An athlete biological passport is an individual electronic record for professional athletes, in which profiles of

biological markers In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable wikt:indicator, indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biologic ...

of doping and results of

doping test A drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, or oral fluid/saliva—to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites. Major applications of d ...

s are collated over a period of time. Doping violations can be detected by noting variances from an athlete's established levels outside permissible limits, rather than testing for and identifying illegal substances. Although the terminology ''athlete passport'' is recent, the use of biological markers of doping has a long history in anti-doping. Maybe the first marker of doping that tries to detect a prohibited substance not based on its presence in urine or blood but instead the induced deviations in biological parameters is the testosterone over epitestosterone ratio (T/E). The T/E has been used by sports authorities since the beginning of the 1980s to detect

anabolic steroid Anabolic steroids, also known more properly as anabolic–androgenic steroids (AAS), are steroidal androgens that include natural androgens like testosterone (medication), testosterone as well as synthetic androgens that are structurally related ...

s in urine samples. A decade later, in 1997, markers of blood doping were introduced by some international federations, such as the

Union Cycliste Internationale The ''Union Cycliste Internationale'' (UCI; ; en, International Cycling Union) is the world governing body for sports cycling and oversees international competitive cycling events. The UCI is based in Aigle, Switzerland. The UCI issues racing ...

(UCI) and the

Federation Internationale de Ski The ''Fédération internationale de ski et de snowboard'' (FIS; en, International Ski and Snowboard Federation) is the highest international governing body for skiing and snowboarding. Founded on 2 February 1924 in Chamonix, France during the ...

, to deter the abuse of recombinant

erythropoietin Erythropoietin (; EPO), also known as erythropoetin, haematopoietin, or haemopoietin, is a glycoprotein cytokine secreted mainly by the kidneys in response to cellular hypoxia; it stimulates red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) in the bo ...

that was undetectable by direct means at that time. In 2002 the concept of using biological markers to detect doping became known by the term "athlete passport". The advantages were listed in a

science journal In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. Content Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as s ...

paper. and the terminology adopted by the World Anti-Doping agency. While a new

drug test A drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, or oral fluid/saliva—to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites. Major applications of dr ...

must be developed and validated for each new drug, the advantage of the athlete passport is that it is based on the natural stability of the physiology of the human being. There can be a lag of between the availability of a new drug and the development of an effective test. In contrast, the physiology of the human being remains the same through several generations and all

biomarker In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, p ...

s developed today in the athlete passport will remain valid for at least several decades. For example, the blood module of the passport is already sensitive today to any new future form of recombinant

, as well as to any form of

gene doping Gene doping is the hypothetical non-therapeutic use of gene therapy by athletes in order to improve their performance in those sporting events which prohibit such applications of genetic modification technology, and for reasons other than the trea ...

that will enhance oxygen transfer to the muscles. Also, while a negative

does not necessarily mean that the athlete did not dope, the athlete can present his/her passport at the beginning of a competition to attest that he/she will compete in his/her natural, unaltered condition. The athlete passport was widely covered in the media when the blood module was established at the beginning of the 2008 racing season by the world cycling federation, the UCI. In May 2008 the UCI revealed that 23 riders were under suspicion of doping following the first phase of blood tests conducted under the new biological passport. The blood module of the athlete passport aims to detect any form of

blood doping Blood doping is a form of doping in which the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream is boosted in order to enhance athletic performance. Because such blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the muscles, a higher concentration in the bl ...

, the steroid module any form of doping with

and the endocrine module any modification of the

growth hormone Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth hormone (hGH or HGH) in its human form, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in h ...

IGF-1 Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), also called somatomedin C, is a hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin which plays an important role in childhood growth, and has anabolic effects in adults. IGF-1 is a protein that in humans is ...

axis. Each of these modules are however at different steps of development, validation and application in sports.

Athlete biological passport testing

According to the World Anti-Doping Agency, the athlete biological passport is administered to establish whether an athlete is manipulating his/her physiological variables without detecting a particular substance or method. The biological passport uses the standardized approach of urine sampling to determine steroid abuse. The objective of this testing is to identify athletes in a haematological module and a steroidal module. The haematological module tests for certain markers in the body that identify the enhancement of oxygen transport. The specific markers the module tests for include haematocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cell count, percentage of reticulocytes, reticulocytes count, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean red cell distribution width, and immature reticulocyte fraction. The steroidal module collects information on markers for steroid doping and aims to identify endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids. The specific markers the module tests for include testosterone, epitestosterone, the testosterone/epitestosterone ratio, androsterone, and etiocholanolone. The World Anti-Doping Agency recently released the 2014 Prohibited Substances list and it will take effect on 1 January. In the new list, the agency modified the definitions of exogenous and endogenous steroids being tested for in the steroidal module of the biological passport.

Cycling

Whereabouts rules

Under the new rules, registered riders have to give the

daily information about their location and provide a one-hour window for possible testing. They have to submit a form every quarter-year saying where they will be every day of the next quarter and they must notify the UCI if they change their whereabouts on any day. This means the whereabouts information provided in the whereabouts filings is accurate and sufficient in detail to enable any relevant Anti-Doping Organization to locate him for testing on any given day in that period of time. This is the most invasive testing programme in the history of any sport, but the UCI feels this invasion of privacy is justified as previously implemented anti-doping regimes have failed to detect every doping violation.

Cyclists sanctioned on basis of biological passports

The biological passport programme has allowed the UCI to sanction riders for committing an anti-doping rule violation. Riders have also been targeted with further doping controls based on their biological passport. During the first three years of UCI's bio passport program 26 riders were found positive for EPO. In 20 out of the 26 cases, it was the abnormal blood profile which raised suspicions leading to a targeted doping test. * Manuel Beltran (Liquigas) tested positive for EPO at the 2008 Tour de France in a targeted test after anomalies appeared in a blood sample taken at the start of the Tour. The pre Tour blood samples were collected by the French Anti-doping Agency ( AFLD) and the results from the testings were submitted to the UCI to form part of their database of profiles for their biological passport programme. *

Gabriele Bosisio Gabriele Bosisio (born 6 August 1980 in Lecco) is a retired Italian professional road bicycle racer. Bosisio rode for between 2003 and 2005 and for UCI Professional Continental team between 2008 and 2009. On 6 October 2009 it was announced t ...

(LPR Brakes-Ballan) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in September 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction. *

Antonio Colom Antonio Colóm Mas (born 11 May 1978) is a Spanish professional road bicycle racer from Bunyola. He is a specialist in short stage races, having won the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana in 2006, the Vuelta a Mallorca in 2004 and the Vuelta a And ...

(Team Katusha) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in April 2009, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction. * Thomas Dekker (Rabobank) tested positive for EPO in a retroactive test carried out on a urine sample taken in December 2007. Dekker's hematological profile led the UCI to review the EPO analyses for urine samples conducted since the introduction of the biological passport programme. *

Danilo Di Luca Danilo Di Luca (born 2 January 1976) is a former Italy, Italian professional road racing cyclist, best known for winning the 2007 Giro d'Italia, but also for several positive doping tests, the last of which resulting in a lifetime ban from the sp ...

(LPR Brakes-Ballan) tested positive for CERA twice during the 2009 Giro d'Italia after being targeted under the biological passport programme. * Alberto Fernández de la Puebla (Fuji-Servetto) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in October 2009, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction. * David George (MTB) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control 29 August 2012, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme of the

South African Institute for Drug-Free Sport South is one of the cardinal directions or compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Proto-Germanic ''*sunþaz ...

(the South African national Anti-doping agency). He admitted to having used EPO and received a two-year sanction. *

Massimo Giunti Massimo Giunti (born 29 July 1974, in Pesaro) is a former Italian cyclist. He tested positive for EPO in March 2010. Palmares ;2002 :3rd Coppa Ugo Agostoni :3rd San Francisco Grand Prix ;2003 :2nd Giro di Toscana :2nd Coppa Bernocchi ;2004 :5th ...

(Androni Giocattoli) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in February 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction. *

Eddy Ratti Eddy Ratti (born 4 April 1977 in Codogno) is an Italian former cyclist. Palmares ;1999 :1st Coppa Colli Briantei Internazionale :1st Freccia dei Vini :2nd Gran Premio Industrie del Marmo ;2000 :3rd Giro d'Oro ;2002 :1st Stage 2b Regio-Tour :1s ...

(De Rosa-Stac Plastic) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in January 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction. * Manuel Vázquez Hueso (Andalucía-Cajasur) tested positive for EPO in an out-of-competition control in March 2010, after having been targeted under the biological passport programme. He received a two-year sanction.

Athletics

The

International Association of Athletics Federations World Athletics, formerly known as the International Amateur Athletic Federation (from 1912 to 2001) and International Association of Athletics Federations (from 2001 to 2019, both abbreviated as the IAAF) is the international governing body for ...

introduced their Athletes Biological Passport programme in 2009, and they announced the first sanction under the passport in May 2012. The Portuguese marathon runner

Hélder Ornelas Hélder Mendes Abreu Ornelas (born 6 May 1974 in Nova Lisboa, Angola) is a Portuguese long-distance runner. He finished eighth in the long race at the 2001 World Cross Country Championships, fifteenth in the marathon at the 2006 European Athlet ...

became the first track and field athlete to get suspended for doping based on the biological passport. He received a four-year suspension in May 2012.

Track and field athletes sanctioned on basis of biological passports

In March 2014 the Spanish athletics federation cleared Marta Dominguez in a bio passport case. ''

El Pais EL, El or el may refer to: Religion * El (deity), a Semitic word for "God" People * EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer * El DeBarge, music artist * El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American p ...

'' reported that IAAF were going to take the case to CAS. In February 2014 IAAF announced they would appeal

Aslı Çakır Alptekin Aslı Çakır Alptekin (born 20 August 1985 in Antalya) is a former Turkish female middle-distance runner. A member of the Üsküdar Belediyespor in Istanbul, she is coached by her husband, runner Ihsan Alptekin. She was banned for life for r ...

s ABP related doping case to CAS after the Turkish federation had cleared her. IAAF also suspended her provisionally. An IAAF spokesperson in January 2015 confirmed that Russian race walker

Sergey Bakulin Sergey Vasilyevich Bakulin (russian: Серге́й Васильевич Бакулин; born 13 November 1986 in Insar, Mordvin ASSR) is a male race walker from Russia. Biography He was originally the 2011 World Champion in the 50 kilometre ...

was provisionally suspended since December 2012 in an ABP related doping case. IAAF otherwise doesn't publicly announce provisional suspensions. In February 2015 Turkish press reported that Ümmü Kiraz,

Bahar Doğan Bahar Doğan (born September 2, 1974) is a Turkish female long-distance runner, who is specialized in marathon running. She is coached by Ertan Hatipoğlu at Üsküdar Belediyespor. The tall athlete at is a student of physical education and spo ...

Semiha Mutlu Semiha Mutlu (born March 5, 1987 in Koyulhisar, Sivas Province, Turkey) is a Turkish female racewalking, racewalker. The tall athlete at is coached by Zeynep Karabağlı. She began racewalking at the age of 18, and is currently a member of the ...

and

Meliz Redif Meliz Redif (born March 26, 1989, Nicosia) is a Turkish Cypriot female sprinter/track runner. She is a native of Northern Cyprus. Meliz Redif is a member of Fenerbahce Sport Club athletics team. In 2015 she was banned from sport for three yea ...

were under investigation in bio passport cases.

Triathlon

In 2012

USADA The United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, ) is a non-profit, non-governmental 501(c)(3) organization and the national anti- doping organization (NADO) for the United States. To protect clean competition and the integrity of sport and prevent ...

sanctioned the American

triathlete A triathlon is an endurance multisport race consisting of Swimming (sport), swimming, Cycle sport, cycling, and running over various distances. Triathletes compete for fastest overall completion time, racing each segment sequentially with the t ...

Mark Fretta "after variations in his individual longitudinal blood profile as well as other documentary evidence indicated the use of Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents". Fretta received a four-year ban, and his results from 18 August 2010 onwards were annulled.

Football (soccer)

In 2014, the biological passport was introduced in the

2014 FIFA World Cup The 2014 FIFA World Cup was the 20th FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men's national football teams organised by FIFA. It took place in Brazil from 12 June to 13 July 2014, after the country was awarded the hosting ri ...

;

blood Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the c ...

and

urine Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excretion, excreted from the body through the urethra. Cel ...

samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match were analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses.Anti-dopage. Dvorak : "Le profil biologique, une approche complètement nouvelle"
, fifa.com (page visited on 11 June 2014).

Notes

References

{{Reflist, 2, refs= {{cite web , url = http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=NjY5MTA&LangId=1 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110707004541/http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=NjY5MTA&LangId=1 , archive-date = 7 July 2011 , title = Sanctions, Period of Ineligibility, Disqualification (2010) , publisher = UCI {{cite web , url=http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTU3Mjg&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=NjY5MTE&LangId=1 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102134214/http://www.uci.ch/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTU3Mjg&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=NjY5MTE&LangId=1 , archive-date=2 November 2013 , title=Sanctions, Period of Ineligibility, Disqualification (2011) , work= UCI Website , publisher= UCI {{cite web , url = 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http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=3efbe038-26e5-45a2-b285-cd2772f6b4c3.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20168 , title = IAAF News Issue 168, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 4 December 2014 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 28 January 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160128152255/http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=3efbe038-26e5-45a2-b285-cd2772f6b4c3.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20168 , archive-date = 28 January 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=e7dcb201-a085-4587-9a46-c919b2430070.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20169 , title = IAAF News Issue 169, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 23 January 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 28 January 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160128144936/http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=e7dcb201-a085-4587-9a46-c919b2430070.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20169 , archive-date = 28 January 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , title = MEDIA RELEASE ATHLETICS THE COURT OF ARBITRATION FOR SPORT (CAS) UPHOLDS SIX APPEALS FILED BY THE IAAF AGAINST RUSSIAN ATHLETES , url = http://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Media_Release_announce_decision.pdf , publisher =The Court of Arbitration for Sport , access-date = 24 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160406051939/http://www.tas-cas.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Media_Release_announce_decision.pdf , archive-date = 6 April 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=f10ad7f8-b950-4ec5-ad58-789e464312de.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20170 , title = IAAF News Issue 170, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 19 February 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 25 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160310143812/http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=f10ad7f8-b950-4ec5-ad58-789e464312de.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20170 , archive-date = 10 March 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=2f6ecfaa-66b5-4d82-8363-de03b7613b99.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20171 , title = IAAF News Issue 171, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 29 March 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 27 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407225419/http://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=2f6ecfaa-66b5-4d82-8363-de03b7613b99.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20171 , archive-date = 7 April 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=71c41cb5-2367-4d88-a4ed-06f643529c1c.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20173 , title = IAAF News Issue 173, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 25 May 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 27 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160827140911/https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=71c41cb5-2367-4d88-a4ed-06f643529c1c.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20173 , archive-date = 27 August 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=12cc343a-1599-43b0-bbbe-c9721846c60d.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20174 , title = IAAF News Issue 174, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 24 June 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 27 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160827143011/https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=12cc343a-1599-43b0-bbbe-c9721846c60d.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20174 , archive-date = 27 August 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=7b10b376-7b56-4999-b9f9-a10291c49e96.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20175 , title = IAAF News Issue 175, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 25 July 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 27 August 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160827153542/https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=7b10b376-7b56-4999-b9f9-a10291c49e96.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20175 , archive-date = 27 August 2016 , url-status = live {{cite web , url = https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=b2ea082d-98b9-46a0-a8dc-8e79779cf205.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20176 , title = IAAF News Issue 176, Positive cases in athletics Sanctioned according to information received by the IAAF as of 21 September 2016 , website = iaaf.org , publisher = IAAF , access-date = 22 October 2016 , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161003145434/https://www.iaaf.org/download/download?filename=b2ea082d-98b9-46a0-a8dc-8e79779cf205.pdf&urlslug=Doping%20sanctions%20-%20News%20176 , archive-date = 3 October 2016 , url-status = live

External links

WADA: Athletes biological passport resources
Doping in sport