The Battle of Adwa (; ti, ውግእ ዓድዋ; , also spelled ''Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the
First Italo-Ethiopian War
The First Italo-Ethiopian War, lit. ''Abyssinian War'' was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. It originated from the disputed Treaty of Wuchale, which the Italians claimed turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. Full-sc ...
. The Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian invading force on Sunday 1 March 1896, near the town of
Adwa. The decisive victory thwarted the campaign of the
Kingdom of Italy
The Kingdom of Italy ( it, Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was proclaimed King of Italy, until 1946, when civil discontent led to an institutional referendum to abandon the monarchy and f ...
to expand its colonial empire in the
Horn of Africa. By the end of the 19th century, European powers had carved up almost all of Africa after the
Berlin Conference
The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, also known as the Congo Conference (, ) or West Africa Conference (, ), regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with Germany's sudden emergenc ...
; only Ethiopia and
Liberia still maintained their independence.
Adwa became a pre-eminent symbol of pan-Africanism and secured Ethiopian sovereignty until the
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Itali ...
forty years later.
Background
In 1889, the Italians signed the
Treaty of Wuchale
The Treaty of Wuchale (also spelled Treaty of Ucciale; it, Trattato di Uccialli, am, የውጫሌ ውል) was a treaty signed between the Ethiopian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy. The signing parties were King Menelik II of Shewa, acting as ...
with the then
King Menelik of Shewa. The treaty, signed after the Italian occupation of Eritrea, recognized Italy's claim over the coastal colony. In it, Italy also promised to provide financial assistance and military supplies. A dispute later arose over the interpretation of the two versions of the document. The Italian-language version of the disputed Article 17 of the treaty stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities, effectively making Ethiopia a
protectorate
A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its int ...
of the Kingdom of Italy. The
Amharic version of the article, however, stated that the Emperor could use the good offices of the Kingdom of Italy in his relations with foreign nations if he wished. However, the Italian diplomats claimed that the original Amharic text included the clause and that Menelik II knowingly signed a modified copy of the Treaty.
The Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty. As a result, Italy and Ethiopia came into confrontation, in what was later to be known as the
First Italo-Ethiopian War
The First Italo-Ethiopian War, lit. ''Abyssinian War'' was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. It originated from the disputed Treaty of Wuchale, which the Italians claimed turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. Full-sc ...
. In December 1894,
Bahta Hagos
Bahta Hagos ( Ge'ez: ባህታ ሓጎስ), died December 19, 1894, was Dejazmach of Akkele Guzay, and retrospectively considered an important leader of Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian co ...
led a rebellion against the Italians in Akele Guzai, in what was then Italian controlled
Eritrea. Units of General
Oreste Baratieri
Oreste Baratieri (né Oreste Baratter, 13 November 1841 – 7 August 1901) was an Italian general and governor of Italian Eritrea.
Early career
Born in Condino (County of Tyrol, now Trentino), Baratieri began his career as a volunteer for Giusepp ...
's army under Major
Pietro Toselli
Pietro Toselli (22 December 1856 - 7 December 1895) was a major of the Royal Italian Army. He is mainly known for his participation in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He was born in Peveragno in 1856, the youngest of three siblings. His father was ...
crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta. The Italian army then occupied the Tigrayan capital,
Adwa. In January 1895, Baratieri's army went on to defeat
Ras
Ras or RAS may refer to:
Arts and media
* RAS Records Real Authentic Sound, a reggae record label
* Rundfunk Anstalt Südtirol, a south Tyrolese public broadcasting service
* Rás 1, an Icelandic radio station
* Rás 2, an Icelandic radio stati ...
Mengesha Yohannes
''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes ( ti, መንገሻ ዮሓንስ; 1868 – 1906) was governor of Tigray and a son of ''atse'' Yohannes IV (r. 1872-89). His mother was Welette Tekle Haymanot wife of ''dejazmach'' Gugsa Mercha. ''Ras'' Araya Selassie Y ...
in the
Battle of Coatit
The Battle of Coatit was fought on 13 January 1895 between Italy and Ethiopian proxies led by Tigrayan warlord Ras Mengesha Yohannes in what is now Eritrea. It was the opening battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War, and was a significant vi ...
, forcing Mengesha to retreat further south.
By late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory. On 7 December 1895, ''Ras''
Makonnen Wolde Mikael
''Ras'' Makonnen Wolde Mikael Wolde Melekot (Amharic: ራስ መኮንን ወልደ ሚካኤል ወልደ መለኮት; 8 May 1852 – 21 March 1906), or simply Ras Makonnen, also known as Abba Qagnew (አባ ቃኘው), was a Shewan royal ...
, ''Fitawrari''
Gebeyehu and ''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes commanding a larger Ethiopian group of Menelik's vanguard annihilated a small Italian unit at the
Battle of Amba Alagi. The Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray Province, where the two main armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik II's army would begin to melt away. However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act.
![ET Tigray asv2018-01 img46 Adwa](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/ET_Tigray_asv2018-01_img46_Adwa.jpg)
On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri, about to be replaced by a new governor, General Baldissera, met with his generals
Matteo Albertone
Matteo Francesco Albertone (29 March 1840 – 13 February 1919) was an Italian general, mostly known for his role during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He led the Native Brigade during the battle of Adwa and was taken prisoner by the Ethiopians ...
,
Giuseppe Arimondi
Giuseppe Edoardo Arimondi, OSML, OMS, OCI (26 April 1846 – 1 March 1896) was an Italian general, mostly known for his role during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He was one of the few European commanders who gained a victory over the Mahdis ...
,
Vittorio Dabormida, and
Giuseppe Ellena
Major General Giuseppe Ellena (29 March 1839 – 24 November 1918) was an Italian artillery officer who fought in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He was also a professor of hydraulics and architecture.
Biography
Ellena was born in Saluzzo on ...
, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as
Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale. Dabormida exclaimed, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00am. His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight.
Order of battle
Ethiopian forces
*
Shewa; ''Negus Negasti'' King of Kings Menelik II: 25,000 rifles / 3,000 horses / 32 guns
*
Begemder
Begemder ( amh, በጌምድር; also known as Gondar or Gonder, alternative name borrowed from its 20th century capital Gondar) was a province in northwest Ethiopia.
Etymology
A plausible source for the name ''Bega'' is that the word means " ...
; ''Itaghiè''
Taytu: 9,000 rifles / 600 horses / 4 guns
[
* ]Gojjam
Gojjam ( ''gōjjām'', originally ጐዛም ''gʷazzam'', later ጐዣም ''gʷažžām'', ጎዣም ''gōžžām'') is a historical province in northwestern Ethiopia, with its capital city at Debre Marqos.
Gojjam's earliest western boundary ex ...
; ''Negus'' Tekle Haymanot
Abune Tekle Haymanot ( Ge'ez: አቡነ ተክለ ሃይማኖት; known in the Coptic Church as Saint Takla Haymanot of Ethiopia; 1215 – 1313) was an Ethiopian saint and monk mostly venerated as a hermit. He was the Abuna of Ethiopia who fo ...
: 8,000 rifles / 700 horses[
* ]Harar
Harar ( amh, ሐረር; Harari: ሀረር; om, Adare Biyyo; so, Herer; ar, هرر) known historically by the indigenous as Gey (Harari: ጌይ ''Gēy'', ) is a walled city in eastern Ethiopia. It is also known in Arabic as the City of Saint ...
; ''Ras'' Makonnen: 15,000 rifles[
* Tigray; ''Ras'' ]Mengesha Yohannes
''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes ( ti, መንገሻ ዮሓንስ; 1868 – 1906) was governor of Tigray and a son of ''atse'' Yohannes IV (r. 1872-89). His mother was Welette Tekle Haymanot wife of ''dejazmach'' Gugsa Mercha. ''Ras'' Araya Selassie Y ...
and ''Ras'' Alula
The alula , or bastard wing, (plural ''alulae'') is a small projection on the anterior edge of the wing of modern birds and a few non-avian dinosaurs. The word is Latin and means "winglet"; it is the diminutive of ''ala'', meaning "wing". The al ...
: 5,000 rifles / 6 guns
* Wollo
Wollo (Amharic: ወሎ) was a historical province of northern Ethiopia that overlayed part of the present day Amhara, Afar, and Tigray regions. During the Middle Ages this region was known as Bete Amhara and had Amhara kings. Bete Amhara had ...
; ''Ras'' Mikael: 6,000 rifles / 5,000 horses[
* Semien; ''Ras'' Gugsa Olié: 8,000 rifles][
* ]Lasta
Lasta (Amharic: ላስታ ''lāstā'') is a historic district in northern Ethiopia. It is the district in which Lalibela is situated, the former capital of Ethiopia during the Zagwe dynasty and home to 11 medieval rock-hewn churches. Its original ...
; ''Wagshum'' Guangul: 6,000 rifles[
* In addition there were ~20,000 spearmen and swordsmen as well as an unknown number of armed peasants.][
Estimates for the Ethiopian forces under Menelik range from a low of 73,000 to a high of over 120,000, outnumbering the Italians by an estimated five or six times. The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu Betul, '']Ras
Ras or RAS may refer to:
Arts and media
* RAS Records Real Authentic Sound, a reggae record label
* Rundfunk Anstalt Südtirol, a south Tyrolese public broadcasting service
* Rás 1, an Icelandic radio station
* Rás 2, an Icelandic radio stati ...
'' Wale Betul, ''Ras'' Mengesha Atikem, ''Ras'' Mengesha Yohannes, ''Ras'' Alula Engida (Abba Nega), ''Ras'' Mikael of Wollo
''Negus'' Mikael of Wollo (born Mohammed Ali, 1850 – 8 September 1922), was an army commander and a member of the nobility of the Ethiopian Empire. He was the father of the "uncrowned" Emperor Lij Iyasu, and the grandfather of Empress Menen, w ...
, ''Ras'' Makonnen Wolde Mikael,''Fitawrari'' Habte Giyorgis
''Fitawrari'' Habte Giyorgis Dinagde ( am, ሀብተ ጊዮርጊስ ዲነግዴ; ; 1851 – 12 December 1926) also known by his horse name Abba Mechal was an Ethiopian military commander and government official who, among several other pos ...
, ''Fitawrari'' Gebeyyehu, and ''Negus
Negus (Negeuce, Negoose) ( gez, ንጉሥ, ' ; cf. ti, ነጋሲ ' ) is a title in the Ethiopian Semitic languages. It denotes a monarch, '' Tekle Haymanot Tessemma. In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of camp follower
Camp followers are civilians who follow armies. There are two common types of camp followers; first, the wives and children of soldiers, who follow their spouse or parent's army from place to place; the second type of camp followers have histori ...
s who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries.[Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. '']Encyclopaedia Aethiopica
The ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (''EAe'') is a basic English-language encyclopaedia for Ethiopian and Eritrean studies. The ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' provides information in all fields of the discipline, i.e. anthropology, archaeology, ethno ...
: A–C'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), p. 108. Most of the army consisted of riflemen, a significant percentage of whom were in Menelik's reserve; however, there were also a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lance
A lance is a spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier (lancer). In ancient and medieval warfare, it evolved into the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike s ...
s (those with lances were referred to as "lancer servants"). The Kuban Cossack army officer N. S. Leontiev who visited Ethiopia in 1895,[Russian Mission to Abyssina](_blank)
.
. according to some sources, led a small team of Russian advisers and volunteers. Other sources assert that Leontiev did not in fact participate in the battle, rather he visited Ethiopia first unofficially in January 1895, and then officially as a representative of Russia in August 1895, but then left later that year, returning only after the Battle of Adwa.
Ethnic composition of the Ethiopian army
At the Battle of Adwa, Ethiopian fighters from all parts of the country rallied to the cause and took up positions on the battlefield that allowed them to come to each other's aid during combat. Armies who participated in the battle includes Tekle Haymanot
Abune Tekle Haymanot ( Ge'ez: አቡነ ተክለ ሃይማኖት; known in the Coptic Church as Saint Takla Haymanot of Ethiopia; 1215 – 1313) was an Ethiopian saint and monk mostly venerated as a hermit. He was the Abuna of Ethiopia who fo ...
's Amhara infantry and cavalry; Ras Mengesha’s Tigrayan
Tigrayans ( ti, ተጋሩ) are a Semitic-speaking ethnic group indigenous to the Tigray Region of northern Ethiopia. They speak the Tigrinya language, an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Ethiopian Semitic branch.
The daily life of Tigra ...
army; Ras Mikael’s Oromo cavalry; Ras Makonnen's Harar army that composed of Amhara and Gurage
The Gurage (, Gurage: ጉራጌ) are a Semitic-speaking ethnic group inhabiting Ethiopia.G. W. E. Huntingford, "William A. Shack: The Gurage: a people of the ensete culture" They inhabit the Gurage Zone, a fertile, semi-mountainous region in c ...
infantry and Oromo cavalry; Wag-shum Gwangul's Agew
The Agaw or Agew ( gez, አገው ''Agäw'', modern ''Agew'') are a pan-ethnic identity native to the northern highlands of Ethiopia and neighboring Eritrea. They speak the Agaw languages, which belong to the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic ...
and Amhara infantry from Wag and Lasta. Fitawrari Tekle led the Wellega Oromo cavalry while Ras Gugsa Olié's army was composed of Amharas from Semien and Quara. Empress Taytu Bitul led her own Begemder Amhara and Yejju fighters. The Fitawrari's army, normally the leader of the advanced guard, was commanded by Fitawrari Gebeyehu
Until the end of the Ethiopian monarchy in 1974, there were two categories of nobility in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Mesafint ( gez, መሳፍንት , modern , singular መስፍን , modern , "prince"), the hereditary nobility, formed the upper ...
. The mehal sefari or central fighting unit mostly included Shewan Amhara infantry and Mecha-Tulama Oromo cavalry. The Ethiopian army at Adwa was, therefore, a mosaic of various ethnic groups and tribes that marched north for a common, national cause.[Paulos Milkias, Getachew Metaferi]
The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism – Google Books"
2005. p. 53.[Paulos Milkias, Getachew Metaferi]
The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism – Google Books"
2005. p. 77.
Italian forces
The Italian army consisted of four brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division.
B ...
s, totaling 17,978 troops with fifty-six artillery pieces. However, it is likely that fewer fought in the actual battle on the Italian side: Harold Marcus notes that "several thousand" soldiers were needed in support roles and to guard the lines of communication to the rear. He accordingly estimates that the Italian force at Adwa consisted of 14,923 effective combat troops. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean Ascari
The Royal Corps Of Eritrean Colonial Troops were indigenous soldiers from Eritrea, who were enrolled as askaris in the Royal Corps of Colonial Troops (''Regio Corpo di Truppe Coloniali'') of the Royal Italian Army (''Regio Esercito'') during the ...
led by Italian officers. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these included elite Bersaglieri
The Bersaglieri, singular Bersagliere, (, "sharpshooter") are a troop of marksmen in the Italian Army's infantry corps. They were originally created by General Alessandro La Marmora on 18 June 1836 to serve in the Royal Sardinian Army, whi ...
and Alpini units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed "d'Africa" battalion
A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of 300 to 1,200 soldiers commanded by a lieutenant colonel, and subdivided into a number of companies (usually each commanded by a major or a captain). In some countries, battalions a ...
s for service in Africa. Additionally, a limited number of troops were from the Cacciatori d'Africa
The Cacciatori d'Africa (literally "African Hunters") were Italian light infantry and mounted infantry units raised for colonial service in Africa. Cacciatori units later served in Somalia, Eritrea, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica for the Italian col ...
; units permanently serving in Africa and in part recruited from Italian settlers.[George Fitz-Hardinge Berkley ''The Campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik'', London: Constable 1901.]
According to historian Chris Prouty:
The Italian operational corps in Eritrea was under the command of General Oreste Baratieri. The chief of staff was Lieutenant Colonel Giacchino Valenzano.
*Right column: (4,833 rifles / 18 cannons) 2nd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Vittorio Dabormida);
** 3rd Africa Infantry Regiment, (Col. Ottavio Ragni
Ottavio Ragni was an Italian general. He had been the governor of Tripolitania between (1912–1913).
At the battle of Adwa, during the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, he led the 3rd Infantry Regiment Africa.
At the beginning of World War I
...
)
*** 5th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Giordano)
*** 6th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Leopoldo Prato
Leopoldo Cesare Prato was an Italian major of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He commanded the 6th African Infantry Battalion during the Battle of Adwa before being killed in the battle. He was also a posthumous recipient of the Gold Medal of Mili ...
)
*** 10th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Gennaro De Fonseca)
** 6th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Cesare Airaghi
Cesare Airaghi was an Italian colonel and war hero who participated in several conflicts during the 19th-century. Airaghi participated at the Second Italian War of Independence, the Third Italian War of Independence and the First Italo-Ethiopian ...
)
*** 3rd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Branchi)
*** 13th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Rayneri)
*** 14th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Secondo Solaro)
** Native Mobile Militia Battalion (Maj. Lodovico De Vito)
** Native Company from the Asmara ''Chitet'' (Cpt. Alberto Sermasi)
** 2nd Artillery Brigade (Maj. Alberto Zola)
*** 5th Mountain Artillery Battery[Six light 75mm bronze rifled breach-loading mountain howitzers Mod.75B] (Cpt. Giuseppe Mottino)
*** 6th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Giuseppe Regazzi)
*** 7th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Vittorio Gisla)
*Central column: (3,324 rifles / 12 cannons) 1st Infantry Brigade (Gen. Giuseppe Arimondi
Giuseppe Edoardo Arimondi, OSML, OMS, OCI (26 April 1846 – 1 March 1896) was an Italian general, mostly known for his role during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He was one of the few European commanders who gained a victory over the Mahdis ...
);
** 1st Africa Bersaglieri Regiment (Col. Francesco Stevani)
*** 1st Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Matteo De Stefano)
*** 2nd Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Lorenzo Compiano)
** 1st Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Ugo Brusati)
*** 2nd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Flaciano Viancini)
*** 4th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi De Amicis)
*** 9th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Baudoin
Giuseppe Antonio Baudoin was an Italian major of the Third Italian War of Independence and the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He commanded the 9th Africa Infantry Battalion during the Battle of Adwa before being killed in the battle. He was a posthum ...
)
** 1st Company of the 5th Native Battalion (Cpt. Pietro Pavesi)
** 8th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Vincenzo Loffredo)
** 11th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Giocanni Franzini)
*Left column: (4,339 rifles / 14 cannons) Native Brigade (Gen. Matteo Albertone
Matteo Francesco Albertone (29 March 1840 – 13 February 1919) was an Italian general, mostly known for his role during the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He led the Native Brigade during the battle of Adwa and was taken prisoner by the Ethiopians ...
);
** 1st Native Battalion (Maj. Domenico Turitto)
** 6th Native Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Cossu)
** 5th Native Battalion (Maj. Rodolfo Valli)
** 8th Native Battalion (Maj. Giocanni Gamerra)
** "Okulè Kusai" Native Irregular Company (Lt. Alessandro Sapelli)
** 1st Artillery Brigade (Maj. Francesco De Rosa
Francesco De Rosa was an Italian major of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He commanded the 1st Artillery Brigade during the Battle of Adwa and was a posthumous recipient of the Gold Medal of Military Valor for his brave service in the battle befor ...
)
*** 1st Native Mountain Artillery Battery[Six light 75mm bronze rifled breach-loading mountain howitzers Mod.75B.] (Cpt. Clemente Henry)
*** 2nd Section of the 2nd Native Mountain Artillery Battery (Lt. Arnaldo Vibi)
*** 3rd Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Edoardo Bianchini)
*** 4th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Umberto Masotto)
*Reserve column: (3,032 rifles /12 cannons) 3rd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Giuseppe Ellena
Major General Giuseppe Ellena (29 March 1839 – 24 November 1918) was an Italian artillery officer who fought in the First Italo-Ethiopian War. He was also a professor of hydraulics and architecture.
Biography
Ellena was born in Saluzzo on ...
);
** 4th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Giovanni Romero)
*** 7th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Montecchi)
*** 8th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Achille Violante)
*** 11th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Sebastiano Manfredi)
*** 12th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Rinaldo Amatucci)
** 5th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Luigi Nava
Luigi Nava was an Italian General of the Army who participated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War and World War I. He participated in the Italian colonial campaign in the Horn of Africa which lead to his participation at the Battle of Adwa, where h ...
)
*** 15th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Achille Ferraro)
*** 16th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Bugenio Vandiol)
*** 1st Africa Alpini Battalion (Lt. Col. Davide Menini)
** 3rd Native Battalion (Lt. Col. Giuseppe Galliano)
** 1st Quick Fire Artillery Battery (Cpt. Giovanni Aragno)
** 2nd Quick Fire Artillery Battery (Cpt. Domencio Mangia)
**Sappers
A sapper, also called a pioneer or combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties, such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing fie ...
company
Budget restrictions and supply shortages meant that many of the rifles and artillery pieces issued to the Italian reinforcements sent to Africa were obsolete models, while clothing and other equipment was often substandard. The logistics and training of the recently arrived conscript contingents from Italy were inferior to the experienced colonial troops based in Eritrea.
Battle
On the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped.[Uhlig, ''Encyclopedia'', p. 109.] David Levering Lewis
David Levering Lewis (born May 25, 1936) is an American historian, a Julius Silver University Professor, and a professor of history at New York University. He is twice winner of the Pulitzer Prize Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography, for ...
states that the Italian battle plan: However, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and by dawn were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Their sketchy maps caused Albertone to mistake one mountain for Kidane Meret, and when a scout pointed out his mistake, Albertone advanced directly into the Ethiopian positions.
Unbeknownst to General Baratieri, Emperor Menelik knew his troops had exhausted the ability of the local peasants to support them and had planned to break camp the next day (2 March). The Emperor had risen early to begin prayers for divine guidance when spies from Ras Alula, brought him news that the Italians were advancing. The Emperor summoned the separate armies of his nobles and with the Empress Taytu Betul
Taytu Betul ( am, ጣይቱ ብጡል; baptised as Wälättä Mikael; 1851 – 11 February 1918) was Empress of Ethiopia from 1889 to 1913 and the third wife of Emperor Menelik II. An influential figure in anti-colonial resistance during the ...
beside him, ordered his forces forward. Negus Tekle Haymanot commanded the right wing with his troops from Gojjam, Ras Mengesha in the left with his troops from Tigray, Ras Makonnen leading the center with his Harari troops, and Ras Mikael at the north side leading the Wollo
Wollo (Amharic: ወሎ) was a historical province of northern Ethiopia that overlayed part of the present day Amhara, Afar, and Tigray regions. During the Middle Ages this region was known as Bete Amhara and had Amhara kings. Bete Amhara had ...
Oromo cavalry. In the reserves on the hills just west of Adwa, were the Emperor Menelik and Empress Taitu, with the warriors of Ras Olié and Wagshum Guangul.[Lewis, ''Fashoda'', p. 117.] The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire.
Albertone's Ascari Brigade was the first to encounter the onrush of Ethiopians at 06:00, near Kidane Meret, where the Ethiopians had managed to set up their mountain artillery. Accounts of the Ethiopian artillery deployed at Adwa differ; Russian advisor Leonid Artamonov
Leonid Konstantinovich Artamonov (russian: Леони́д Константи́нович Артамо́нов; 25 February 1859 – 1 January 1932) was a Russian military engineer, adviser and general, geographer and traveler, explorer of Africa, ...
wrote that it comprised forty-two Russian mountain guns supported by a team of fifteen advisers, but British writers suggest that the Ethiopian guns were Hotchkiss and Maxim pieces captured from the Egyptians or purchased from French and other European suppliers. The Ethiopian units closest to Albertone’s advanced position on the slopes of the Hill of Enda Kidane Meret first moved to the attack. These included troops under Menelik, Negus Tekle Haymanot, Ras Mikael, and Ras Mangasha, while those of Ras Makonnen and Ras Olié came up soon after, so a large proportion of the Ethiopian army was soon concentrated against Albertone’s isolated Ascari Brigade. Albertone's heavily outnumbered Ascaris held their position for two hours until Albertone's capture, and under Ethiopian pressure the survivors sought refuge with Arimondi's brigade. Arimondi's brigade beat back the Ethiopians who repeatedly charged the Italian position for three hours with gradually fading strength until Menelik released his reserve of 25,000 Shewans and overran the Italian defenders. Two companies of Bersaglieri
The Bersaglieri, singular Bersagliere, (, "sharpshooter") are a troop of marksmen in the Italian Army's infantry corps. They were originally created by General Alessandro La Marmora on 18 June 1836 to serve in the Royal Sardinian Army, whi ...
who arrived at the same moment could not help and were cut down.
Dabormida's Italian Brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida began a fighting retreat towards friendly positions. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Wollo Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael slaughtered his brigade, while shouting ''Ebalgume! Ebalgume!'' ("Reap! Reap!"). Dabormida's remains were never found, although an old woman living in the area said that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars".
Two Alpini companies under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah by the warriors of Ras Makonnen. Menelik watched as Gojjam forces under the command of Tekle Haymanot made quick work of the last intact Italian brigade. By noon, the survivors of the Italian army were in full retreat and the main battle was over. The Ethiopian pursuit continued for nine miles until the late afternoon, while local peasants alerted by signal fires killed Italian and Ascari stragglers throughout the night.
Immediate aftermath
According to Richard Caulk the losses of the Italian army were 5,900 killed and 1,000 wounded in the battle and subsequent retreat back into Eritrea, with 1,681 taken prisoner. Brigadiers Dabormida and Arimondi were amongst the dead. Caulk records that Ethiopian losses were 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded.[ Pankhurst. ''The Ethiopians'', pp. 191–92.] In their flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport. As Paul B. Henze notes, "Baratieri's army had been completely annihilated while Menelik's was intact as a fighting force and gained thousands of rifles and a great deal of equipment from the fleeing Italians." The Italian prisoners, who included Brigadier Albertone, appear to have been treated as well as could be expected under difficult circumstances, though about 200 died of their wounds in captivity.
However, 800 captured Eritrean Ascari
The Royal Corps Of Eritrean Colonial Troops were indigenous soldiers from Eritrea, who were enrolled as askaris in the Royal Corps of Colonial Troops (''Regio Corpo di Truppe Coloniali'') of the Royal Italian Army (''Regio Esercito'') during the ...
, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. Augustus Wylde records when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was still visible, "a rotting heap of ghastly remnants." Further, many Ascari had not survived their punishment, Wylde writing how the neighborhood of Adwa "was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of the streams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death put an end to their sufferings." There does not appear to be any evidence for reports that some Italians were castrated and these may reflect confusion with the atrocious treatment of the Ascari prisoners.
Baratieri was relieved of his command and later charged with preparing an "inexcusable" plan of attack and for abandoning his troops in the field. He was acquitted on these charges but was described by the court martial judges as being "entirely unfit" for his command.
Public opinion in Italy was outraged. Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news:
The Russian support for Ethiopia led to the advent of a Russian Red Cross mission. The Russian mission was a military mission conceived as a medical support for the Ethiopian troops. It arrived in Addis Ababa some three months after Menelik's Adwa victory.
In 1895, Emperor Menelik II invited Leontiev to return to Ethiopia with a Russian military mission. Leontiev organized a delivery of Russian weapons for Ethiopia: 30,000 rifles, 5,000,000 cartridges, 5,000 sabres, and a few cannons.
Aftermath
Emperor Menelik decided not to follow up on his victory by attempting to drive the routed Italians out of their colony. The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale. In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence. In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, natural disasters, crop failure, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompani ...
; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall. At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observes that "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources." Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade" that stayed his hand.
As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa
The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed 23 October 1896, formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War on terms mostly favorable to Ethiopia. This treaty superseded a secret agreement between Ethiopia and Italy negotiated days after the decisive Battle o ...
, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations
The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...
's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis
The Abyssinia Crisis (; ) was an international crisis in 1935 that originated in what was called the Walwal incident during the ongoing conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia (then commonly known as "Abyssinia"). The Le ...
, the Italians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Itali ...
. This time the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemical warfare, and the Ethiopian forces were defeated by May 1936. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts e ...
forces and Ethiopian ''Arbegnoch
The Arbegnoch () were Ethiopian resistance fighters in Italian East Africa from 1936 until 1941. They were known to the Italians as shifta.
Organisation
The Patriot movement was mostly based in the rural Shewa, Gondar and Gojjam provinces, ...
'' guerillas
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare in which small groups of combatants, such as paramilitary personnel, armed civilians, or irregulars, use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tacti ...
.
Significance
"The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze. On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde
Bahru Zewde (born 1947 in Addis Ababa) is an Ethiopian historian and author. He writes extensively about modern Ethiopian history (1855 to the present) and is now an emeritus professor at Addis Ababa University where he once served as the Head of t ...
observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa".
The Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
had sold many artillery pieces to the Ethiopian forces and paid enthusiastic compliments to the Ethiopian success. One of the documents of that time stated "The Victory immediately gained the general sympathy of Russian society and it continued to grow." The unique outlook which polyethnic Russia exhibited to Ethiopia disturbed many supporters of European nationalism during the twentieth century. The Russian Cossack captain Nikolay Leontiev with a small escort was present at the battle as an observer.
This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African
Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all Indigenous and diaspora peoples of African ancestry. Based on a common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade, the movement ext ...
movement.[Professor ]Kinfe Abraham
Kinfe Abraham (, ''kinəfä abərəhamə''; 20 October 1950 – 8 November 2007) was an Ethiopian academic and politician nicknamed 'Mr Quagmire'. He was president of the Ethiopian International Institute for Peace and Development, as well as pres ...
, "The Impact of the Adowa Victory on The Pan-African and Pan-Black Anti-Colonial Struggle," Address delivered to The Institute of Ethiopian Studies
The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) was officially established in 1963 to collect information on Ethiopian civilization, its history, cultures, and languages.Pankhurst, Richard. "Institute of Ethiopian Studies." In Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He ...
, Addis Ababa University, 8 February 2006 As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains,
On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. Italian historian Tripodi argued that some of the roots of the rise of Fascism
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...
in Italy went back to this defeat and to the perceived need to "avenge" the defeat that started to be present in the military and nationalistic groups of the Kingdom of Italy. The same Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
declared when Italian troops occupied Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa (; am, አዲስ አበባ, , new flower ; also known as , lit. "natural spring" in Oromo), is the capital and largest city of Ethiopia. It is also served as major administrative center of the Oromia Region. In the 2007 census, t ...
in May 1936: ''Adua è vendicata'' (Adwa has been avenged).
Indeed, one student of Ethiopia's History, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma National trauma is a concept in psychology and social psychology. A national trauma is one in which the effects of a trauma apply generally to the members of a collective group such as a country or other well-defined group of people. Trauma is an in ...
which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935". Levine also noted that the victory "gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adopting techniques imported from the modern West – resistances with which both Menelik and Ras Teferi/Haile Selassie
Haile Selassie I ( gez, ቀዳማዊ ኀይለ ሥላሴ, Qädamawi Häylä Səllasé, ; born Tafari Makonnen; 23 July 189227 August 1975) was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. He rose to power as Regent Plenipotentiary of Ethiopia (' ...
would have to contend".["The Battle of Adwa as a 'Historic' Event"](_blank)
''Ethiopian Review
''Ethiopian Review'' is an Ethiopian news and opinion journal published in English and Amharic.
History
The Ethiopian Review was launched in 1991 by Hailu Indashaw, publisher, and Elias Kifle, editor. In 1995, Elias Kifle became publisher, and ...
'', 3 March 2009 (Retrieved 9 March 2009)
Present-day celebrations of Adwa
Public holiday
The Adwa Victory Day
The Adwa Victory Day ( am, የዐድዋ ድል ቀን) is a national holiday in Ethiopia which is celebrated on 2 March, in commemoration of Ethiopian victory against Italy's colonization effort at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. Paying tribute to t ...
is a public holiday in all regional states and charter cities across Ethiopia. All schools, banks, post offices and government offices are closed, with the exceptions of health facilities. Some taxi services and public transports choose not to operate on this day. Shops are normally open but most close earlier than usual.
Public celebrations
The Victory of Adwa, being a public holiday
A public holiday, national holiday, or legal holiday is a holiday generally established by law and is usually a non-working day during the year.
Sovereign nations and territories observe holidays based on events of significance to their history ...
, is commemorated in public spaces. In Addis Ababa, the Victory of Adwa is celebrated at Menelik Square with the presence of government officials, patriots, foreign diplomats and the general public. The Ethiopian Police Orchestra play various patriotic songs as they walk around Menelik Square.
The public dress up in traditional Ethiopian patriotic attire. Men often wear Jodhpurs
Jodhpurs, in their modern form, are tight-fitting trousers to the ankle, where they end in a snug cuff, and are worn primarily for horse riding. The term is also used as slang for a type of short riding boot, also called a ''paddock boot'' or ...
and various types of vest; they carry the Ethiopian flag and various patriotic banners and placards, as well as traditional Ethiopian shields and swords called Shotel
A shotel (Ge'ez: ) is a curved sword originating in northern Ethiopia. The curve on the blade varies from the Persian shamshir, adopting an almost semicircular shape. The blade is flat and double-edged with a diamond cross-section. The blade is a ...
. Women dress up in different patterns of handcrafted traditional Ethiopian clothing
The culture of Ethiopia is diverse and generally structured along ethnolinguistic lines. The country's Oromo-speaking majority adhere to an amalgamation of traditions that were developed independently and through interaction with neighboring and ...
, known in Amharic as Habesha kemis
Habesha kemis is the traditional attire of Habesha women.Lisa L. Schoonover ''The Indigo Butterfly'' Page 114 2012 "The habasha kemis is a dress is made from traditionally using cotton and its generally grouped in the catogery of yahager lebse. S ...
. Some wear black gowns over all, while others put royal crowns on their heads. Women's styles of dress, like their male counterparts, imitate the traditional styles of Ethiopian patriotic women. Of particular note is the dominant presence of the Empress Taytu Betul during these celebrations.
The beloved and influential wife of Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu Betul, played a significant role during the Battle of Adwa. Although often overlooked, thousands of women participated in the Battle of Adwa. Some were trained as nurses to attend to the wounded, and others mainly cooked and supplied food and water to the soldiers and comforted the wounded.
In addition to Addis Ababa, other major cities in Ethiopia, including Bahir Dar
Bahir Dar ( amh, ባሕር ዳር, 3=sea shore) is the capital city of Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Bahir Dar is one of the leading tourist destinations in Ethiopia, with a variety of attractions in the nearby Lake Tana and Blue Nile river. The ...
, Debre Markos
Debre Markos ( am, ደብረ ማርቆስ, Däbrä Marḳos lit: ''Mount of St. Mark'') is a city, separate woreda, and administrative seat of the East Gojjam Zone in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.
Etymology
Originally named Manqwarar (lit: Cold Plac ...
and the town of Adwa itself, where the battle took place, celebrate the Victory of Adwa in public ceremonies.
Symbols
Several images and symbols are used during the commemoration of the Victory of Adwa, including the tri-coloured green, gold and red Ethiopian flag, images of Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu Betul, as well as other prominent kings and war generals of the time including King
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, King Michael of Wollo, Dejazmach
Until the end of the Ethiopian monarchy in 1974, there were two categories of nobility in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Mesafint ( gez, መሳፍንት , modern , singular መስፍን , modern , "prince"), the hereditary nobility, formed the upper ...
Balcha Safo
''Dejazmach'' Balcha Safo (; 1863 – 6 November 1936), popularly referred to by his horse-name Abba Nefso, was an Ethiopian military commander and lord protector of the crown, who served in both the First and Second Italo-Ethiopian Wars.Paul ...
, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde, and Fitawrari Gebeyehu, among others. Surviving members of the Ethiopian patriotic battalions wear the various medals that they collected for their participation on different battlefields. Young people often wear T-shirts adorned by Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu, Emperor Haile Selassie and other notable members of the Ethiopian monarchy. Popular and patriotic songs are often played on amplifiers. Of particular note are Ejigayehu Shibabaw's ballad
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French ''chanson balladée'' or ''ballade'', which were originally "dance songs". Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and ...
dedicated to the Battle of Adwa and Teddy Afro
Teddy is an English language given name, usually a hypocorism of Edward or Theodore. It may refer to:
People Nickname
* Teddy Atlas (born 1956), boxing trainer and fight commentator
* Teddy Bourne (born 1948), British Olympic epee fencer
* Teddy ...
's popular song "Tikur Sew", which literally translates to "black man or black person" – a poetic reference to Emperor Menelik II's decisive African victory over Europeans, as well as the Emperor's darker skin complexion.
Film
* ''Adwa'' – 1999 Ethiopian documentary directed by Haile Gerima
Haile Gerima (born March 4, 1946) is an Ethiopian filmmaker who lives and works in the United States. He is a leading member of the L.A. Rebellion film movement, also known as the Los Angeles School of Black Filmmakers. His films have receiv ...
See also
* Scramble for Africa
*Colonisation of Africa
The history of external colonisation of Africa can be dated back from ancient, medieval, or modern history, depending on how the term colonisation is defined.
Ancient Greeks, Romans, Arabs and Malays all established colonies on the African co ...
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
* Berkeley, G.F.-H. (1902) ''The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik'', Westminster: A. Constable, 403 pp.,
* Brown, P.S. and Yirgu, F. (1996) ''The Battle of Adwa 1896'', Chicago: Nyala Publishing, 160 pp.,
* Bulatovich, A.K. (nd) ''With the Armies of Menelik II: Journal of an Expedition from Ethiopia to Lake Rudolf'', translated by Richard Seltzer,
* Bulatovich, A.K. (2000) ''Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898'', translated by Richard Seltzer, Lawrenceville, N.J. : Red Sea Press,
* Henze, P.B. (2004) ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', London: Hurst & Co.,
* Jonas, R.A. (2011) ''The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire'', Bellknap Press of Harvard University Press,
* Lewis, D.L. (1988) ''The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa'', 1st ed., London: Bloomsbury,
* Marcus, H.G. (1995) ''The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913'', Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press,
* Pankhurst, K.P. (1968) ''Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935'', Addis Ababa: Haile Sellassie I University Press, 772 pp.,
* Pankhurst, K.P. (1998) ''The Ethiopians: A History'', The Peoples of Africa Series, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers,
* Rosenfeld, C.P. (1986) ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910'', London: Ravens Educational & Development Services,
* Uhlig, S. (ed.) (2003) ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica
The ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (''EAe'') is a basic English-language encyclopaedia for Ethiopian and Eritrean studies. The ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' provides information in all fields of the discipline, i.e. anthropology, archaeology, ethno ...
'', 1 ''(A–C)'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz,
* Worrell, R. (2005) ''Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-Century Pan-African Formations in Barbados'', Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing,
* Zewde, Bahru (1991) ''A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974'', Eastern African Studies series, London: Currey,
* With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com
External links
Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa
''The Colony of Eritrea from its Origins until March 1, 1899''
from 1899 which details the Battle of Adwa from the World Digital Library
The World Digital Library (WDL) is an international digital library operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress.
The WDL has stated that its mission is to promote international and intercultural understanding, expand the volume ...
Painting depicting the Battle of Adwa
Catalogue No. E261845, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution
{{DEFAULTSORT:Adwa
Conflicts in 1896
Battles of the First Italo-Ethiopian War
Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa (; ti, ውግእ ዓድዋ; , also spelled ''Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian invading force on Sunday 1 March 1896, near the town of Adwa. The de ...
Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa (; ti, ውግእ ዓድዋ; , also spelled ''Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian invading force on Sunday 1 March 1896, near the town of Adwa. The de ...
Battles involving Italy
Battles involving Ethiopia
Battles involving Eritrea
History of Eritrea
History of Ethiopia
March 1896 events
Orders of battle