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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related
Austronesian Austronesian may refer to: *The Austronesian languages *The historical Austronesian peoples The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, M ...
ethnic groups An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history ...
predominantly found in
North Sumatra North Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Utara) is a province of Indonesia located on the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan. North Sumatra is Indonesia's fourth most populous province after West Java, East Java ...
,
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the
Karo Karo may refer to: Ethnic groups * Karo people (East Africa), a group of tribes in East Africa * Karo people (Ethiopia), an ethnic group from Ethiopia * Karo people (Indonesia), the indigenous people of the Karo Plateau in North Sumatra Language ...
, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, and Mandailing which are related groups with distinct languages and traditional customs (''
adat Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs. Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succe ...
'').


Prehistory

Linguistic and archaeological evidence indicates that
Austronesian Austronesian may refer to: *The Austronesian languages *The historical Austronesian peoples The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, M ...
speakers first reached Sumatra from
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northe ...
and the
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
through
Borneo Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the List of islands by area, third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java Isl ...
or
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mo ...
about 2,500 years ago, and the Batak probably descended from these settlers. While the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Although the Batak are often considered to be isolated peoples thanks to their location inland, away from the influence of seafaring European colonials, there is evidence that they have been involved in trade with other neighbouring kingdoms for a millennium or more. The Bataks practiced a syncretic religion of
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
,
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
and local culture for thousands of years. The last Batak king who fought valiantly against Dutch imperialists until 1905 was an Indonesian Shaivite king. The Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Rugua's 13th-century '' Description of the Barbarous Peoples'' (''Zhu Fan Zhi'' ), which refers to a 'Ba-ta' dependency of
Srivijaya Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the ...
. The '' Suma Oriental'', of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and the Aru kingdom. Based on this evidence, the Batak may have been involved in procuring important commodities for trade with China, perhaps from the 8th or 9th centuries and continuing for the next thousand years, with Batak men carrying the products on their backs for sale at ports. It has been suggested that the important port of
Barus Barus is a town and '' kecamatan'' (district) in Central Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatra Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Historically, Barus was well known as a port town or kingdom on the western coast of Sumatra where it was a regional trade cen ...
in Tapanuli was populated by Batak people. A Tamil inscription has been found in Barus which is dated to 1088, while contact with Chinese and Tamil traders took place at
Kota Cina Kota or KOTA may refer to: People and languages *Kōta (given name), a masculine Japanese given name *Kota Brahmin, a sub-caste of Brahmins in Karnataka *Kota people (India), a tribe in the Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu, South India **Kota language ...
, a trading town located in what is now northern
Medan Medan (; English: ) is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra, as well as a regional hub and financial centre of Sumatra. According to the National Development Planning Agency, Medan is one of the four ma ...
that was established in the 11th century, and comprising 10,000 people by the 12th century. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands. These trading opportunities may have caused migration of Batak from Pakpak and Toba to the present-day Karo and Simalungun 'frontier' lands, where they were exposed to greater influence from visiting Tamil traders, while the migration of Batak to the Angkola-Mandailing lands may have been prompted by 8th-century Srivijayan demand for
camphor Camphor () is a waxy, colorless solid with a strong aroma. It is classified as a terpenoid and a cyclic ketone. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel ('' Cinnamomum camphora''), a large evergreen tree found in East Asia; and in the k ...
. The Karo ''marga'' or tribe ''Sembiring'' "black one" is believed to originate from their ties with Tamil traders, with specific Sembiring sub-marga, namely Brahmana, Colia, Pandia, Depari, Meliala, Muham, Pelawi, and Tekan all of Indian origin. Tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, an origin story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward,
Aceh Aceh ( ), officially the Aceh Province ( ace, Nanggroë Acèh; id, Provinsi Aceh) is the westernmost province of Indonesia. It is located on the northernmost of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capital and largest city. Granted a s ...
increased the production of
pepper Pepper or peppers may refer to: Food and spice * Piperaceae or the pepper family, a large family of flowering plant ** Black pepper * ''Capsicum'' or pepper, a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae ** Bell pepper ** Chili ...
, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either ''sawah'' (wet rice fields) or ''ladang'' (dry rice), and the Toba Batak, most expert in agriculture, must have migrated to meet demand in new areas. The increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success.


Language

The Batak speak a variety of closely related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. There are two major branches, a northern branch comprising the Pakpak-Dairi, Alas-Kluet and
Karo Karo may refer to: Ethnic groups * Karo people (East Africa), a group of tribes in East Africa * Karo people (Ethiopia), an ethnic group from Ethiopia * Karo people (Indonesia), the indigenous people of the Karo Plateau in North Sumatra Language ...
languages, which are similar to each other, and a distinct southern branch, comprising three mutually intelligible dialects: Toba, Angkola and Mandailing. Simalungun is an early offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo, whereas other dialects of Simalungun can be understood by speakers of Toba. This is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in
Medan Medan (; English: ) is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra, as well as a regional hub and financial centre of Sumatra. According to the National Development Planning Agency, Medan is one of the four ma ...
city today. The Batak possess their own script known as the '' Surat Batak''. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to little change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra.


Contribution to modern Malay and Indonesian literature

In the broader context of national language, the modern Batak authors are well-known as the outstanding Malay-speaking writers that shape modern Malay into the national concept of ''Bahasa Indonesia'' (
Indonesian language Indonesian ( ) is the official language, official and national language of Indonesia. It is a standard language, standardized variety (linguistics), variety of Malay language, Malay, an Austronesian languages, Austronesian language that has be ...
) and its literary canon. Merari Siregar (1896–1941) is the author of Azab dan Sengsara (Pain and Suffering, 1920), the first novel written in
Indonesian Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to: * Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia ** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago ** Indonesia ...
. Muhammad Kasim Dalimunte (born 1886) is the author of ''Teman Doedoek'' (1936), the first short story collection in the Indonesian literary canon. Soeman Hasiboean is one of the pioneers of modern short story who wrote
Kawan Bergeloet ''Kawan Bergeloet'' ( Perfected Spelling: ''Kawan Bergelut''; Indonesian for "Playmate") is a collection of short stories written by Soeman Hs and first published by Balai Pustaka in 1941. It contains twelve stories, seven of which were previousl ...
(Playmate, 1941) and ''Mentjahari Pentjoeri Anak Perawan'' (Seeking a Maiden's Kidnapper, 1932), the first Indonesia's
detective novel Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder. The detective genre began around the same time as spec ...
. E. St. Harahap is the author of ''Kamus Indonesia'' (1942), the first Indonesian dictionary. Moreover, Bakri Siregar (1922–1994) is the author of ''Sedjarah Sastera Indonesia Modern I'' (History of Modern Indonesian Literature I, 1964), Indonesia's first work that attempts to discuss the history of Indonesian literature. Sitor Situmorang (1923–2014) is the first Indonesian author who wrote a non-fiction work in order to reflect his own life as a poet through a form of modern autobiography, ''Sitor Situmorang Sastrawan 45, Penyair Danau Toba'' (1981). The modern Batak authors are widely known for their efforts on bringing Indonesian literature to the international readers. Mochtar Lubis (1922–2004) is the author of Senja di Jakarta (Twilight in Jakarta, 1963), the first Indonesian novel translated into English even before its Indonesian version was printed and published.
Iwan Simatupang Iwan Martua Lokot Dongan Simatupang, more commonly known as Iwan Simatupang (18 January 1928 in Sibolga, North Sumatra – 4 August 1970 in Jakarta, Indonesia) was an Indonesian novelist, poet and essayist. Life and works He joined the (TRIP), ...
(1928–1970) is the author of ''Ziarah'' (The Pilgrim, 1969), the first Indonesian novel awarded international prize through
ASEAN ASEAN ( , ), officially the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a Political union, political and economic union of 10 member Sovereign state, states in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental coo ...
Literary Award in
Bangkok Bangkok, officially known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estimated populatio ...
in 1977. Poet Sitor Situmorang is the first Indonesian who wrote and published a collection of poems in English, ''The Rites of Bali Aga'' (1976).


Profession

The traditional occupation of the Batak was
agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peop ...
, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times. Interior rural Batak communities relied heavily on rice farming, horticulture and other plant and commercial crops, and to some extent, acquiring forest products, such as hard wood, plant resin, and wild animals. The port of
Barus Barus is a town and '' kecamatan'' (district) in Central Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatra Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Historically, Barus was well known as a port town or kingdom on the western coast of Sumatra where it was a regional trade cen ...
on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of ''kapur barus'' (
camphor Camphor () is a waxy, colorless solid with a strong aroma. It is classified as a terpenoid and a cyclic ketone. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel ('' Cinnamomum camphora''), a large evergreen tree found in East Asia; and in the k ...
). In ancient times, Batak warriors were often recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, ''sawit''
palm oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 33% of global oils produced fr ...
, and
rubber Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Thailand, Malaysia, a ...
, converting some parts of the Batak land into plantations. Throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a wide range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers. The modern Batak have gravitated towards professions such as attorneys, bus and taxi drivers, mechanics, engineers, singers and musicians, writers and journalists, teachers, economists, scientists, and military officers. Important figures such as local king ( Sisingamangaraja XII), two Indonesian prime ministers ( Amir Syarifuddin Harahap, Burhanuddin Harahap), speakers of the parliament ( Zainul Arifin Pohan, Akbar Tanjung), one vice president ( Adam Malik Batubara), two governors of the central bank ( Darmin Nasution, Arifin Siregar), one attorney general (
Marsillam Simanjuntak Marsillam Simanjuntak (born 23 February 1943 in Yogyakarta) is a retired Indonesian politician who served as Secretary of the Cabinet from January 2000, as Minister of Justice from June 2001, and as Attorney General of Indonesia between July 2001 ...
), and many influential cabinet ministers (
Albert Mangaratua Tambunan Albert Mangaratua Tambunan (September 25, 1911 – December 12, 1970) was the chairman and the general secretary of the Indonesian Christian Party, and the first deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council, serving for two terms. He was ...
, Ferdinand Lumbantobing, Luhut Binsar Pandjaitan, M.S. Kaban, Tifatul Sembiring), business magnate and entrepreneurs ( Chairul Tanjung), legendary military figures with five-star general ( Abdul Harris Nasution) and leading-generals ( T. B. Simatupang, Maraden Panggabean,
Feisal Tanjung General Feisal Edno Tanjung (17 June 1939 – 18 February 2013), known as Feisal Tanjung, was an Indonesian Army general who was ABRI Commander (from 21 May 1993 to 12 February 1998) and also served as Coordinating Minister for Politics and Secu ...
) are well-known as prominent persons that shape Indonesian history. In Malaysia, some Batak descendants held positions as ministers, such as Saifudin Nasuiton bin Ismail and Senu Abdul Rahman Siregar. Although the Batak are a minority among the Indonesian population (3.58%; only 8–9 million Batak people out of 236 million according 2010's census), a large number of notable Batak have achieved prominent places in the Indonesian history. For instance, the Batak have been well-represented especially in the field of law . Adnan Buyung Nasution is one of the most influential attorneys in Indonesian legal history who founded the Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Jakarta (LBH) Jakarta),
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
's first legal aid non-government organization, struggled in the autocratic Suharto era with great personal risk and engagement for democratic values and the rule of law. Among others, lawyers like Todung Mulya Lubis,
Ruhut Sitompul Ruhut Sitompul (born 24 March 1954) is an Indonesian lawyer, politician and actor. He was elected twice into the People's Representative Council, in 2009 and 2014. As a lawyer, he handled many cases of high-profile politicians, and maintained a hig ...
and Hotman Paris Hutapea are widely known beyond the circle of their legal colleagues, since they have gained star lawyer reputations by handling high-profile cases closely reported by the media.


Society

Batak societies are patriarchally organized along clans known as ''Marga''. A traditional belief among the Toba Batak is that they originate from one ancestor "Si Raja Batak", with all ''Margas'' descended from him. A family tree that defines the father-son relationship among Batak people is called '' tarombo''. In contemporary Indonesia, the Batak people have a strong focus on education and a prominent position in the professions, particularly as teachers, engineers, doctors and lawyers. Toba Batak are known traditionally for their
weaving Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudin ...
, wood carving and especially ornate stone tombs. Before they became subjects of the colonial Dutch East Indies government, the Batak had a reputation for being fierce warriors. Today the Batak are mostly Christian with a Muslim minority. Currently the largest Christian congregation in Indonesia is the HKBP (''Huria Kristen Batak Protestan'') Christian church. The dominant Christian
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing th ...
was brought by
Lutheran Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
missionaries in the 19th century, including the well-known missionary Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen. Christianity was introduced to the Karo by Dutch
Calvinist Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...
missionaries, and their largest church is the GBKP (''Gereja Batak Karo Protestan''). The Mandailing and Angkola Batak were converted to Islam in the early 19th century during the reign of Minangkabaus Padri. A significant minority of Batak people do not adhere to either Christianity or Islam, however, and follow traditional practices known as the ''agama si dekah'', the old religion, which is also called ''perbegu'' or ''pemena''.


Dalihan Na Tolu

''Dalihan Na Tolu'' (three-legged furnace) is the philosophy of life of the Batak people. It was consisted of three general rule in Batak society. Those are: # Somba Marhulahula (showing respect to wife's family). Even though ''somba'' could mean worship, in Dalihan Na Tolu, it means respect to those with wife family and those with the same clan ( Marga (Batak)). Those family includes wife of the grandfathers, wife of the fathers, and wife of the children. # Elek Marboru (showing kindness to all women). Kindness in this context means not accompanied by ulterior motives and self-interest. Also, women in this context means the family who marry the daughter, including the daughter itself. # Manat Mardongan Tubu (careful in living with close relatives). Living carefully means a cautious attitude towards fellow Marga to prevent misunderstandings in the implementation of custom tradition events. This act was reflected in the Batak proverb "''hau na jonok do na boi marsiogoson''" (only woods that are really close can cause friction). This illustrates that it is in close and frequent intercourse that possible conflicts of interest, status, etc. can occur The essence of this teachings is the moral code contains the teachings of mutual respect (''masipasangapon'') with the support of the moral rule: mutual respect and helpfulness.


Ritual cannibalism

Ritual
cannibalism Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, b ...
was well documented among pre-colonial Batak people, being performed in order to strengthen the eater's ''tendi''. In particular, the blood, heart, palms and soles of the feet were seen as rich in ''tendi''. In Marco Polo’s memoirs of his stay on the east coast of Sumatra (then called Java Minor) from April to September 1292, he mentions an encounter with hill folk whom he refers to as "man-eaters". From secondary sources, Marco Polo recorded stories of ritual cannibalism among the "Battas". Marco Polo's stay was restricted to the coastal areas, and he never ventured inland to directly verify such claims. Despite never personally witnessing these events, he was nonetheless willing to pass on descriptions which were provided to him, in which a condemned man was eaten: "They suffocate him. And when he is dead they have him cooked, and gather together all the dead man's kin, and eat him. And I assure you they do suck the very bones till not a particle of marrow remains in them...And so they eat him up stump and rump. And when they have thus eaten him they collect his bones and put them in fine chests, and carry them away, and place them in caverns among the mountains where no beast nor other creature can get at them. And you must know also that if they take prisoner a man of another country, and he cannot pay a ransom in coin, they kill him and eat him straightway. The Venetian Niccolò de' Conti (1395–1469) spent most of 1421 in Sumatra in the course of a long trading journey to
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
(1414–1439), and wrote a brief description of the inhabitants: "In a part of the island called Batech live cannibals who wage continual war on their neighbors." Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles in the 1820s studied the Batak and their rituals and laws regarding the consumption of human flesh, writing in detail about the transgressions that warranted such an act as well as their methods. Raffles stated that "It is usual for the people to eat their parents when too old to work," and that for certain crimes a criminal would be eaten alive: "The flesh is eaten raw or grilled, with lime, salt and a little rice." The German physician and geographer Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn visited the Batak lands between 1840 and 1841. Junghuhn says about cannibalism among the Batak (whom he called "Battaer"): "People do the honest Battaer an injustice when it is said that they sell human flesh in the markets, and that they slaughter their old people as soon as they are unfit for work...They eat human flesh only in wartime, when they are enraged, and in a few legal instances." Junghuhn tells how after a perilous and hungry flight he arrived in a friendly village, and the food that was offered by his hosts was the flesh of two prisoners who had been slaughtered the day before, however he maintains that the Batak exaggerated their love of human flesh in order to frighten off would-be invaders and to gain occasional employment as
mercenaries A mercenary, sometimes also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a member of any ...
for the coastal tribes who were plagued by
pirates Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
. Oscar von Kessel visited Silindung in the 1840s and in 1844 was probably the first European to observe a Batak cannibalistic ritual in which a convicted adulterer was eaten alive. His description parallels that of Marsden in some important respects, however von Kessel states that cannibalism was regarded by the Batak as a judicial act and its application was restricted to very narrowly defined infringements of the law including theft,
adultery Adultery (from Latin ''adulterium'') is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. Although the sexual activities that constitute adultery vary, as well as the social, religious, and leg ...
, spying or treason. Salt, red pepper and lemons had to be provided by the relatives of the victim as a sign that they accepted the
verdict In law, a verdict is the formal finding of fact made by a jury on matters or questions submitted to the jury by a judge. In a bench trial, the judge's decision near the end of the trial is simply referred to as a finding. In England and Wal ...
of the community and were not thinking of revenge. Ida Laura Pfeiffer visited the Batak in August 1852 and although she did not observe any cannibalism, she was told that: :"
Prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held Captivity, captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold priso ...
are tied to a tree and beheaded at once; but the blood is carefully preserved for drinking, and sometimes made into a kind of pudding with boiled rice. The body is then distributed; the ears, the nose, and the soles of the feet are the exclusive property of the
Rajah ''Raja'' (; from , IAST ') is a royal title used for South Asian monarchs. The title is equivalent to king or princely ruler in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The title has a long history in South Asia and Southeast Asia, being attes ...
, who has besides a claim on other portions. The palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, the flesh of the head, and the heart and liver, are reckoned peculiar delicacies, and the flesh in general is roasted and eaten with salt. The
Regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state ''pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy, ...
s assured me, with a certain air of relish, that it was very good food, and that they had not the least objection to eat it. The women are not allowed to take part in these grand public dinners." Samuel Munson and Henry Lyman, American Baptist missionaries to the Batak, were cannibalized in 1834. Dutch and German
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
to the Batak in the late 19th century observed a few instances of cannibalism and wrote lurid descriptions to their home
parish A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or ...
es in order to raise donations for further missions. The growing Dutch influence in northern Sumatra led to increased Malay influence in coastal trade and plantations, pushing the Karo farther inland. Growing ethnic tensions culminated in the
1872 Karo Rebellion Year 187 ( CLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Quintius and Aelianus (or, less frequently, year 940 ''Ab urbe c ...
where the Karo were suppressed by Dutch and Malay forces. Despite this, Karo resistance to Dutch imperialism lingered into the early 20th century. In 1890 the Dutch colonial government banned cannibalism in the regions under their control. Rumors of Batak cannibalism survived into the early 20th century but it seems probable that the custom was rare after 1816, due partially to the influence of Islam.


Tarombo

Family tree or lineage is a very important thing for the Batak, as those who do not know the lineage will be considered as a strayed (''nalilu'') Batak. Batak people are required to know their lineage or at least the ancestors of which the family name ( Marga (Batak)) and the related clans (''dongan tubu'') came from. This is necessary in order to determine the relation of a kinship (''partuturanna'') within a clan or simply the surname ( Marga (Batak)) itself.


Geography

The Batak lands consist of
North Sumatra North Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Utara) is a province of Indonesia located on the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan. North Sumatra is Indonesia's fourth most populous province after West Java, East Java ...
province, excluding Nias island, the historically Malay kingdoms of the east coast and the western coast of
Minangkabau people Minangkabau people ( min, Urang Minang; Indonesian or Malay: ''Orang Minangkabau'' or ''Minangkabo''; Jawi: منڠكبو), also known as Minang, are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indon ...
. In addition, part of the Karo lands extend into modern-day East Aceh Regency in
Aceh Aceh ( ), officially the Aceh Province ( ace, Nanggroë Acèh; id, Provinsi Aceh) is the westernmost province of Indonesia. It is located on the northernmost of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capital and largest city. Granted a s ...
province, while parts of the Mandailing lands lie in Rokan Hulu Regency in Riau. Significant numbers of Batak have migrated in recent years to prosperous neighbouring Riau province. To the south of North Sumatra are the Muslim Minangkabau of
West Sumatra West Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Barat) is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. The province has an area of , with a population of 5,534,472 at the 2020 cen ...
, while to the north there are various Muslim Acehnese peoples.


Traditional Batak religion

The various Batak cultures differ in their pre-colonial religious ideas as they do in many other aspects of culture. Information about the old religious ideas of the Mandailing and Angkola in southern Batakland is incomplete, and very little is known about the religion of the Pakpak and Simalungun Batak. For the Toba and
Karo Karo may refer to: Ethnic groups * Karo people (East Africa), a group of tribes in East Africa * Karo people (Ethiopia), an ethnic group from Ethiopia * Karo people (Indonesia), the indigenous people of the Karo Plateau in North Sumatra Language ...
on the other hand the evidence in the writings of missionaries and colonial administrators is relatively abundant. Information on the traditional forms of Batak religion is derived mainly from the writings of
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
and Dutch missionaries who became increasingly concerned with Batak beliefs towards the end of the 19th century. Various influences affected the Batak through their contact with Tamil and Javanese traders and settlers in southern Batakland, and the east and west coast near Barus and Tapanuli, in particular the large
Padang Lawas temple complex Padang Lawas is an archaeological site in Indonesia in Padang Lawas Regency and North Padang Lawas Regency in North Sumatra. The remains of Hindu-Buddhist temple complex are located there. The most well-preserved temple are the Bahal temple C ...
in Tapanuli. These contacts took place many centuries ago and it is impossible to reconstruct just how far the religious ideas of these foreigners were adopted and reworked by the Batak. It is suggested that the Batak adopted aspects of these religions, specifically Mahayana Buddhist,
Shaivist Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the God, Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates ...
, and Tantrist practices within their own customs. The modern Indonesian state is founded on the principles of pancasila, which requires the belief in 'one and only God', the practice of either Protestantism, Catholicism, Islam, Buddhism or Hinduism, one of which must be entered on an individual's KTP. Traditional religions are not officially recognised, and accordingly traditional religions are increasingly marginalised, although aspects of the traditional Batak religion are still practised alongside Christianity.


Creation myths

There are many different versions in circulation. These were formerly passed down through oral tradition but have now been written down in the local languages. There are also large collections of Batak tales collected by European scholars since the mid-19th century and recorded in European languages, mostly Dutch. At the beginning of time there was only the sky with a great sea beneath it. In the sky lived the gods and the sea was the home of a mighty underworld dragon ''Naga Padoha''. The earth did not yet exist and human beings, too, were as yet unknown. All the surviving
myths Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrati ...
record that at the beginning of creation stands the god ''Mula Jadi Na Bolon''. His origin remains uncertain. A rough translation of the name is the "beginning of becoming". The creation of everything that exists can be traced back to him. ''Mula Jadi'' lives in the upper world which is usually thought of as divided into seven levels. His three sons, ''Batara Guru'', ''Mangalabulan'' and ''Soripada'' were born from eggs laid by a hen fertilized by ''Mula Jadi''. Two swallows act as messengers and helpers to ''Mula Jadi'' in his act of creation. Their functions vary in the different versions. ''Mula Jadi'' begets three daughters whom he gives as wives for his three sons. Mankind is the result of the union of the three couples. Besides the three sons of ''Mula Jadi'' there is another god, ''Asiasi'', whose place and function in the world of the gods remains largely unclear. There is some evidence that ''Asiasi'' can be seen as the balance and unity of the trinity of gods. The ruler of the underworld, i. e. the primeval sea, is the serpent-dragon ''Naga Padoha''. He too existed before the beginning and seems to be the opponent of ''Mula Jadi''. As ruler of the underworld ''Naga Padoha'' also has an important function in the creation of the earth. What all the six gods so far mentioned have in common is that they play a minor role in ritual. They do not receive any sacrificial offerings from the faithful and no places of sacrifice are built for them. They are merely called on in prayers for help and assistance. The origin of the earth and of mankind is connected mainly with the daughter of ''Batara Guru'', ''Sideak Parujar'', who is the actual creator of the earth. She flees from her intended husband, the lizard-shaped son of ''Mangalabulan'', and lets herself down on a spun thread from the sky to the middle world which at that time was still just a watery waste. She refuses to go back but feels very unhappy. Out of compassion ''Mula Jadi'' sends his granddaughter a handful of earth so that she can find somewhere to live. ''Sideak Parudjar'' was ordered to spread out this earth and thus the earth became broad and long. But the goddess was not able to enjoy her rest for long. The earth had been spread out on the head of ''Naga Padoha'', the dragon of the underworld who lived in the water. He groaned under the weight and attempted to get rid of it by rolling around. The earth was softened by water and threatened to be utterly destroyed. With the help of ''Mula Jadi'' and by her own cunning ''Sideak Parudjar'' was able to overcome the dragon. She thrust a sword into the body of ''Naga Padoha'' up to the hilt and laid him in an iron block. Whenever ''Naga Padoha'' twists in the fetters an earthquake occurs. After the lizard-shaped son of ''Mangalabulan'', the husband the gods intended for her, had taken another name and another form, ''Sideak Parujar'' marries him. ''Sideak Parujar'' becomes the mother of twins of different sexes. When the two have grown up their divine parents return to the upper world leaving the couple behind on the earth. Mankind is the result of their incestuous union. The couple settle on Pusuk Buhit, a volcano on the western shore of
Lake Toba Lake Toba ( id, Danau Toba) ( Toba Batak: ᯖᯀᯬ ᯖᯬᯅ; romanized: ''Tao Toba'') is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the ...
, and found the village of Si Anjur Mulamula. The mythological ancestor of the Batak, ''Si Raja Batak'' is one of their grandchildren.


The ''tendi'' cult

In the religious world of the Toba and Karo Batak the gods and the creation of mankind are far less significant than the complex concepts connected with the ''tendi'' (Karo) or ''tondi'' (Toba) and the ''begu''. Probably the most useful translations of these terms are "life-soul" and "death-soul". A person receives his "life-soul" (''tendi'') from ''Mula Jadi Na Bolon'' before he is born. The
destiny Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin ''fatum'' "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. Fate Although oft ...
of the individual ''tendi'' is decided by the ''tendi'' itself before birth. Various myths are woven around manner in which the ''tendi'' choose their destiny from ''Mula Jadi''. Warneck, a missionary and for a long time superintendent (''ephorus'') of the Batak Church, recorded two particularly expressive myths in his major work on Batak religion. What is significant is that the ''tendi'' themselves are responsible for their destiny: :"''Mula Jadi'' presents him with all kinds of things to choose from. If the ''tendi'' asks for ripe eggs, then the person whom he animates will be a poor fellow; if he asks for flowers, then he will live only a short time; if he asks for a hen, the person will be restless; rags indicate poverty; an old mat, lack of fame; a gold piece, wealth; plate, spear, medicine pot indicate that he will become a great chief or understand magic arts." :"With ''Mula Jadi'' in the upper world is a mighty tree called ''Djambubarus''. ''Mula Jadi'' has written on all its leaves. On one leaf is written 'many children', on others 'wealth' or 'respect' and so on. 'Contemptible life', 'poverty', 'wretchedness' are also written on the leaves. All the possible different fates of the person are entered on the leaves. Every ''tendi'' that wishes to descend to the middle world must first ask ''Mula Jadi'' for one of the leaves. Whatever is written on the leaf chosen by him will be his destiny in the middle world." Among the Karo and the Toba there are sometimes widely diverging versions of where the ''tendi'' dwells and how many ''tendi'' there are. According to the Toba a person has seven ''tendi''. The second ''tendi'' is found in the
placenta The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ (anatomy), organ that begins embryonic development, developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation (embryology), implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrien ...
and amniotic fluid of the new-born baby, and accordingly the afterbirth is given special attention after the birth of a child. It is usually buried under the house, is called ''saudara'' (brother) and is regarded as the person's guardian spirit. Similar ideas about the afterbirth are also found among the Karo, who also bury the placenta and amniotic fluid under the house and regard them as two guardian spirits (''kaka'' and ''agi'') who always remain close to the person. All Batak regard the loss of ''tendi'' as signifying a great danger for "body and soul". ''Tendi'' can be separated from their owners through inattentiveness, or as a result of black magic by a ''datu'' with evil intentions. In other words, the ''tendi'' is not tied to the body; it can also live for a time outside the body. The final loss of the ''tendi'' inevitably results in death. There are a variety of ideas about where exactly in the body the ''tendi'' dwells. It is present to a particularly high degree in certain parts of the body, especially the blood, the liver, the head and the heart. Sweat too is described as rich in ''tendi''. It is believed that illnesses are connected with the absence of ''tendi'', and the bringing back of the ''tendi'' is a main method of healing. The Karo, for instance, have gifts, called ''upah tendi'' (''upah'' = wage, payment, gift), which they give to their ''tendi'' so that their ''tendi'' stay with them. These gifts may consist of a knife, a gong, a particular piece of clothing, a water buffalo or a small holy place. The gifts are carefully cared for in order to keep the ''tendi'' satisfied. ''Tendi'' love the sound of the ''surdam'' (a bamboo flute). If a ''tendi'' has abandoned the body of a patient, the playing of the ''surdam'' in the ''raleng tendi'' ritual can contribute to the ''tendi'' returning to the body of the sick person. It must be emphasized that only the ''datuk'' are in a position to interpret and influence people's ''tendi'' correctly. If their endeavors are unsuccessful, then clearly the ''tendi'' has chosen another destiny for itself.


Death cult

At death the ''tendi'' leaves the human body through the
fontanelle A fontanelle (or fontanel) (colloquially, soft spot) is an anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising soft membranous gaps ( sutures) between the cranial bones that make up the calvaria of a fetus or an infant. Fontanelles allo ...
and the "death-soul" (''begu'') is set free. It is thought that the ''tendi'' vanishes and after the death of any human being only the ''begu'' continues to exist. The Batak believe that the ''begu'' continue to live near their previous dwelling (in a village of the dead which is thought to be situated not far from the cemetery) and that they may contact their descendants. Bad dreams, particular misfortune and such like may be signs that the ''begu'' of an ancestor is not satisfied with the behavior of its descendants. Any individual can attempt to pacify an enraged ''begu'' by means of food and drink offerings and prayers. If this does not work, a ''datu'' or a ''guru'' must be called in. The ''begu'' are not immortal, since death also rules in the land of the dead: a ''begu'' dies seven times before it is changed into a straw and finally becomes earth. The Batak believe that three categories of ''begu'' exist. The ''bicara guru'' are the ''begu'' of stillborn babies or of babies who have died before teething. It is possible to turn ''bicara guru'' into guardian spirits if misfortune has befallen the family of the child shortly after its death. With the help of a ''guru sibaso'', the ''bicara guru'' can be made the family's guardian spirit for which a shrine is provided and to which sacrifices are regularly made. Once a year the ''bicara guru'' is accorded a special feast, preceded by ritual hair washing. The ''begu'' of members of the family who have had a sudden death (''mate sada-uari'') can also act as guardian spirits for the family. They include the victims of accidents, suicides, murder victims, or people struck by lightning. A shrine is built where they are venerated and where sacrifices are made. A third category consists of the ''begu'' of dead virgins (''tungkup''). Their graves, called ''bata-bata'' or ''ingan tungkup'', are maintained for a long time by their relatives.


Burial traditions

Batak
burial Burial, also known as interment or inhumation, is a method of final disposition whereby a dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objec ...
traditions are very rich and complex. Immediately after death various ritual actions are performed to make the ''begu'' understand that from now on its world is separate from that of its kin. Symbolically this is done by reversing the mat on which the corpse is laid out so that the body lies with its head at the foot of the mat. Thumbs and toes respectively are tied together and the body is rubbed all over with
camphor Camphor () is a waxy, colorless solid with a strong aroma. It is classified as a terpenoid and a cyclic ketone. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel ('' Cinnamomum camphora''), a large evergreen tree found in East Asia; and in the k ...
and its orifices stopped with
camphor Camphor () is a waxy, colorless solid with a strong aroma. It is classified as a terpenoid and a cyclic ketone. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel ('' Cinnamomum camphora''), a large evergreen tree found in East Asia; and in the k ...
, then it is wrapped in a white cotton cloth. During this ''perumah begu'' ceremony a ''guru sibaso'' declares to the ''begu'' of the deceased that it is definitely dead and must take leave of its relatives. Wealthier families have their coffins (Karo: '' pelangkah'') made of the wood of the '' kemiri'' tree ('' Aleurites moluccanus''), carved in the shape of a boat, its bow decorated with the carved head of a
hornbill Hornbills (Bucerotidae) are a family of bird found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Melanesia. They are characterized by a long, down-curved bill which is frequently brightly coloured and sometimes has a casque on the upper mandib ...
, or a horse, or a mythical beast known as a singa. The lid is then sealed with
resin In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. Resins are usually mixtures of organic compounds. This article focuses on n ...
and the coffin may be placed in a special location near the family's house until a reburial ceremony can take place. Families that are not wealthy use simple wooden coffins or wrap the body in a straw mat. The corpse is carried a few times round the house, usually by women, and then to the
cemetery A cemetery, burial ground, gravesite or graveyard is a place where the remains of dead people are buried or otherwise interred. The word ''cemetery'' (from Greek , "sleeping place") implies that the land is specifically designated as a bu ...
with musical accompaniment from the '' gondang'' orchestra and the continual firing of guns. At any crossroads the corpse is put down and eleven people go around it four times to confuse the ''begu''. It is hoped that the ''begu'' will then be unable to find its way back to the village. When the funeral procession arrives at the cemetery the grave is dug and the corpse laid in it, flat on its back. Care is taken that the head lies towards the village so that, in the unexpected event that the body should get up, he or she will not be looking in the direction of the village. The bodies of ''datuk'' and those who have died from lightning are buried sitting up with their hands tied together. The palms of the hand are tied together and betel placed between them.


Reburial

The burial tradition includes a reburial ceremony in which the bones of one's ancestors are reinterred several years after death. This secondary burial is known among the Toba Batak as ''mangongkal holi'', among the Karo as ''nurun-nurun''. In a ceremony lasting several days the bones of a particularly honored ancestor and those of his descendants are exhumed, cleaned, mourned and finally laid to rest again in a bone house known as a ''tugu'' or ''tambak'': :"On the morning of the first day of the festival the graves in the cemetery are opened and the bones of the ancestors that are still there are removed. The unearthing of the skulls is presented as especially moving. The bones are collected in baskets lined with white cloth and then ritually cleaned by the women using the juice of various
citrus ''Citrus'' is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus ''Citrus'' is nati ...
fruits. The exhumation and cleaning of the bones is accompanied by the singing of laments. The bones are kept in the baskets in the ''tugu'' until the next morning, when the remains are wrapped in traditional cloths ('' ulos'') and transferred from the baskets to small wooden coffins. After long speeches and a communal prayer the coffins are nailed down and placed in the chambers of the ''tugu''. A feast consisting of meat and rice follows and traditional dances are performed." In ancient times these sarcophagi were carved from stone or constructed from wood and later brick. Nowadays they are made of cement or concrete. Large and very ornate ''tugu'' can be seen around Lake Toba and on the island of Samosir. One motive for the reburial ceremony appears to be to raise the status of the ''begu'' of the deceased. Traditional Batak beliefs hold that the dead occupy a hierarchical status similar to the social position they held in life. This means that a rich and powerful individual remains influential after death, and this status can be elevated if the family holds a reburial ceremony. A rich descendant can advance a ''begu'' to the status of a ''sumangot'' by means of a great ceremony and a ''horja'' feast which can last up to seven days. In antiquity a vast number of pigs, cattle or even buffalo were slaughtered at such festivals, and the ''gondang'' orchestra provided an accompaniment. The next level up from the ''sumangot'' is the ''sombaon'', who are the spirits of important ancestors who lived ten to twelve generations ago. To raise a ''sumangot'' to a ''sombaon'' requires another great festival, a ''santi rea'', often lasting several months, during which the inhabitants of the whole district come together. These powerful ancestor spirits offer protection and good fortune to their descendants, but the ceremony also serves to establish new
kinship In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says th ...
groups descended from the ancestor thus honored.


Traditional Batak medicine

In traditional Batak society ''datuk'' (animist priests) as well as '' gurus'' practiced
traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before th ...
, although the former were exclusively male. Both professions were attributed with supernatural powers and the ability to predict the future. Treatments and healing rituals bear some resemblance to those practiced by dukuns in other parts of Indonesia. Following the Christianization of the Toba and Karo Batak in the late 19th century, missionaries discouraged traditional healing and divination and they became largely clandestine activities. Both ''datu'' and ''guru'' healers also practiced divination by consulting a '' pustaha'', a handwritten book made of wood and bark in which were inscribed recipes for healing remedies, incantations and songs, predictive calendars, and other notes on magic, healing and divination written in ''poda,'' an archaic Batak shorthand. According to Winkler, there were three categories of '' Pustaha'' based on the purpose of their usage: :1. Protective Magic, which includes diagnosis, therapy, medicinal mixes which have magical properties, such as
amulets An amulet, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word amuletum, which Pliny's ''Natural History'' describes as "an object that protect ...
, ''parmanisan'' (love charms), etc. :2. Destructive Magic, which encompasses the art of making poison, the art of controlling or utilizing the power of certain spirits, calling the ''pangulubalang'', and the art of making ''dorma'' (magical formulas for causing a person to fall in love). :3. Divination, which involves oracles (words of the gods), the wishes of the spirits, commands from the gods and from the spirits of the ancestors, and an
almanac An almanac (also spelled ''almanack'' and ''almanach'') is an annual publication listing a set of current information about one or multiple subjects. It includes information like weather forecasts, farmers' planting dates, tide tables, and othe ...
or calendrical system (''porhalaan''), and
astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...
to determine auspicious days and months to accomplish certain actions or goals.Voorma, pp. 71–77. The ''datu'' or ''guru'' consulted the '' pustaha'' when presented with a difficult problem, and in time this became in itself a ritual. When missionaries began to discourage traditional healing and augury the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts o ...
may have been adopted by some ''gurus'' in place of the '' pustaha''. Among the most important healing ceremonies performed in Toba and Karo communities is that of recalling the ''jinujung,'' or personal guardian spirit. According to Toba and Karo
cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in Latin by German philosophe ...
, each person receives a ''jinujung'' in childhood or at
puberty Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads: the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a b ...
and they keep it for life unless they are unfortunate enough to lose it, in which case they will fall ill. In order to call the ''jinujung'' back, a female ''guru'' (''guru sibaso'' in Karo) goes into a
trance Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the dir ...
and the ''jinujung'' will enter into her and speak through her mouth. At this time the sick person or the family can negotiate ritual payment to entice it to return. Traditional healers are not powerful enough to cure illness due to the loss of a person's ''tendi'' (this falls under the jurisdiction of the ''datuk''), however they do play a role in communicating with ''begu'' and influencing their behavior.


Religions


Christianity

At the time of Marco Polo's visit in 1292 the people were described as "wild
idolaters Idolatry is the worship of a cult image or "idol" as though it were God. In Abrahamic religions (namely Judaism, Samaritanism, Christianity, the Baháʼí Faith, and Islam) idolatry connotes the worship of something or someone other than the Go ...
" who had not been influenced by outside religions, however by
Ibn Battuta Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (, ; 24 February 13041368/1369),; fully: ; Arabic: commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim ...
's visit in 1345
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
traders had established river-ports along the northern coasts of Sumatra and Sultan Al-Malik Al-Dhahir had recently converted to Islam. Sir Stamford Raffles perceived the Batak lands as a buffer between the Islamic Aceh and Minang kingdoms, and encouraged Christian missionary work to preserve this. This policy was continued by the Dutch, who deemed the non-Muslim lands the 'Bataklanden'. In 1824 two British
Baptist Baptists form a major branch of Protestantism distinguished by baptizing professing Christianity, Christian believers only (believer's baptism), and doing so by complete Immersion baptism, immersion. Baptist churches also generally subscribe ...
missionaries, Richard Burton and Nathaniel Ward, set off on foot from Sibolga and traveled through the Batak lands. After three days' journey they reached the high valley of Silindung and spent about two weeks in the Batak region. Considering the shortness of their stay their account reveals very intensive first-hand observation. This was followed in 1834 by
Henry Lyman (missionary) Henry Lyman (Northampton, Massachusetts 23 November 1809–Sacca village, Lobu Pining, Tarutung, Sumatra 28 June 1834) was an American Baptist missionary murdered in Sumatra together with his colleague Samuel Munson.A biographical study of Ingw ...
and
Samuel Munson Samuel Munson (1804 in New Sharon, Maine – 28 June 1834 in Sacca, Lopu Pining, Tapanuli, Sumatra) was an American Baptist missionary who, together with his colleague Henry Lyman, was murdered and cannibalised in Sumatra Sumatra is one ...
from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions who met with a more hostile reception. According to Ida Pfeiffer: :"Some time before the arrival of the missionaries the unfortunate Americans presented themselves as religious teachers, the Battakers felt that these people were invaders, and resolving to be beforehand with their tormentors, they killed them and ate them up." Herman Neubronner van der Tuuk was employed by the Nederlands Bijbel Genootschap (Netherlands Bible Society) in the 1850s to produce a Batak–Dutch grammar-book and a dictionary, which enabled future Dutch and German missionaries to undertake the conversion of the Toba and Simalungan Batak. The first German missionaries to the Lake Toba region arrived in 1861, and a mission was established in 1881 by Dr. Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen of the German
Rhenish Missionary Society The Rhenish Missionary Society (''Rhenish'' of the river Rhine) was one of the largest Protestant missionary societies in Germany. Formed from smaller missions founded as far back as 1799, the Society was amalgamated on 23 September 1828, and its ...
. The
New Testament The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
was first translated into Toba Batak by Dr. Nommensen in 1869 and a translation of the
Old Testament The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
was completed by P. H. Johannsen in 1891. The complete text was printed in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
script in
Medan Medan (; English: ) is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra, as well as a regional hub and financial centre of Sumatra. According to the National Development Planning Agency, Medan is one of the four ma ...
in 1893, although a paper describes the translation as "not easy to read, it is rigid and not fluent, and sounds strange to the Batak… itha number of errors in the translation." The Toba and Karo Batak accepted
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesu ...
rapidly and by the early 20th century it had become part of their cultural identity. This period was characterized by the arrival of Dutch colonists and while most Batak did not oppose the Dutch, the Toba Batak fought a guerrilla war that lasted into the early 20th century and ended only with the death in 1907 of their charismatic priest-warrior-king Si Sisingamangaraja XII, who had battled the Dutch during the First Toba War with both magic and weaponry.


Batak churches

The Huria Kristen Batak Protestan ( HKBP) Church was established in Balige in September, 1917. By the late 1920s a nursing school was training
nurse Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health ...
midwives there. In 1941, the Gereja Batak Karo Protestan (GBKP) was established. Although missionaries ceded much power to Batak converts in the first decades of the 20th century, Bataks never pressured the missionaries to leave and only took control of church activities as a result of thousands of foreign missionaries being interned or forced to leave after the 1942 invasion of Sumatra by the Japanese. The
Gereja Kristen Protestan Simalungun Gereja Kristen Protestan Simalungun (GKPS - Simalungun Protestant Christian Church) is a Lutheran and Reformed Protestant church formally founded to spread Christianity among the Simalungun people, a tribe living in Simalungun, North Sumatra, Ind ...
, originally part of the HKBP and preaching in Batak Toba language, eventually became a distinctively Simalungun church, adopting Simalungun customs and language, before finally incorporating as GKPS in 1963.


Islam

The Mandailing and Angkola people, occupying the southern Batak lands, came under the influence of the neighbouring Islamic
Minangkabau people Minangkabau people ( min, Urang Minang; Indonesian or Malay: ''Orang Minangkabau'' or ''Minangkabo''; Jawi: منڠكبو), also known as Minang, are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indon ...
as a result of the Padri War (1821–1837). Some Mandailing had previously converted to Islam, but the Padri war was a watershed event, with the Padris suppressing traditional customs (''
adat Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs. Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succe ...
'') and promoting 'pure' Islamic faith. Over time Mandailing Islam, has been brought closer to the predominant Southeastern Shafi`i school of Islam as a result of Mandailing discourse with other Islamic practitioners and the practice of hajj, although traditional elements remain, such as dividing inheritance among all children, a Mandailing rather than Islamic practice. Islam caused the decline in importance of marga, with many Mandailing abandoning their marga in favour of Muslim names, much less so among the Angkola to their North. The advent of Islam also caused the relegation of the datuk to a medicine man, with traditional rice-planting ceremonies and other such remnants of traditional culture deemed incompatible with Islam. The 'pasusur begu', a ceremony invoking ancestors to aid the community, was also suppressed. Other aspects of adat were however tolerated, with the Mandailing Islamic ideology placing adat on the same level as Islamic law, as in contrast with the Minang practice of placing Islamic law above adat. In more recent times, learned Islamic scholars (ulama) studying abroad, have suggested that many traditional Mandailing practices, such as the 'Raja' hereditary leaders, were in conflict with Islam, being indicative of 'pele begu'. The Islamist ulama were in conflict for authority with the Namora-Natora, the traditional village legal practitioners, who were influenced by adat as much as Islam. Christian missionaries had been active among the northern Mandailing from 1834 onwards, but their progress was restricted by the Dutch government, who feared conflict between newly converted Christians and Muslims. In addition, the lingua franca of the government was Malay, associated with Muslims, as were government civil servants, creating the perception that Islam was the religion of modernity and progress. Missionaries determined that resistance among the Muslim Mandailing to
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesu ...
was strong, and the
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
abandoned them as 'unreachable people', moving north to convert the Toba. At the turn of the 20th century, nearly all Mandailing and Angkola were
Muslims Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abra ...
. Despite this, the Dutch administration marked them as part of the Bataklanden, and therefore heathen or Christian. This perception was an inaccurate one, and many Mandailing strongly rejected the 'Batak' label. Abdullah Lubis, writing in the 1920s, claimed that while the Mandailing followed Batak marga practice, they had never followed the Batak religion, and that the Mandailing people pre-dated the Toba, having acquired marga directly from 'Hindu' visitors. In the Dutch census, the Mandailing objected strongly to being listed in the census as 'Batak Mandailing'. Mandailing in Malaysia (who migrated in the years following the Padri war), had no such objection to their being deemed '
Malays Malays may refer to: * Malay race, a racial category encompassing peoples of Southeast Asia and sometimes the Pacific Islands ** Overseas Malays, people of Malay race ancestry living outside Malay archipelago home areas ** Cape Malays, a communit ...
', and indeed Malaysian Mandailing retain little of their distinct identity, partly due to a British colonial policy of rice-land ownership restrictions for all but Malay-speaking Muslims, and the disapproval of 'Batak' Muslim practices by the existing Malay Muslim population.


Traditional Religions (Parmalim/Pemena)

Parmalim or Malim is the modern form of the Batak Toba religion. Practitioners of Malim are called Parmalim. At the end of the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th century the Parmalim movement, which originated in Toba lands spread to other areas of the Batak lands. Especially in the lower
Karo Karo may refer to: Ethnic groups * Karo people (East Africa), a group of tribes in East Africa * Karo people (Ethiopia), an ethnic group from Ethiopia * Karo people (Indonesia), the indigenous people of the Karo Plateau in North Sumatra Language ...
lands, the 'dusun' the Malim religion, became very influential as an expression of anti-colonial sentiments at the turn of the 20th century. Today the majority of Parmalim are Toba Batak. The largest of the several existing Parmalim groups has its centre in ''Huta Tinggi'' in the vicinity of ''Laguboti'' on the south shore of
Lake Toba Lake Toba ( id, Danau Toba) ( Toba Batak: ᯖᯀᯬ ᯖᯬᯅ; romanized: ''Tao Toba'') is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the ...
. Non-Malim Batak peoples (those following Christian or Muslim faith) often continue to believe certain aspects of traditional Batak spiritual belief. Another traditional religion of Batak is ''Pemena'', is a tribal religion of
Karo people Karo people may refer to: * Karo people (Indonesia) * Karo people (East Africa) *Karo people (Ethiopia) Karo (also Cherre, Kere, Kerre) is a South Omotic language spoken in the Debub (South) Omo Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, a ...
of Indonesia.Bangun, Roberto. 1989. ''Mengenal orang Karo''.Jakarta: Yayasan Pendidikan Bangun. Pemena means the first or the beginning. Pemena is regarded as the first religion of
Karo people Karo people may refer to: * Karo people (Indonesia) * Karo people (East Africa) *Karo people (Ethiopia) Karo (also Cherre, Kere, Kerre) is a South Omotic language spoken in the Debub (South) Omo Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, a ...
. One of the doctrines of Pemena is the concept of '' Dibata''. The 'Perodak-odak' movement among the Karo people in the 1960s was a reassertion of the traditional Karo religion, but has largely faded; a subsequent Karo movement to identify as Hindu was noted starting from the late 1970s in order to adopt, if only in name, one of the recognised religions of Indonesia, while in practice still following traditional beliefs.History of Christianity in Indonesia, p. 579


Notable people


See also

*
Batak architecture Batak architecture refers to the related architectural traditions and designs of the various Batak peoples of North Sumatra, Indonesia. There are six groups of Batak who speak separate but related languages: the Angkola, the Mandailing to the so ...
* Batak cuisine * Batak mythology * Batak script * Batak in Singapore * Hasapi * Marga (Batak) *
Museum Huta Balon Simanindo Museum Huta Bolon Simanindo is a museum on in the village of Simanindo on Samosir Island in Sumatra, Indonesia. The museum is housed in the former home of Rajah Simalungun, a Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of cl ...
* Naga morsarang *
Piso Halasan A Piso Halasan (also known as an Eccat, Ekkat, Engkat, or Piso Eccat) is a traditional sword of the Batak people from North Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Description A Piso Halasan is typically a sword with a hilt made of deer ho ...
* Porhalaan * Proto-Malay * Sigale Gale * Tandok dance * Tor-tor dance * Tunggal panaluan * Ulos


References


Sources

* *


External links


The family tree of the Batak languages, from Ethnologue.comMany articles about Batak in Indonesian language, from Silaban Brotherhood
* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20091229193152/http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/indon/batak.html Batak Religionbr>"Compassion," an excerpt from a memoir describing the ''Rumah Sakit HKBP'' in Balige (1988).A Bibliography of the Batak Peoples by Tunggul Siagian.Recording of the popular Batak song ''Nasonang Do Hita Nadua''

Silsilah Marga HarahapApa itu Marga Dari Batak, from KlikBatak.com
{{Authority control Ethnic groups in Indonesia Ethnic groups in Malaysia Ethnic groups in Sumatra Indonesian Lutherans History of Sumatra Ethnography