An aqueduct is a
watercourse
A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams a ...
constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away. In modern engineering, the term ''aqueduct'' is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose.
The term ''aqueduct'' also often refers specifically to a
bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or rail) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually somethi ...
carrying an artificial watercourse.
Aqueducts were used in
ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of Classical Antiquity, classical antiquity ( AD 600), th ...
,
ancient Egypt, and
ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
. The simplest aqueducts are small ditches cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts. Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. Modern aqueducts may also use pipelines. Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops and supply large cities with drinking water.
Etymology
The word ''aqueduct'' is derived from the Latin words (''water'') and (''led'' or ''guided'').
Ancient aqueducts
Although particularly associated with the Romans, aqueducts were devised much earlier in Greece, the
Near East,
Nile Valley, and
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
, where peoples such as the
Egyptians and
Harappans built sophisticated irrigation systems. Roman-style aqueducts were used as early as the 7th century BC, when the
Assyria
Assyria ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the ...
ns built an 80 km long limestone aqueduct, which included a 10 m high section to cross a 300 m wide valley, to carry water to their capital city,
Nineveh.
Crete
Although particularly associated with the
Romans
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
, aqueducts were likely first used by the
Minoans around 2000 BCE. The Minoans had developed what was then an extremely advanced
irrigation system
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been develop ...
, including several aqueducts.
India
The Indian subcontinent is believed to have some of the earliest aqueducts. Evidence can be found at the sites of present-day
Hampi, Karnataka. The massive aqueducts near river Tungabhadra supplying irrigation water were once long. The waterways supplied water to royal bath tubs.
Oman
In
Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
from the
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age ( Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age ( Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostl ...
, in Salut, Bat, and other sites, a system of underground aqueducts called
falaj
A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct; the system originated approximately 3,000 BC in what is now Iran. The function is essentially the same across ...
or qanāts were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels.
There are three types of falaj:
*Daudi (داوودية) with underground aqueducts
*Ghaili (الغيلية ) requiring a dam to collect the water
*Aini (العينية ) whose source is a water spring
These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dry land environment.
Persia
In
Persia
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
from early times a system of underground aqueducts called
qanāt
A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct; the system originated approximately 3,000 BC in what is now Iran. The function is essentially the same across ...
s were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels. This technique:
*taps into subterranean water in a manner that delivers water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains relying on gravity, with the destination lower than the source, which is typically an upland aquifer.
*allows water to be transported long distances in hot dry climates without losing a large proportion of the source water to seepage and evaporation.
Petra, Jordan
Throughout
Petra, Jordan, the
Nabataean
The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern L ...
engineers took advantage of every natural spring and every winter downpour to channel water where it was needed. They constructed aqueducts and piping systems that allowed water to flow across mountains, through gorges and into the temples, homes, and gardens of Petra's citizens. Walking through the
Siq
The Siq ( ar, السيق, transliterated ''al-Sīq'', transcribed ''as-Sīq'', literally 'the Shaft') is the main entrance to the ancient Nabatean city of Petra in southern Jordan. Also known as Siqit, it is a dim, narrow gorge (in some points ...
, one can easily spot the remains of channels that directed water to the city center, as well as durable retention dams that kept powerful flood waters at bay.
Greece
On the island of
Samos
Samos (, also ; el, Σάμος ) is a Greece, Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of western Turkey, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a se ...
, the
Tunnel of Eupalinos
The Tunnel of Eupalinos or Eupalinian aqueduct ( el, Ευπαλίνιον όρυγμα, translit=Efpalinion orygma) is a tunnel of length running through Mount Kastro in Samos, Greece, built in the 6th century BC to serve as an aqueduct. The tunn ...
was built during the reign of
Polycrates
Polycrates (; grc-gre, Πολυκράτης), son of Aeaces, was the tyrant of Samos from the 540s BC to 522 BC. He had a reputation as both a fierce warrior and an enlightened tyrant.
Sources
The main source for Polycrates' life and activit ...
(538-522 BC). It is considered an underground aqueduct and brought fresh water to
Pythagoreion for roughly a thousand years.
Roman
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
aqueducts were built in all parts of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...
, from Germany to Africa, and especially in the city of Rome, where they totalled over . The aqueducts supplied fresh water to public baths and for drinking water, in large cities across the empire, and set a standard of engineering that was not surpassed for more than a thousand years. Bridges, built in stone with multiple arches, were a distinctive feature of Roman aqueducts and hence the term ''aqueduct'' is often applied specifically to a
bridge for carrying water.
South America
Near the Peruvian town of Nazca, an ancient pre-Columbian system of aqueducts called
Puquios
Puquios (from Quechua ''pukyu'' meaning source, spring, or water well) are ancient systems of subterranean aqueducts which allow water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without loss of much of the water to evapora ...
were built and are still in use today. They were made of intricately placed stones, a construction material widely used by the Nazca culture. The time period in which they were constructed is still debated, but some evidence supports circa A.D. 540–552, in response to drought periods in the region.
The
Guayabo National Monument
Guayabo National Monument ( es, Monumento Nacional Guayabo), is an archaeological site near the city of Turrialba, within the Central Conservation Area in the Cartago Province, Costa Rica. It is almost directly in the center of the country on th ...
of Costa Rica, a park covering the largest archaeological site in the country, contains a system of aqueducts. The complex network of uncovered and covered aqueducts still functions well. The aqueducts are constructed from rounded river stones, which are mostly made of
volcanic rock
Volcanic rock (often shortened to volcanics in scientific contexts) is a rock formed from lava erupted from a volcano. In other words, it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Like all rock types, the concept of volcanic ...
. The civilization that constructed the aqueduct system remains a mystery to archaeologists; it is suspected that Guayabo's aqueducts sat at a point of ancient cultural confluence between Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas.
North America
When Europeans saw the
Aztec
The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl ...
capital
Tenochtitlán, early in the 16th century, the city was watered by two aqueducts. One of these,
Chapultepec Aqueduct
The Chapultepec aqueduct (in Spanish: acueducto de Chapultepec) was built to provide potable water to Tenochtitlan, now known as Mexico City. This fresh water was transported from the Chapultepec springs. Two aqueducts following the same route fro ...
, built circa 1420, was rebuilt by the Spanish almost three hundred years later. Originally tracing part of its path over now-gone
Lake Texcoco
Lake Texcoco ( es, Lago de Texcoco) was a natural lake within the "Anahuac" or Valley of Mexico. Lake Texcoco is best known as where the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on an island within the lake. After the Spanish con ...
, only a fragment remains in
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital city, capital and primate city, largest city of Mexico, and the List of North American cities by population, most populous city in North Amer ...
today.
Sri Lanka
Extensive usage of elaborate aqueducts have been found to have been used in ancient
Sri Lanka. The best example is the
Yoda Ela or Jaya Ganga, an long water canal carrying excess water between two artificial reservoirs with a
gradient
In vector calculus, the gradient of a scalar-valued differentiable function of several variables is the vector field (or vector-valued function) \nabla f whose value at a point p is the "direction and rate of fastest increase". If the gr ...
of 10 to 20 cm per kilometer during the fifth century AD. However, the ancient engineering methods in calculating the exact elevation between the two reservoirs and the exact gradient of the canal to such fine precision had been lost with the fall of the civilization in 13th Century.
Modern aqueducts
Modern aqueducts are a central part of many countries' water distribution infrastructure.
The United States' aqueducts are some of the world's largest. The
Catskill Aqueduct carries water to New York City over a distance of 120 miles (190 km), but is dwarfed by aqueducts in the far west of the country, most notably the 242-mile (389-km)
Colorado River Aqueduct
The Colorado River Aqueduct, or CRA, is a water conveyance in Southern California in the United States, operated by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD). The aqueduct impounds water from the Colorado River at Lake Hav ...
, which supplies the Los Angeles area with water from the Colorado River nearly 250 miles to the east and the
California Aqueduct
The Governor Edmund G. Brown California Aqueduct is a system of canals, tunnels, and pipelines that conveys water collected from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and valleys of Northern and Central California to Southern California. Named after Califo ...
, which runs from the
Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta to
Lake Perris
Lake Perris is an artificial lake completed in 1973. It is the southern terminus of the California State Water Project, situated in a mountain-rimmed valley between Moreno Valley and Perris, in what is now the Lake Perris State Recreation Area. ...
. The
Central Arizona Project
The Central Arizona Project (CAP) is a 336 mi (541 km) diversion canal in Arizona in the southern United States.
The aqueduct diverts water from the Colorado River to the Bill Williams Wildlife Refuge south portion of Lake Havasu ne ...
is the largest and most expensive aqueduct constructed in the United States. It stretches 336 miles from its source near
Parker, Arizona
Parker ( Mojave 'Amat Kuhwely, formerly 'Ahwe Nyava) is the county seat of La Paz County, Arizona, United States, on the Colorado River in Parker Valley. The population was 3,083 at the 2010 census.
History
Founded in 1908, the town was named ...
to the metropolitan areas of
Phoenix
Phoenix most often refers to:
* Phoenix (mythology), a legendary bird from ancient Greek folklore
* Phoenix, Arizona, a city in the United States
Phoenix may also refer to:
Mythology
Greek mythological figures
* Phoenix (son of Amyntor), a ...
and
Tucson
, "(at the) base of the black ill
, nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town"
, image_map =
, mapsize = 260px
, map_caption = Interactive map ...
.
An aqueduct in New Zealand, "the Oamaru Borough Race", was constructed in the late 19th century to deliver water (and water-power) about 50 km from the Waitaki River at Kurow to the coastal town of
Oamaru
Oamaru (; mi, Te Oha-a-Maru) is the largest town in North Otago, in the South Island of New Zealand, it is the main town in the Waitaki District. It is south of Timaru and north of Dunedin on the Pacific coast; State Highway 1 and the rai ...
.
In Spain, the
Tagus-Segura Water Transfer system of aqueducts opened in 1979 and transports water from north to south.
In China, the
South–North Water Transfer Project
The South–North Water Transfer Project, also translated as the South-to-North Water Diversion Project () is a multi-decade infrastructure mega-project in China. Ultimately it aims to channel 44.8 billion cubic meters of fresh water annually f ...
aims to connect the
Yangtze
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
River basin to Beijing through three separate systems. The project will reuse part of the
Grand Canal of China
The Grand Canal, known to the Chinese as the Jing–Hang Grand Canal (, or more commonly, as the「大运河」("Grand Canal")), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the longest canal or artificial river in the world. Starting in Beijing, it passes ...
.
Design
Open channels
The simplest aqueducts are small
ditch
A ditch is a small to moderate divot created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source for plant irrigation. Ditches ar ...
es cut into the earth. Much larger channels may be used in modern aqueducts, for instance the
Central Arizona Project
The Central Arizona Project (CAP) is a 336 mi (541 km) diversion canal in Arizona in the southern United States.
The aqueduct diverts water from the Colorado River to the Bill Williams Wildlife Refuge south portion of Lake Havasu ne ...
uses wide channels. A major factor in the design of all open channels is its gradient. A higher gradient allows a smaller channel to carry the same amount of water as a larger channel with a lower gradient, but increases the potential of the water to damage the aqueduct's structure. A typical Roman aqueduct had a gradient of about 1:4800.
Artificial rills
A constructed functional rill is a small canal or aqueduct of stone, brick, concrete, or other lining material, usually
rectilinear in
cross section
Cross section may refer to:
* Cross section (geometry)
** Cross-sectional views in architecture & engineering 3D
*Cross section (geology)
* Cross section (electronics)
* Radar cross section, measure of detectability
* Cross section (physics)
**Abs ...
, for
water transportation from a source such as a river, spring, reservoir,
qanat
A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct; the system originated approximately 3,000 BC in what is now Iran. The function is essentially the same across ...
, or aqueduct for domestic consumption or agricultural irrigation of crop land uses.
Rills were traditionally used in
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
ern and
Mediterranean climate
A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...
cultures of ancient and historical eras; and other climates and continents worldwide. They are distinguished from a 'water
ditch
A ditch is a small to moderate divot created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source for plant irrigation. Ditches ar ...
' by being lined to reduce absorption losses and to increase durability. The ''Falaj'' irrigation system at the
Al Ain Oasis, in present-day
Abu Dhabi Emirate
The Emirate of Abu Dhabi (, , or ; ar, إِمَارَةْ أَبُوظَبِي , ) is one of seven emirates that constitute the United Arab Emirates (UAE). It is by far the largest emirate, accounting for 87% of the nation's total land area ...
, uses rills as part of its
qanat
A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct; the system originated approximately 3,000 BC in what is now Iran. The function is essentially the same across ...
water system. Sometimes in the
Spanish language
Spanish ( or , Castilian) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from colloquial Latin spoken on the Iberian peninsula. Today, it is a global language with more than 500 million native speakers, mainly in th ...
they are called ''
Acequia
An acequia () or séquia () is a community-operated watercourse used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation. Particularly in Spain, the Andes, northern Mexico, and the modern-day American Southwest particularly n ...
s''.
Rills are also used for aesthetic purposes in landscape design. Rills are used as narrow channels of water inset into the pavement of a
garden
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate bot ...
, as linear
water feature
In landscape architecture and garden design, a water feature is one or more items from a range of fountains, jeux d'eau, pools, ponds, rills, artificial waterfalls, and streams. Before the 18th century they were usually powered by gravity, ...
s, and often tiled and part of a fountain design.
The historical origins are from
paradise garden
The paradise garden is a form of garden of Old Iranian origin, specifically Achaemenid which is formal, symmetrical and most often, enclosed. The most traditional form is a rectangular garden split into four quarters with a pond in the center, ...
religious images that first translated into ancient
Persian Gardens
The tradition and style of garden design represented by Persian gardens or Iranian gardens ( fa, باغ ایرانی), an example of the paradise garden, has influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the ...
. Rills were later exceptionally developed in the
Moorish (Spanish) Gardens of
Al-andalus
Al-Andalus translit. ; an, al-Andalus; ast, al-Ándalus; eu, al-Andalus; ber, ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ, label= Berber, translit=Andalus; ca, al-Àndalus; gl, al-Andalus; oc, Al Andalús; pt, al-Ândalus; es, al-Ándalus () was the M ...
, such as at the
Alhambra in
Granada; and also in other
Islamic gardens, cultures, and countries. Early 20th century examples are in the
María Luisa Park
Maria may refer to:
People
* Mary, mother of Jesus
* Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages
Place names Extraterrestrial
* 170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877
* Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, ...
gardens in Seville, Spain; and at the
Casa del Herrero gardens in
Montecito, California.
Tunnels
Aqueducts sometimes run for some or all of their path through tunnels constructed underground. A version of this common in North Africa and Central Asia that has vertical wells at regular intervals is called a qanat. One historic example found in Syria, the Qanat Firaun, extends over 100 kilometers.
Pipes
Modern aqueducts may also make extensive use of pipelines. Pipelines are useful for transporting water over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where open channels are poor choices due to considerations of
evaporation, freezing, pollution, or environmental impact. They can also be used to carry
treated water.
Uses
Historically, agricultural societies have constructed aqueducts to irrigate crops.
Archimedes invented the
water screw to raise water for use in irrigation of croplands.
Another use for aqueducts is to supply large cities with drinking water. It also help drought-prone areas with
water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. Thes ...
. Some of the Roman aqueducts still supply water to Rome today. In
California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
, United States, three large aqueducts supply water over hundreds of miles to the Los Angeles area. Two are from the
Owens River
The Owens River is a river in eastern California in the United States, approximately long.U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map accessed March 17, 2011, It drains into and through the ...
area, and a third is from the Colorado River.
In modern
civil engineering
Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewa ...
projects, detailed study and analysis of
open-channel flow
In fluid mechanics and hydraulics, open-channel flow is a type of liquid flow within a conduit with a free surface, known as a channel. The other type of flow within a conduit is pipe flow. These two types of flow are similar in many ways but di ...
is commonly required to support flood control, irrigation systems, and large water supply systems when an aqueduct rather than a pipeline is the preferred solution.
In the past, aqueducts often had channels made of earth or other porous materials but significant amounts of water are lost through such unlined aqueducts. As water gets increasingly scarce, these canals are being lined with concrete,
polymer
A polymer (; Greek '' poly-'', "many" + ''-mer'', "part")
is a substance or material consisting of very large molecules called macromolecules, composed of many repeating subunits. Due to their broad spectrum of properties, both synthetic a ...
s, or impermeable soil. In some cases, a new aqueduct is built alongside the old one because it cannot be shut down during construction.
Gallery
File:Roman aqueduct from Pools of Solomon to Jerusalem.jpg, View from inside a Roman aqueduct from the Pools of Solomon to Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
File:Albear Aqueduct in Habana, Cuba.png, Albear Aqueduct, Havana, Cuba.
See also
*
Acequia
An acequia () or séquia () is a community-operated watercourse used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation. Particularly in Spain, the Andes, northern Mexico, and the modern-day American Southwest particularly n ...
*
Zanja
*
Qanat
A qanat or kārīz is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct; the system originated approximately 3,000 BC in what is now Iran. The function is essentially the same across ...
*
Earthquake engineering
*
Goldfields Water Supply Scheme
The Goldfields Water Supply Scheme is a pipeline and dam project that delivers potable water from Mundaring Weir in Perth to communities in Western Australia's Eastern Goldfields, particularly Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie. The project was co ...
*
Leat
A leat (; also lete or leet, or millstream) is the name, common in the south and west of England and in Wales, for an artificial watercourse or aqueduct dug into the ground, especially one supplying water to a watermill or its mill pond. Othe ...
*
List of aqueducts
This is a list of aqueducts.
Africa
Botswana
*North-South Carrier
Egypt
* Aqueduct of the Nile (historic)
*Bahr Yussef
* Fresh Water Canal
*Ibrahimiya Canal
* Mahmoudiyah Canal
* Sadat Canal (see also New Valley Project)
* Sweet Water Canal
L ...
*
List of canal aqueducts in the United Kingdom
This list of canal aqueducts in the United Kingdom covers aqueducts that have articles in Wikipedia. The actual number of canal aqueducts is much greater.
See also
* :Aqueducts in the United Kingdom
*Navigable aqueduct
* Canals of the Unit ...
*
List of Roman aqueduct bridges
*
Navigable aqueduct
Navigable aqueducts (sometimes called water bridges) are bridge structures that carry navigable waterway canals over other rivers, valleys, railways or roads. They are primarily distinguished by their size, carrying a larger cross-section of wa ...
*
Pipeline
Pipeline may refer to:
Electronics, computers and computing
* Pipeline (computing), a chain of data-processing stages or a CPU optimization found on
** Instruction pipelining, a technique for implementing instruction-level parallelism within a s ...
– some used to carry water
*
Roman architecture
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome ...
*
Roman engineering
*
Sanitation in Ancient Rome
Sanitation in ancient Rome, acquired from the Etruscans, was well advanced compared to other ancient cities and provided water supply and sanitation services to residents of Rome. Although there were many sewers, public latrines, baths and other s ...
*
Water resources
Notes
References
*
Sextus Julius Frontinus,
De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae' (''On the water management of the city of Rome''), Translated by
R. H. Rodgers, 2003,
University of Vermont
The University of Vermont (UVM), officially the University of Vermont and State Agricultural College, is a public land-grant research university in Burlington, Vermont. It was founded in 1791 and is among the oldest universities in the United ...
*Chanson, H. (2002)
Certains Aspects de la Conception hydrauliques des Aqueducs Romains. ('Some Aspect on the Hydraulic Design of Roman Aqueducts.')Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 6/7, pp. 43–57 (ISSN 0018-6368)
*Chanson, H. (2008)
"The Hydraulics of Roman Aqueducts: What do we know? Why should we learn?"in Proceedings of World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 Ahupua'a, ASCE-EWRI Education, Research and History Symposium, Hawaii, USA, Invited Keynote lecture, 13–16 May, R.W. Badcock Jr and R. Walton Eds., 16 pages ()
Further reading
*Aicher, Peter J. 1995. ''Guide to the aqueducts of ancient Rome.'' Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci.
*Beltrán Lloris, Francisco. 2006. "An irrigation decree from Roman Spain: The ''Lex Rivi Hiberiensis''." ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 96: 147–97.
*Bruun, Christer. 1991. ''The water supply of ancient Rome: A study of Roman imperial administration.'' Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
*Coulton, J. J. 1987. "Roman aqueducts in Asia Minor." In ''Roman architecture in the Greek world.'' Edited by Sarah Macready and Frederick Hugh Thompson, 72–84. London: Society of Antiquaries.
*Frankel, R. 2002. "The Hellenistic aqueduct of Akko-Ptolemais." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology (Supplementary Studies)'' 46: 82–87.
*Grewe, Klaus. 2008. "Tunnels and canals." In ''The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world.'' Edited by John Peter Oleson, 319–36. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
*Hodge, A. Trevor. 1992. ''Roman aqueducts and water supply.'' London: Duckworth.
*Lewis, Michael Jonathan Taunton. 2001. ''Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome.'' Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
*Wilson, Andrew I. 1999. "Deliveries ''extra urbem'': Aqueducts and the countryside." ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 12: 314–32.
*--. 2008. "Hydraulic engineering and water supply." In ''The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world.'' Edited by John Peter Oleson, 337–68. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
External links
Waterhistory.org: Imperial Rome Water SystemsRomanaqueducts.info: 600 Roman aqueducts, with 25 descriptions in detail
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Routes
Water supply
Ancient inventions