''Bhakti'' ( sa,
भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".
[See ]Monier-Williams
Sir Monier Monier-Williams (; né Williams; 12 November 1819 – 11 April 1899) was a British scholar who was the second Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford University, England. He studied, documented and taught Asian languages, especially S ...
, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, referring to devotion and love for a
personal god
A personal god, or personal goddess, is a deity who can be related to as a person, instead of as an impersonal force, such as the Absolute, "the All", or the "Ground of Being".
In the scriptures of the Abrahamic religions, God is described as b ...
or a representational god by a devotee.
[Bhakti]
''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2009) In ancient texts such as the ''
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' ( sa, श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् or or , IAST: ' or ') is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Upa ...
'', the term simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor, while in the ''
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
'', it connotes one of the possible paths of spirituality and towards
moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
, as in ''bhakti marga''.
Bhakti in Indian religions is "emotional devotionalism", particularly to a personal god or to spiritual ideas. Thus, bhakti requires a relationship between the devotee and the deity.
The term also refers to a
movement
Movement may refer to:
Common uses
* Movement (clockwork), the internal mechanism of a timepiece
* Motion, commonly referred to as movement
Arts, entertainment, and media
Literature
* "Movement" (short story), a short story by Nancy Fu ...
, pioneered by
Alvars
The Alvars ( ta, ஆழ்வார், Āḻvār, translit-std=ISO, lit=The Immersed) were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused ''bhakti'' (devotion) to the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and ...
and
Nayanars
The Nayanars (or Nayanmars; ta, நாயன்மார், translit=Nāyaṉmār, translit-std=ISO, lit=hounds of Siva, and later 'teachers of Shiva ) were a group of 63 Tamil Hindu saints living during the 6th to 8th centuries CE who were de ...
, that developed around the gods Vishnu (
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
), Shiva (
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
) and Devi (
Shaktism
Shaktism ( sa, शाक्त, , ) is one of several major Hindu denominations, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically a woman and Shakti ( Mahadevi) is regarded as the supreme godhead. It includes many goddesses, al ...
) in the second half of the 1st millennium CE.
[Karen Pechelis (2011), "Bhakti Traditions", in ''The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'' (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, , pp. 107–121]
Bhakti ideas have inspired many popular texts and saint-poets in India. The ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'', for example, is a
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
-related text associated with the Bhakti movement in Hinduism.
Bhakti is also found in other religions practiced in India,
and it has influenced interactions between Christianity and Hinduism in the modern era. ''Nirguni bhakti'' (devotion to the divine without attributes) is found in
Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
, as well as Hinduism.
Outside India, emotional devotion is found in some Southeast Asian and East Asian Buddhist traditions, and it is sometimes referred to as ''Bhatti''.
Terminology
The Sanskrit word ''bhakti'' is derived from the verb root ''bhaj-'', which means "to worship, have recourse to, betake onself to" or ''bhañj-,'' which means "to break."
The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".
The meaning of the term ''Bhakti'' is analogous to but different from
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.
[Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, , pages 19-21] Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.
She adds that, in the concept of ''bhakti'' in Hinduism, the engagement involves a simultaneous tension between emotion and intellection, "emotion to reaffirm the social context and temporal freedom, intellection to ground the experience in a thoughtful, conscious approach".
One who practices ''bhakti'' is called a ''bhakta''.
The term bhakti, in
Vedic
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
Sanskrit literature, has a general meaning of "mutual attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to" such as in human relationships, most often between beloved-lover, friend-friend, king-subject, parent-child.
It may refer to devotion towards a spiritual teacher (
Guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...
) as ''guru-bhakti'', or to a personal God,
or for spirituality without form (
nirguna
''Para Brahman'' ( sa, परब्रह्म, translit=parabrahma, translit-std=IAST) in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as the formless (in the sense th ...
).
According to the Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar Sanath Nanayakkara, there is no single term in English that adequately translates or represents the concept of ''bhakti'' in Indian religions. Terms such as "devotion, faith, devotional faith" represent certain aspects of ''bhakti'', but it means much more. The concept includes a sense of deep affection, attachment, but not wish because "wish is selfish, affection is unselfish". Some scholars, states Nanayakkara, associate it with ''saddha'' (Sanskrit: ''Sraddha'') which means "faith, trust or confidence". However, ''bhakti'' can connote an end in itself, or a path to spiritual wisdom.
The term ''Bhakti'' refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to
moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
(spiritual freedom, liberation, salvation) in Hinduism,
and it is referred to as ''bhakti marga'' or ''
bhakti yoga
Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of ''Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014), ...
''.
The other paths are ''
Jnana marga'' (path of knowledge), ''
Karma marga
Karma yoga ( sa, कर्म योग), also called Karma marga, is one of the four classical spiritual paths in Hinduism, one based on the "yoga of action", the others being Jnana yoga (path of knowledge), Rāja yoga (path of meditatio ...
'' (path of works), ''Rāja marga'' (path of contemplation and meditation).
[John Martin Sahajananda (2014), Fully Human Fully Divine, Partridge India, , page 60]
The term ''bhakti'' has been usually translated as "devotion" in
Orientalist literature. The colonial era authors variously described ''Bhakti'' as a form of mysticism or "primitive" religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels.
[Paul Carus, , pages 514-515] However, modern scholars state "devotion" is a misleading and incomplete translation of ''bhakti''.
Many contemporary scholars have questioned this terminology, and most now trace the term ''bhakti'' as one of the several spiritual perspectives that emerged from reflections on the Vedic context and Hindu way of life. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a God or to religion, but participation in a path that includes behavior, ethics, mores and spirituality.
It involves, among other things, refining one's state of mind, knowing God, participating in God, and internalizing God.
Increasingly, instead of "devotion", the term "participation" is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term ''bhakti''.
[Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, , pages 23-24]
David Lorenzen states that ''bhakti'' is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism.
[David Lorenzen (1995),
''Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action'', State University of New York Press, , pages 1-2] They both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but ''bhakti'' of ''nirguni'' (devotion to divine without attributes) is particularly significant in Sikhism.
[Hardip Syan (2014), in ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'' (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, , page 178] In Hinduism, diverse ideas continue, where both ''saguni'' and ''nirguni'' bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) or alternate paths to spirituality are among the options left to the choice of a Hindu.
History
The Upanishads
The last of three epilogue verses of the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' ( sa, श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् or or , IAST: ' or ') is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Upa ...
, dated to be from 1st millennium BCE, uses the word ''Bhakti'' as follows,
This verse is one of the earliest use of the word ''Bhakti'' in ancient Indian literature, and has been translated as "the love of God".
Scholars
[Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 301-304][Max Muller]
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Oxford University Press, pages xxxii – xlii have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "Deva" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the modern era.
Max Muller
Max or MAX may refer to:
Animals
* Max (dog) (1983–2013), at one time purported to be the world's oldest living dog
* Max (English Springer Spaniel), the first pet dog to win the PDSA Order of Merit (animal equivalent of OBE)
* Max (gorilla) (1 ...
states that the word ''Bhakti'' appears only once in this Upanishad, that too in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later addition and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later ''Sandilya Sutras''.
[Max Muller]
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Oxford University Press, pages xxxiv and xxxvii Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad is also notable for its use of the word ''Deva Prasada'' (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that ''Deva'' in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".
Post-Vedic movement
Scholarly consensus sees ''bhakti'' as a post-Vedic movement that developed primarily during the
Hindu Epics
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called ''Kavya'' (or ''Kāvya''; Sanskrit: काव्य, IAST: ''kāvyá''). The ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'', which were originally composed in ...
and
Puranas
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
era of Indian history (late first mill. BCE-early first mill. CE). The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is the first text to explicitly use the word "bhakti" to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of three possible religious approaches. The
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
develops the idea more elaborately,
while the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents evidence of ''guru-bhakti'' (devotion to one's spiritual teacher).
Bhakti movement
The ''
Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
'' was a rapid growth of bhakti, first starting in the later part of 1st millennium CE, from
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
in southern India with the Shaiva
Nayanars
The Nayanars (or Nayanmars; ta, நாயன்மார், translit=Nāyaṉmār, translit-std=ISO, lit=hounds of Siva, and later 'teachers of Shiva ) were a group of 63 Tamil Hindu saints living during the 6th to 8th centuries CE who were de ...
and the Vaishnava
Alvars
The Alvars ( ta, ஆழ்வார், Āḻvār, translit-std=ISO, lit=The Immersed) were the Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused ''bhakti'' (devotion) to the Hindu preserver deity Vishnu, in their songs of longing, ecstasy, and ...
. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE.
The Alvars ("those immersed in God") were Vaishnava poet-saints who wandered from temple to temple, singing the praises of Vishnu. They hailed the
divine abodes of Vishnu and converted many people to
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
.
![Meerabai (crop)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Meerabai_%28crop%29.jpg)
Like the Alvars, the
Shaiva
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
Nayanar poets were influential. The ''
Tirumurai
''Thirumurai'' (Tamil: திருமுறை, meaning holy division) is a twelve-volume compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century CE by various poets in Tamil Nadu. Nambiyand ...
'', a compilation of hymns by sixty-three Nayanar poets, is still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most prominent poets,
Appar
Appar, also referred to as ( ta, திருநாவுக்கரசர்) or Navukkarasar, was a seventh-century Tamil Śaiva poet-saint. Born in a peasant Śaiva family, raised as an orphan by his sister, he lived about 80 years and is ...
(7th century CE),
Campantar
Sambandar (Tamil: சம்பந்தர்), also referred to as Tirugnana Sambandar (lit. ''Holy Sage Sambandar''), Tirujnanasambanda, Campantar or Jñāṉacampantar, was a Shaiva poet-saint of Tamil Nadu who lived sometime in the 7th cen ...
(7th century) and
Sundarar
Sundarar (Tamil: சுந்தரர்), also referred to as Chuntarar, Chuntaramurtti, Nampi Aruran or Tampiran Tolan, was an eighth-century poet-saint of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta tradition of Hinduism. He is among the Tevaram trio, and one o ...
(9th century), were compiled into the ''
Tevaram
The ''Thevaram'' ( ta, தேவாரம், ), also spelled ''Tevaram'', denotes the first seven volumes of the twelve-volume collection ''Tirumurai'', a Śaiva narrative of epic and puranic heroes, as well as a hagiographic account of early ...
'', the first volumes of the ''Tirumurai''. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva. Early Tamil-Shiva bhakti poets quoted the
Krishna Yajurveda
The ''Yajurveda'' ( sa, यजुर्वेद, ', from ' meaning "worship", and ''veda'' meaning "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals.Michael Witzel (2003), "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in ''The Blackwell C ...
. The Alvars and Nayanars were instrumental in propagating the Bhakti tradition. The
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on ''bhakti'', have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that ''bhakti'' movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.
Scholars state that the ''bhakti'' movement focused on the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and other deities, that developed and spread in India, was in response to the arrival of
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
in India about 8th century CE, and subsequent
religious violence
Religious violence covers phenomena in which religion is either the subject or the object of violent behavior. All the religions of the world contain narratives, symbols, and metaphors of violence and war. Religious violence is violence that ...
.
This view is contested by other scholars.
[John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, , pages 39-61]
The Bhakti movement swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.
[Karine Schomer and WH McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 1-2] Bhakti poetry and ideas influenced many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and became an integral part of Indian society.
It extended its influence to
Sufism
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, r ...
,
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
,
and
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
.
Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
was founded by
Nanak
Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also referred to as ('father Nānak'), was the founder of Sikhism and is the first of the ten Sikh Gurus. His birth is celebrated wor ...
in the 15th century, during the bhakti movement period, and scholars call it a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions.
The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birth caste or gender.
Postmodern
Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourseNuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194. characterized by skepticism toward the " grand narratives" of moderni ...
scholars question this traditional view and whether the
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
were ever a social reform or rebellion of any kind. They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.
Types and classifications
Bhakti Yoga
The ''Bhagavad Gita'', variously dated to have been composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE, introduces bhakti yoga in combination with ''
karma yoga
Karma yoga ( sa, कर्म योग), also called Karma marga, is one of the four classical spiritual paths in Hinduism, one based on the "yoga of action", the others being Jnana yoga (path of knowledge), Rāja yoga (path of meditatio ...
'' and ''
jnana yoga
Jnana yoga (), also known as the jnana ''marga'' (), is one of the three classical paths ('' margas'') for moksha (liberation) in Hinduism, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge", also known as the "path of self-realization". The other two ...
'',
while the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'' expands on bhakti yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi. Bhakti in the ''Bhagavad Gita'' offered an alternative to two dominant practices of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the practice of religious ritual.
[Prentiss, p. 19.] ''Bhakti Yoga'' is described by
Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intro ...
as "the path of systematized devotion for the attainment of union with the Absolute". In various chapters, including the twelfth chapter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Krishna describes ''bhakti yoga'' as one of the paths to the highest spiritual attainments.
In the sixth chapter, for example, the Gita states the following about bhakti yogi:
Shandilya
Shandilya (IAST: Śāṇḍilya) is a Brahmin gotra, named after the Rishi Shandilya, specifying that individuals of the gotra have Shandilya as one of their patrilineal ancestors. Shandilya Rishi and was the progenitor of the Śāṇḍilya go ...
and
Narada
Narada ( sa, नारद, ), or Narada Muni, is a sage divinity, famous in Hindu traditions as a travelling musician and storyteller, who carries news and enlightening wisdom. He is one of mind-created children of Brahma, the creator god. He ...
produced two important Bhakti texts, the ''Shandilya Bhakti Sutra'' and ''
Narada Bhakti Sutra
The ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'' ( IAST: ) is a well known sutra venerated within the traditions of Hinduism, reportedly spoken by the famous sage, Narada. The text details the process of devotion ( Bhakti), or Bhakti yoga and is thus of particular ...
''. They define devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its forms.
According to Ramana Maharishi, states David Frawley, bhakti is a "surrender to the divine with one's heart". It can be practiced as an adjunct to self-inquiry, and in one of four ways:
# Atma-Bhakti: devotion to the one's ''atma'' (Supreme Self)
# Ishvara-Bhakti: devotion to a formless being (God, Cosmic Lord)
# Ishta Devata-Bhakti: devotion to a personal God or goddess
# Guru-Bhakti: devotion to
Guru
Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverentia ...
Bhagavata Purana and Navaratnamalika
The ''Navaratnamalika'' (garland of nine gems), nine forms of ''bhakti'' are listed: (1) ''śravaṇa'' (listening to ancient texts), (2) ''kīrtana'' (praying), (3) ''smaraṇa'' (remembering teachings in ancient texts), (4) ''pāda-sevana'' (service to the feet), (5) ''archana'' (worshiping), (6) ''namaskar'' or ''vandana'' (bowing to the divine), (7) ''dāsya'' (service to the divine), (8) ''sākhyatva'' (friendship with the divine), and (9) ''ātma-nivedana'' (self-surrender to the divine).
The
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
teaches nine similar facets of bhakti.
Bhavas
Traditional Hinduism speaks of five different ''
bhāvas'' or "
affective
Affect, in psychology, refers to the underlying experience of feeling, emotion or mood.
History
The modern conception of affect developed in the 19th century with Wilhelm Wundt. The word comes from the German ''Gefühl'', meaning "feeling."
...
essences". In this sense, ''bhāvas'' are different attitudes that a devotee takes according to his individual temperament to express his devotion towards God in some form.
The different ''bhāvas'' are:
# ''śānta'', placid love for God;
# ''dāsya'', the attitude of a servant;
# ''sakhya'', the attitude of a friend;
# ''vātsalya'', the attitude of a mother towards her child;
# ''madhurya'', the attitude of a woman towards her lover.
Several saints are known to have practiced these ''bhavas''. The nineteenth century mystic,
Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna Paramahansa ( bn, রামকৃষ্ণ পরমহংস, Ramôkṛṣṇo Pôromohôṅso; , 18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886),——— — also spelled Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, born Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya,, was an In ...
is said to have practiced these five ''bhavas''.
The attitude of
Hanuman
Hanuman (; sa, हनुमान, ), also called Anjaneya (), is a Hindu god and a divine '' vanara'' companion of the god Rama. Hanuman is one of the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. He is an ardent devotee of Rama and on ...
towards lord
Rama
Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bein ...
is considered to be of ''dasya bhava''. The attitude of
Arjuna
Arjuna (Sanskrit: अर्जुन, ), also known as Partha and Dhananjaya, is a character in several ancient Hindu texts, and specifically one of the major characters of the Indian epic Mahabharata. In the epic, he is the third among Panda ...
and the shepherd boys of
Vrindavan
Vrindavan (; ), also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance in Hinduism as Krishna spent most of his childho ...
towards
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
is regarded as ''sakhya bhava''.
The attitude of
Radha
Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...
towards Krishna is regarded as ''madhura bhava''.
The attitude of
Yashoda
Yashoda ( sa, यशोदा, translit=Yaśodā) is the foster-mother of Krishna and the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda. She is described in the Puranic texts of Hinduism as the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda, the chieftain of Gokul, Gokulam, and the siste ...
, who looked after
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
during his childhood is regarded as ''vatsalya bhava''. Caitanya-caritamrta mentions that Mahaprabhu came to distribute the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya, and
sringara
Sringara ( sa, शृङ्गार, ) is one of the nine rasas, usually translated as erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty. ''Rasa'' means "flavour", and the theory of rasa is the primary concept behind classical Indian arts inc ...
.
Sringara
Sringara ( sa, शृङ्गार, ) is one of the nine rasas, usually translated as erotic love, romantic love, or as attraction or beauty. ''Rasa'' means "flavour", and the theory of rasa is the primary concept behind classical Indian arts inc ...
is the relationship of the intimate love.
Related practices in other religions
In olden days, saints such as Mirabai, Soordas, Narsinh Mehta composed several bhajans that were a path towards Bhakti for many, that are universally sung even today. A modern age saint, Shri Devendra Ghia (Kaka) has composed about 10,000 hymns (a phenomenal task.) These hymns are related to bhakti, knowledge, devotion, faith, introspection and honesty.
![Prayers in front of Jokhang temple](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Prayers_in_front_of_Jokhang_temple.jpg)
Devotionalism, similar to ''Bhakti'', states Michael Pasquier, has been a common form of religious activity in world religions throughout human history.
[Michael Pasquier (2011), The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization, Wiley-Blackwell, , See article on ''Devotionalism and Devotional Literature'', ] It is found in Christianity,
Islam, Buddhism and Judaism.
Buddhism
Bhakti (called ''bhatti'' in
Pali
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
language) has been a common aspect of Buddhism, where offerings and group prayers are made to images such the images of the
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
and the ''
Bodhisattvas
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood.
In the Early Buddhist schools ...
'',
[Donald Swearer (2003), Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition (Editors: Heine and Prebish), Oxford University Press, , pages 9-25] or to deities such as
wrathful deities
In Buddhism, wrathful deities or fierce deities are the fierce, wrathful or forceful (Tibetan: ''trowo'', Sanskrit: ''krodha'') forms (or "aspects", "manifestations") of enlightened Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Devas (divine beings); normally the sam ...
.
Karel Werner Karel Werner (12 January 1925 – 26 November 2019) was an indologist, orientalist, religious studies scholar, and philosopher of religion born in Jemnice in what is now the Czech Republic.
Life
Werner has described his childhood in the small ...
notes that Bhakti has been a significant practice in
Theravada
''Theravāda'' () ( si, ථේරවාදය, my, ထေရဝါဒ, th, เถรวาท, km, ថេរវាទ, lo, ເຖຣະວາດ, pi, , ) is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school' ...
Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or ''bhakti / bhatti'' does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".
[Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, , pages 45-46]
According to Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna, the meaning of ''bhatti'' changed throughout Buddhist history, however.
In
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India:
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by Ga ...
, such as in the text
Theragāthā, ''bhatti'' had the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the
uddhistreligion', and was accompanied with knowledge. In later text tradition, however, the term developed the meaning of an advanced form of emotional devotion. Examples of the latter include the veneration of Buddha
Amitabha and those in the ''
Saddharmapundrarika Sutra''.
This changed the meaning of Buddhist devotion to a more person-centered sense, similar to a theist sense used in Hindu scriptures. This sense of devotion was no longer connected with a belief in a religious system, and had little place for doubt, contradicting the early Buddhist concept of ''saddhā''. ''Saddhā'' did not exclude reasonable doubt on the spiritual path, and was a step in reaching the final aim of developing wisdom, not an end in itself.
In early Buddhism, states Sanath Nanayakkara, the concept of taking refuge to the Buddha had the meaning of taking the Buddha as an ideal to live by, rather than the later sense of self-surrender. But already in the
Commentary
Commentary or commentaries may refer to:
Publications
* ''Commentary'' (magazine), a U.S. public affairs journal, founded in 1945 and formerly published by the American Jewish Committee
* Caesar's Commentaries (disambiguation), a number of works ...
to the
Abhidhamma text ''
Puggalapaññatti'', it is mentioned that the Buddhist devotee should develop his ''saddhā'' until it becomes ''bhaddi'', a sense not mentioned in earlier texts and probably influenced by the Hindu idea of ''bhakti''. There are instances where commentator
Buddhaghosa
Buddhaghosa was a 5th-century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator, translator and philosopher. He worked in the Great Monastery (''Mahāvihāra'') at Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka and saw himself as being part of the Vibhajjavāda school and in t ...
mentions taking refuge in the Buddha in the sense of mere adoration, indicating a historical shift in meaning. Similar developments took place with regard to the term
''puja'' (honor) and the role of the Buddha image. In
Mahāyāna Buddhism
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
, the doctrine of the
trikāya
The Trikāya doctrine ( sa, त्रिकाय, lit. "three bodies"; , ) is a Mahayana Buddhist teaching on both the nature of reality and the nature of Buddhahood. The doctrine says that Buddha has three ''kāyas'' or ''bodies'', the ''Dharma ...
(three bodies) and the devotion towards ''Bodhisattvas'' all indicating a shift of emphasis toward devotion as a central concept in later Buddhism.
In later faith-oriented literature, such as the
Avadānas, faith is given an important role in Buddhist doctrine. Nevertheless, faith (''śraddhā'') is discussed in different contexts than devotion (''bhakti''). ''Bhakti'' is often used disparagingly to describe acts of worship to deities, often seen as ineffective and improper for a Buddhist. Also, ''bhakti'' is clearly connected with a person as an object, whereas ''śraddhā'' is less connected with a person, and is more connected with truthfulness and truth. Śraddhā focuses on ideas such as the working of
karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
and
merit transfer
Transfer of merit ( sa, pariṇāmanā, italic=yes, pi, pattidāna, italic=yes or ''pattānumodanā'') is a standard part of Buddhist spiritual discipline where the practitioner's Merit (Buddhism), merit, resulting from good deeds, is transfe ...
.
Nevertheless, affective devotion is an important part of Buddhist practice, not only in Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to Winston King, a scholar on Theravāda Buddhism in Myanmar, "warm, personalized, emotional" ''bhakti'' has been a part of the
Burmese Buddhist
tradition apart from the monastic and lay intellectuals.
The
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
is treasured by the everyday devout Buddhists, just like Catholics treasure Jesus. The orthodox teachers tend to restrain the devotion to the Buddha, but to the devout Buddhist populace, "a very deeply devotional quality" was and remains a part of the actual practice. This is observable, states King, in "multitudes of
Pagoda
A pagoda is an Asian tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist but sometimes Taoist, ...
worshippers of the Buddha images" and the offerings they make before the image and nowhere else.
Another example is the worship of the ''Bodhisattvas'' and various deities in Tibetan and other traditions of Buddhism, including the so-called wrathful deities.
Jainism
Bhakti has been a prevalent ancient practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned
Tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
(''Jina'') and human ''gurus'' have been venerated with offerings, songs and
Āratī prayers.
[John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112]
Jainism participated in the Bhakti school of medieval India, and has a rich tradition of bhakti literature (''stavan'') though these have been less studied than those of the Hindu tradition. The ''Avasyaka sutra'' of Jains includes, among ethical duties for the devotee, the recitation of "hymns of praise to the Tirthankaras" as the second Obligatory Action. It explains this ''bhakti'' as one of the means to destroy negative karma. According to
Paul Dundas
Paul Dundas (born 1952) is a scholar and a senior lecturer in Sanskrit language and head of Asian Studies in the University of Edinburgh. His main areas of academic and research interest include Jainism, Buddhism, classical Sanskrit literature a ...
, such textual references to devotional activity suggests that ''bhakti'' was a necessary part of Jainism from an early period.
According to
Jeffery D. Long
Jeffery D. Long (born 1969) is a religious studies scholar who works on the religions and philosophies of India, particularly Hinduism and Jainism. He is a professor of religion and Asian studies at Elizabethtown College.
Education and caree ...
, along with its strong focus on ethics and ascetic practices, the religiosity in Jainism has had a strong tradition of ''bhakti'' or devotion just like their Hindu counterparts. The Jain community built ornate temples and prided in public devotion for its fordmakers, saints and teachers. ''Abhisekha'', festival prayers, community recitals and ''Murti puja'' (rituals before an image) are examples of integrated bhakti in Jain practice. Some Jain monks, however, reject Bhakti.
See also
*
Buddhist chant
A Buddhist chant is a form of musical verse or incantation, in some ways analogous to religious recitations of other faiths.
Traditional chanting
In Buddhism, chanting is the traditional means of preparing the mind for meditation, especially as ...
*
Buddhist devotion
Devotion, a central practice in Buddhism, refers to commitment to religious observances or to an object or person, and may be translated with Sanskrit or Pāli terms like ''saddhā'', ''gārava'' or ''pūjā''. Central to Buddhist devotion is th ...
*
Awgatha
An ''Awgatha'' (ဩကာသ; from Pali: ''okāsa''), sometimes known as the ''common Buddhist prayer'' is a formulaic Burmese Buddhist prayer that is recited to initiate acts of Buddhist devotion, including obeisance to the Buddha and Buddhist mon ...
- Burmese Buddhist Devotion
*
Novena
A novena (from Latin: ''novem'', "nine") is an ancient tradition of devotional praying in Christianity, consisting of private or public prayers repeated for nine successive days or weeks. The nine days between the Feast of the Ascension and Pen ...
– a form of devotion to
Blessed Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Joseph and the mother of ...
,
Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, names and titles), was ...
or a saint in
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
over nine successive days or weeks
*
Kavanah
Kavanah, kavvanah or kavana (also pronounced /kaˈvonə/ by some Ashkenazi Jews) (כַּוָּנָה; in Biblical Hebrew kawwānā), plural kavanot or kavanos (Ashkenazim), literally means "intention" or "sincere feeling, direction of the heart". ...
– intention, devotion during prayer in
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
*
Mettā
*
Ravidassia religion
Ravidassia or the Ravidas Panth is an Indian religion based on the teachings of Ravidass, who is revered as a satguru.
Historically, Ravidassia represented a range of beliefs in the Indian subcontinent, with some devotees of Ravidass counting the ...
*
Shaiva Siddhanta
Shaiva Siddhanta () (Tamil: சைவ சித்தாந்தம் "Caiva cittāntam") is a form of Shaivism that propounds a dualistic philosophy where the ultimate and ideal goal of a being is to become an enlightened soul through Shiv ...
*
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
References
Sources
*
*
*
Further reading
*Swami
Chinmayananda
Swami Chinmayananda Saraswati (born Balakrishna Menon; 8 May 1916 – 3 August 1993) was a Hindu spiritual leader and a teacher. In 1951, he founded Chinmaya Mission, a worldwide nonprofit organisation, in order to spread the knowledge of Advaita ...
, Love Divine – Narada Bhakti Sutra, Chinmaya Publications Trust, Madras, 1970
*Swami
Tapasyananda
Swami Tapasyananda (1904-1991) was a senior monk of the Ramakrishna Mission. He was born in family of Ottapalam in Kerala, in 1904. His pre-monastic name was K. P. Balakrishnan Menon. In 1921, when he was just 17 years old, he met Swami Brah ...
, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1990
*
A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami (; 1 September 1896 – 14 November 1977) was an Indian Gaudiya Vaishnava guru who founded ISKCON, commonly known as the "Hare Krishna movement". Members of ISKCON view Bhaktivedanta Swami as a repr ...
, Srimad Bhagavatam (12 Cantos), The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust,2004
*
Steven J. Rosen
Steven J. Rosen, also known as Satyaraja Das (; born 1955), is an American author. He is the founding editor of '' The Journal of Vaishnava Studies'' and an associate editor of ''Back to Godhead'', the magazine of the Hare Krishna movement. ...
, ''The Yoga of Kirtan: conversations on the Sacred Art of Chanting'' (New York: FOLK Books, 2008)
External links
Bhakti Poets: A History of Bhakti by Doris JakobshThe full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)English Translation of Narada Bhakti SutraHindu and Christian Bhakti: A Common Human Response to the Sacred DC Scott (1980), Indian Journal of Theology, 29(1), pages12-32
Author and authority in the Bhakti poetry of north India JS Hawley (1988), The Journal of Asian Studies, 47(02), pages 269–290.
The politics of nonduality: Reassessing the work of transcendence in modern Sikh theology(Nirguni Bhakti), A Mandair (2006), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(3), pages 646–673.
Bhakti, Buddhism and the Bhagavad-GitaRob Reed (1977), Wichita, United States
*
The Transforming Gift: An Analysis of Devotional Acts of Offering in Buddhist "Avadāna" Literature John Strong (1979), History of Religions, 18(3) (Feb., 1979), pages 221–237.
{{Vaishnava philosophy
Hindu philosophical concepts
*
Meditation
Hindu practices
Sanskrit words and phrases
Yoga styles
Yoga concepts