is found on the ...
). When death occurs, all the karmic forces that the dead person accumulated during the course of his or her lifetime become activated and determine the next rebirth. For the living, death is a powerful reminder of the Buddha's teaching on impermanence; it also provides an opportunity to assist the deceased person as he or she fares on to the new existence.
[Kariyawasam (1995), ch. 5, "Almsgiving and Funerals."](_blank)
/ref> There are several academic reviews of this subject. In Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, death marks the transition from this life to the next for the deceased.
Theravada traditions
For the non-Arhat
In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
, death is a time of transitioning to a yet another rebirth
Rebirth may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Film
* ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film
* ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film
* ''Rebirth'', a documentary film produced by Project Rebirth
* ''The Re ...
; thus, the living participate in acts that transfer merit
Merit may refer to:
Religion
* Merit (Christianity)
* Merit (Buddhism)
* Punya (Hinduism)
* Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity
Companies and brands
* Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria
* Merit Energy Company, ...
to the departed, either providing for a more auspicious rebirth or for the relief of suffering in the departed's new existence. For the living, ceremonies marking another's death are a reminder of life's impermanence
Impermanence, also known as the philosophical problem of change, is a philosophical concept addressed in a variety of religions and philosophies. In Eastern philosophy it is notable for its role in the Buddhist three marks of existence. It is ...
, a fundamental aspect of the Buddha's teaching. Death rites are generally the only life cycle ritual that Theravāda Buddhist monks get involved in and are therefore of great importance.
A distinctive ritual unique to funeral rites is the offering of cloth to monks. This is known as ''paṃsukūla'' in Pali, which means "forsaken robe". This symbolises the discarded rags and body shrouds that monks used for their robes during the time of the Buddha.
Customs in Myanmar
Customs in Sri Lanka
* Offering of cloth on behalf of the dead (''mataka-vastra- puja''): Before a cremation or a burial (depends on the will of the dead person or his/her relatives), at the deceased's home or cemetery, the funeral's presiding monastics are offered a white cloth to be subsequently stitched into monastic robes. During this ceremony, the following verse which was, according to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, spoken by god Sakka after the passing away of the Buddha, is recited:
:In addition, as relatives pour water from a vessel to an overflowing cup to symbolize the giving of merit to the deceased, the following verses are recited:
* Preaching for the benefit of the dead (''mataka-bana''): Within a week after the funeral (usually on the third day after), a monastic returns to the deceased's home to provide an appropriate hour-long sermon for surviving relatives and neighbors. The sermon is usually held on the sixth day after the death occurred and often family, friends and neighbours are treated to a meal afterwards.
* Offering in the name of the dead (''mataka- dana''): Made three months after the funeral and then annually afterwards, the deceased's survivors hold an almsgiving
Alms (, ) are money, food, or other material goods donated to people living in poverty. Providing alms is often considered an act of virtue or charity. The act of providing alms is called almsgiving, and it is a widespread practice in a number ...
on their behalf.
Mahayana traditions
In China, numerous instructive and merit-transferring ceremonies are held during the forty-nine days between death and rebirth. It is widely held that, without embarking on the path of spiritual cultivation and attaining the Four Higher Realms, the soul of the deceased will be transmigrated within the Six Realms of Existence. Helping the deceased to ascend to a higher realm (''Chaodu'', 超渡) becomes an important issue for family members or friends of the deceased within the forty-nine days of their passing. People often resort to methods such as chanting or recitation of Buddhist scriptures to help the deceased.
For most Chinese funerals, if Buddhist ceremony is chosen, the practice of recitation of the Amitabha Sutra and the name of Amitabha is an important part of death rites.[Harvey (1990), p. 212.] Many other scriptures or a combination of classic Buddhist scriptures, such as the Great Compassion Mantra, the Heart Sutra, the Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Mantra
The ''Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani'', sometimes called the ''Pure Land Rebirth Mantra'' is considered an important mantra or dharani in Pure Land Buddhism and other schools of Buddhism, mainly following the Mahayana tradition. The full name o ...
and Sapta Atitabuddha Karasaniya Dharani (or ''Qi Fo Mie Zui Zhen Yan'' 七佛滅罪真言), are also commonly used. Along with cultural practices, such as the burning of joss paper
Joss paper, also known as incense papers, are papercrafts or sheets of paper made into burnt offerings common in Chinese ancestral worship (such as the veneration of the deceased family members and relatives on holidays and special occasions). Wo ...
(which is discouraged by most practicing Buddhists), practitioners are often cremated.
Exposure of the Corpse
"Exposure of the Corpse" (''Lushizang'', 露屍葬) is the practice of placing the body of the deceased in an open area instead of using coffins or sarcophagi. In the Indian tradition, the practice of exposing the corpse included putting the body in the forest or sinking it under water. Originating from India, medieval Chinese monks also practiced exposing the corpse in the woods but so far no textual evidence support the practice of water burial. In addition, cave burial (''Shishi yiku'' 石室瘞窟) was also a type of ''Lushizang'' in medieval China.
The point of exposing the corpse was to offer the body to hungry birds and beasts. After that, the remains were collected. There were three ways to dispose of the remains:
* Collect the remains from the woods, bury them or place them in a pagoda
* Cremate the remains, then bury the ashes or place them in a pagoda
* Cremate the remains, then distribute the ashes in the woods or water
Cave burial
Starting from the third century AD, Chinese monks used caves as the resting place for the deceased. This funeral practice (石室瘞窟) may have been influenced by Central Asian practices. Compared to forest burial, cave burial was less direct than exposure.
Before medieval times, the word "stone cave" (''Shishi'', 石室) can either mean the government library or suggest the main room in an ancestral temple (''Zongmiao''宗廟). To make Buddhist funerary caves, one can adopt the three methods:
* Use natural caves or grottos
* Make slight changes to existing grottos
* Pile up stones to make new caves
To achieve the goal of giving one's body to the animals, most caves and grottos were open. The few exceptions include the north cliff of Longmen wanfo gou (龍門萬佛溝). Generally, monks used the sitting position and practiced dhuta (''Toutuo'', 頭陀). These caves were reusable and most of them were found in Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
and Longmen Longmen () may refer to:
*Longmen (mythology), The Dragon Gate in Chinese mythology, located at the top of a waterfall cascading from a legendary mountain
*Longmen Grottoes, collection of Buddhist cave art in Luoyang
*Longmen Mountains, mountain ra ...
. Dunhuang
Dunhuang () is a county-level city in Northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Dunhuang was a major ...
and Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
also have such caves.
Forest burial
Chinese monks began the practice of "forest burial" (''Linzang'', 林葬) from the fifth century CE. Reputedly the famous monk of the Eastern Jin, Huiyuan, was the first in China to practice forest burial.
This practice might have been very popular in the sixth century CE. According to the ''Book of Chen
The ''Book of Chen'' or ''Chen Shu'' (''Chén Shū'') was the official history of the Chen dynasty, one of the Southern Dynasties of China. The ''Book of Chen'' is part of the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. It was compiled by ...
'' (陳書), even lay people attempted to adopt this funerary method. The term "Cool Grove" (''Shituolin'' 屍陀林) was applied to describe the exposing place, or used as a general term for this practice.
After the sixth century CE, the number of documents recording forest burial increased. In Daoxuan's Biographies of Eminent Monks (''Xugaosenzhuan'' 繼高僧傳), there were many stories with such descriptions. According to Daoxuan
Daoxuan (; 596–667) was an eminent Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk. He is perhaps best known as the patriarch of the Four-part Vinaya school (). Daoxuan wrote both the ''Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks'' (Xù gāosēng zhuàn 續高 ...
and other epitaphs of monks, there were two types of monks who practiced forest burial:
* the monks of the Three Stages Sect. This sect took both monks and lay practitioners including female believers. The most famous places for the Three Stages Sect were Zhongnan Mountains
The Zhongnan Mountains (), sometimes called the Taiyi Mountains () or Zhounan Mountains (), are a branch of the Qin Mountains located in Shaanxi Province, south of Xi'an, China that extend from Wugong County in the east of the province to Lantian ...
and Baoshan.
* other monks of different sects, usually from the Chang’an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
area. They focused on Chan
Chan may refer to:
Places
*Chan (commune), Cambodia
*Chan Lake, by Chan Lake Territorial Park in Northwest Territories, Canada
People
*Chan (surname), romanization of various Chinese surnames (including 陳, 曾, 詹, 戰, and 田)
*Chan Caldwel ...
learning and valued lineage. Those monks practiced in temples such as Chang’an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
Yanxing Temple, Chang’an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
Shengguang Temple and Chang’an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...
Qingchan Temple.
Mummification
While mummification does occur as a funeral custom in a variety of Buddhist traditions, it is not a common practice; cremation
Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a Cadaver, dead body through Combustion, burning.
Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India ...
is more common. Many Mahayana Buddhist monks noted in their last testaments a desire for their students to bury them sitting in a lotus posture, put into a vessel full of coal, wood, paper and/or lime and surrounded by bricks, and be exhumed after approximately three years. The preserved bodies would be painted with paints and adorned with gold. Many were so respected that they were preserved by their students. They were called "Corporeal Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s", similar to that of the Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
incorruptibles. Many were destroyed during the cultural revolution in China, some were preserved, such as Huineng
Dajian Huineng (); (February 27, 638 – August 28, 713), also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan (traditional Chinese: 禪宗六祖), is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhi ...
, the Sixth Patriarch of Ch'an Buddhism and Kim Kiaokak, a Korean Buddhist monk revered as a manifestation of Ksitigarbha, and some have been discovered recently: one such was the Venerable Tzu Hang in Taiwan; another was the Venerable Yuet Kai in Hong Kong.
Other notable examples of Buddhist mummification are Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov
Dashi-Dorzho Itigilov (russian: Даши-Доржо Итигэлов; bua, Этигэлэй Дашадоржо, ''Etigelei Dashadorjo''; 1852–1927) was a Buryat Buddhist lama of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition.
Born in the countryside of Burya ...
in Siberia, Loung Pordaeng in Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
, and a 15th-century Tibetan monk from Northern India examined by Victor Mair
Victor Henry Mair (; born March 25, 1943) is an American sinologist. He is a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania. Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard ''Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' and the ''Co ...
in the documentary ''The Mystery of the Tibetan Mummy''. While the documentary suggests that the monk may have consumed poisonous matters on purpose, there is no proof of such practice for any of the mentioned persons, so the poisonous substances occasionally found in their remains may have been applied to their corpses by their followers.
Tibetan traditions
A person who is dying and who is recently dead will have for example the ''Tibetan Book of the Dead
The ''Bardo Thodol'' (, "Liberation Through Hearing During the Intermediate State"), commonly known in the West as ''The Tibetan Book of the Dead'', is a terma text from a larger corpus of teachings, the ''Profound Dharma of Self-Liberation ...
'' read to them (in the Nyingma
Nyingma (literally 'old school') is the oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It is also often referred to as ''Ngangyur'' (, ), "order of the ancient translations". The Nyingma school is founded on the first lineages and transl ...
tradition) to help guide them through the transition period (Tib.: ''bardo
In some schools of Buddhism, ''bardo'' ( xct, བར་དོ་ Wylie: ''bar do'') or ''antarābhava'' (Sanskrit, Chinese and Japanese: 中有, romanized in Chinese as ''zhōng yǒu'' and in Japanese as ''chū'u'') is an intermediate, transitio ...
'') between lives, easing attachments to this life and deepening bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
wisdom. The corpse is either cremated or dismembered and fed to vultures (Tib.: ''jhator
Sky burial (, "bird-scattered") is a funeral practice in which a human corpse is placed on a mountaintop to decompose while exposed to the elements or to be eaten by scavenging animals, especially carrion birds. It is a specific type of the ...
'').
Other Tibetan traditions have other special texts read and rituals performed, which may also be personalized to the specific (vajrayana) practice a person focused on during his/her life. As the ''bardo'' is generally said to last a maximum of 49 days, these rituals usually last 49 days.
Death and dying is an important subject in Tibetan Buddhism as it is a most critical period for deciding which karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
will ripen to lead one to the next rebirth, so a proper control of the mind at the death process is considered essential.
After prolonged meditation, the meditator continues into the ''bardo'' or even towards enlightenment. Great masters are often cremated, and their ashes stored as relics in stupa
A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation.
In Buddhism, circumamb ...
s.
In Tibet, firewood was scarce, and the ground often not suitable for burial, so the unusual practice of feeding the body to vultures or other animals developed. Known in Tibetan as ''jhator'' and literally translated as "Alms to the Birds", this practice is known as Sky burial
Sky burial (, "bird-scattered") is a funeral practice in which a human corpse is placed on a mountaintop to decompose while exposed to the elements or to be eaten by scavenging animals, especially carrion birds. It is a specific type of the ...
. One can see this also as an offering to these animals, a last act of generosity and detachment to one's own body.
See also
* ''Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta
The ''Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta'' is Sutta 16 in the ''Digha Nikaya'', a scripture belonging to the Sutta Pitaka of Theravada Buddhism. It concerns the end of Gautama Buddha's life - his parinibbana - and is the longest sutta of the Pāli Ca ...
''
* ''Upajjhatthana Sutta
The Upajjhatthana Sutta ("Subjects for Contemplation"), also known as the Abhiṇhapaccavekkhitabbaṭhānasutta in the Chaṭṭha Saṅgāyana Tipiṭaka, is a Buddhist discourse (Pali: ''sutta''; Skt.: '' sutra'') famous for its inclusion of ...
''
* Jarāmaraṇa
is Sanskrit and Pāli for "old age" () and "death" ().; Quote: "death, as ending this (visible) existence, physical death". In Buddhism, jaramarana is associated with the inevitable decay and death-related suffering of all beings prior to their r ...
* Phongyibyan
* Burmese pagoda
Burmese pagodas are stupas that typically house Buddhist relics, including relics associated with Buddha. Pagodas feature prominently in Myanmar's landscape, earning the country the moniker "land of pagodas." According to 2016 statistics compiled ...
* Thai funeral
Thai funerals usually follow Buddhist funerary rites, with variations in practice depending on the culture of the region. People of certain religious and ethnic groups also have their own specific practices. Thai Buddhist funerals generally consis ...
Notes
Bibliography
* Harvey, Peter (1990). ''An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history and practices''. Cambridge: Cambridge University. .
* Kariyawasam, A.G.S. (1995). ''Buddhist Ceremonies and Rituals of Sri Lanka'' (The Wheel Publication No. 402/404). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved 2007-10-22 from "Access to Insight" (1996 transcription) at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/kariyawasam/wheel402.html.
* Langer, Rita (2007). ''Buddhist Rituals of Death and Rebirth: A study of contemporary Sri Lankan practice and its origins''. Abingdon: Routledge.
* Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1994). ''Tirokudda Kanda: Hungry Shades Outside the Walls'' ( Khp. 7). Retrieved 2008-09-04 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/khp/khp.1-9.than.html#khp-7.
* Buddhists commonly believe that life and death are a part of a cycle known as Saṃsāra (Buddhism)
Saṃsāra ( sa, संसार, pi, saṃsāra; also ''samsara'') in Buddhism and Hinduism is the beginningless cycle of repeated birth, mundane existence and dying again. Samsara is considered to be '' dukkha'', suffering, and in general uns ...
- https://www.funeralservicessingapore.com.sg/buddhist-funeral-services-singapore/
External links
Bristol University Buddhist Death Ritual Project
Thai Funerals: the checklist
Buddhism on Life and Death
by Funeral Services Singapore
{{Buddhism topics
Ceremonies
Buddhist rituals
Funerals
Buddhism and death