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Afro-Bolivians are Bolivian people of
Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These include West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the List of sov ...
n heritage and therefore the descriptive "Afro-Bolivian" may refer to historical or cultural elements in
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
thought to emanate from their community. It can also refer to the combining of African and other cultural elements found in Bolivian society such as
religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...
,
music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect ...
,
language Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...
, the arts, and
class Class or The Class may refer to: Common uses not otherwise categorized * Class (biology), a taxonomic rank * Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects * Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used differentl ...
culture. The Afro-Bolivians are recognized as one of the constituent ethnic groups of Bolivia by the country's government, and are ceremonially led by a king who traces his descent back to a line of monarchs that reigned in Africa during the medieval period. They numbered 432,000 according to the 2012 census.


History of slavery in Bolivia

In 1544, the Spanish Conquistadors discovered the silver mines in a city now called
Potosí Potosí, known as Villa Imperial de Potosí in the colonial period, is the capital city and a municipality of the Department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world at a nominal . For centuries, it was the location o ...
, which is on the base of
Cerro Rico Cerro Rico (Spanish for "Rich Mountain"), Cerro Potosí ("Potosí Mountain") or Sumaq Urqu (Quechuan languages, Quechua ''sumaq'' "beautiful, good, pleasant", ''urqu'' "mountain", "beautiful (good or pleasant) mountain"), is a mountain in the A ...
. They began to enslave the natives as workers in the mines. However, the health of the natives working in the mines became very poor, so the Spanish began to bring in enslaved
Sub-Saharan Africans Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These include West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the African co ...
to work in the mines. Slaves were brought as early as the 16th century in Bolivia to work in mines. In Potosí during the 17th century 30,000 Africans were brought to work in the mines from which the total population of Potosí which numbered around 200,000. Slaves were more expensive in Bolivia then other parts of the Spanish colonies costing upwards to 800 pesos. This was due to the fact that they had to be bought from slave ports in the coastal region of the
Spanish empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
and had to trek from cities like Cartagena,
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, and
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
to Bolivia. Slaves were put to work in difficult conditions. Some slaves working in the mines survived no more than a few months. Initially, the slaves were not used to working at such a high altitude. Many of these Native and African workers' lives were cut short because of the toxic smelter fumes and
mercury Mercury commonly refers to: * Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun * Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg * Mercury (mythology), a Roman god Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to: Companies * Merc ...
vapors they inhaled while working the mines. Slaves worked in the mines for 4 months on average. As such they had to be blindfolded upon leaving the mines to protect their eyes, which had become adapted to darkness. Although it was a requirement for Natives and Africans over 18 years of age to work in the mines for 12-hour shifts, younger children were still reputed to be put to work in the mines. These children worked fewer hours; however, they were still exposed to the same extremely harsh conditions of all the miners, including
asbestos Asbestos () is a naturally occurring fibrous silicate mineral. There are six types, all of which are composed of long and thin fibrous crystals, each fibre being composed of many microscopic "fibrils" that can be released into the atmosphere b ...
, toxic gases, cave-ins, and explosions. It is estimated that as many as eight million Africans and Natives died from working the mines between 1545, when the Spaniards first put the Natives to work, until 1825, the end of the colonial period. Many newly brought slaves died due to harsh conditions and weather. The Spaniards' way of fortifying the slaves against the conditions in the mines was to provide them with
coca leaves Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine. The plant is grown as a cash crop in the Argentine Northwest, Bolivia, ...
to chew. By chewing coca leaves, the slaves numbed their senses to the cold, as well as dampening the feeling of hunger and alleviating altitude sickness. Just like the mines of Potosí, coca plantations became a cash-crop of the region. Thousands of slaves were shipped to cultivate and process coca leaves on Haciendas, like the ancestors of
Julio Pinedo Julio Pinedo (born 19 February 1942) is the ceremonial king of the Afro-Bolivian community of the Nor Yungas province, crowned in 1992, thirty years after the death of the previous king, his grandfather Bonifacio Pinedo. His position gained off ...
.


The Yungas

After their emancipation in the year 1827 (although its enforcement being postponed to 1851), Afro-Bolivians would relocate to a place called the
Yungas The Yungas (Aymara ''yunka'' warm or temperate Andes or earth, Quechua ''yunka'' warm area on the slopes of the Andes) is a bioregion of a narrow band of forest along the eastern slope of the Andes Mountains from Peru and Bolivia, and extends into ...
. The Yungas, which is not far north from the city of
La Paz La Paz (), officially known as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Spanish pronunciation: ), is the seat of government of the Bolivia, Plurinational State of Bolivia. With an estimated 816,044 residents as of 2020, La Paz is the List of Bolivian cities ...
, is where most of the country's coca is grown. In parts of the Yungas such as
Coroico Coroico is a town in Nor Yungas Province, in the La Paz Department, Bolivia, La Paz Department of western Bolivia. History Coroico Viejo (Old Coroico) was founded above the river Quri Wayq'u (Quechua language, Quechua ''quri'' gold, ''wayq'u'' va ...
, Mururata,
Chicaloma Chicaloma is a location in the La Paz Department (Bolivia), La Paz Department in Bolivia. It is the seat of the Chicaloma Canton, one of the six cantons of the Irupana Municipality in the Sud Yungas Province. In 2009 it had an estimated population ...
, Calacala-Coscoma, and
Irupana Irupana is a location in the La Paz Department in Bolivia. It is the seat of the Irupana Municipality, the second municipal section of the Sud Yungas Province Sud Yungas or Sur Yungas ( Aymara: ''Aynach Yunka jisk'a'') is a province in the B ...
are a large number of Bolivians of African heritage. Before the Bolivians relocated to the Yungas, it was a place mostly inhabited by indigenous Aymara people and mestizos (European and Native mixed people).


Culture


Saya music

The biggest African influence in Bolivian culture is Saya music or La Saya. The word saya originates from Kikongo ', referring to the act of singing while performing communal work. Although Saya is growing in popularity in Bolivia it is still very misunderstood. The reason for this lack of understanding of saya is because the interpretation of the instruments as well as the rhythm is very peculiar. It involves Andean instruments incorporated with African percussion. The primary instrument is the drum, which was passed on by their African ancestors, along with gourds, shakers, and even jingles bells that are attached to their clothing on the ankle area. During the performance of saya, the Afro-Bolivians wear Aymara style clothing. The women wear a bright multi-colored blouse with ribbons, a multi-colored skirt called a “pollera”, with a “manta” (back cover) in their hand, and a bowler hat. The men on the other hand, wear a hat, feast shirt, an Aymara style sash around the waist, woolen thick cloth pants called “bayeta pants”, and sandals. Every rhythm of Saya begins with the beating of a jingle bell by the Caporal (foreman) who guides the dance. This Caporal (also called capataz) guides the dancers with a cudgel (whip) in hand, decorated pants, and jingle bells near the ankles. The women, who have their own guide during this dance, sing while moving their hips, shaking their hands, as well as dialoguing with the men who play the bass drum and coancha.


Caporales

Caporales is a dance popular in the Andean region of Bolivia. It gained popularity in 1969 by the Estrada Pacheco brothers, inspired by the character of the 'Caporal' or "overseer" of which, historically black slaves, usually mixed race, wore boots and held a whip, the dance originates from the region of the Yungas in Bolivia. However, elements of the dance (such as the costumes) were of European origin.


Morenada

Morenada is a folkloric dance in Bolivia. The dance originated with sufferings of the African slaves brought to Bolivia in order to work in the Silver Mines of Potosí. The enormous tongue of the dark masks was meant to represent the physical state of these mines workers and the rattling of the Matracas are frequently associated with the rattling of the slaves' chains and satirizing "white men".


Language

Afro-Bolivians have traditionally maintained their own
creole language A creole language, or simply creole, is a stable natural language that develops from the simplifying and mixing of different languages into a new one within a fairly brief period of time: often, a pidgin evolved into a full-fledged language. ...
, with links to earlier Bozal Spanish.


Afro-Bolivian monarchy

The Afro-Bolivian Royal House is a ceremonial monarchy officially recognized as part of the Plurinational State in
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
. The royal house are the descendants of a royalty that were brought to Bolivia as slaves. The founding monarch, Uchicho, was allegedly of
Kongo Congo or The Congo may refer to either of two countries that border the Congo River in central Africa: * Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, capital Kinshasa, formerly known as Zaire, sometimes referred to a ...
and
Senegalese Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
origin, and was brought to the Hacienda of the Marquis de Pinedo, in the area of Los Yungas in what is now La Paz Department. Other slaves allegedly recognized him as a man of regal background (a prince from the ancient
Kingdom of Kongo The Kingdom of Kongo ( kg, Kongo dya Ntotila or ''Wene wa Kongo;'' pt, Reino do Congo) was a kingdom located in central Africa in present-day northern Angola, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the ...
) when seeing his torso exposed with royal tribal marks only held by royalty, later being crowned in 1823. The monarchy still lives on to the present day and the current Monarch, King Julio Pinedo is a direct descendant of him.


Keeping the culture

Although these Afro-Bolivians were free, they still had a difficult battle in trying to maintain their culture. Many elements of their culture began to disappear and become endangered. They had to fight very strongly against the colonial aggression and exclusion of their post-emancipation culture. Aspects such as feasts, their creole language (that has since decreolized), religion that survived through colonialism have since gone extinct, culturally, although fragments remain. Afro-Bolivians due to isolation from much of Bolivia speak a dialect of
Bolivian Spanish Bolivian Spanish (or Castilian) is the variety of Spanish spoken by the majority of the population in Bolivia, either as a mother tongue or as a second language. Within the Spanish of Bolivia there are different regional varieties. In the border ...
, akin to
African-American Vernacular English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE, ), also referred to as Black (Vernacular) English, Black English Vernacular, or occasionally Ebonics (a colloquial, controversial term), is the variety of English natively spoken, particularly in urban ...
in the United States. Afro-Bolivians, in addition to being
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
incorporate elements of
African diasporic religions African diaspora religions are a number of related Pagan beliefs that developed in the Americas in various nations of the Caribbean, Latin America and the Southern United States. They derive from Pagan traditional African religions with some influ ...
such as rituals in the Macumba and
Voodoo Voodoo may refer to: Religions * African or West African Vodun, practiced by Gbe-speaking ethnic groups * African diaspora religions, a list of related religions sometimes called Vodou/Voodoo ** Candomblé Jejé, also known as Brazilian Vodu ...
religions have influence their practice of Christianity, mainly prevalent in the towns of
Chicaloma Chicaloma is a location in the La Paz Department (Bolivia), La Paz Department in Bolivia. It is the seat of the Chicaloma Canton, one of the six cantons of the Irupana Municipality in the Sud Yungas Province. In 2009 it had an estimated population ...
and Mururata. One of the ways that they were able to hold on to this culture was through their music and dance. Musical traditions such as dances, instruments, and techniques with ancestral origin in
Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These include West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the List of sov ...
, to the present day define Afro-Bolivian identity.


Afro-Bolivians today

It has been estimated that 25,000 Afro-Bolivians live in the Yungas. They are proud of their culture and have fought very hard to preserve it. In fact, in the town of Mururata, the Afro-Bolivians managed to maintain their traditional culture, to the point of maintaining a continuous
Afro-Bolivian monarchy The Afro-Bolivian Royal House is a ceremonial monarchy recognized as part of the Plurinational State of Bolivia, which does not interfere with the system of the Presidential republic in force within the country. It is centred in Mururata, a villag ...
currently led by
Julio Pinedo Julio Pinedo (born 19 February 1942) is the ceremonial king of the Afro-Bolivian community of the Nor Yungas province, crowned in 1992, thirty years after the death of the previous king, his grandfather Bonifacio Pinedo. His position gained off ...
. Afro-Bolivians spread to the east in Cochabamba and
Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Cruz de la Sierra (; "Holy Cross of the Mountain Range"), commonly known as Santa Cruz, is the largest city in Bolivia and the capital of the Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia), Santa Cruz department. Situated on the Pirai River (Bolivia), P ...
. Despite the Afro-Bolivian community fervently working to preserve their culture, many Afro-Bolivians have reported experiencing severe racism and feelings of isolation from society due to intolerance. Laws that actually criminalize racism and discrimination in Afro-Bolivia have slowly been ratified as the first anti-discriminatory law (law 45) was passed in 2010 and was met with violent protesting and rioting. In 2009 President Evo Morales added amendments to the national constitution that outlined the rights of Afro-Bolivians and guaranteed the protection of such liberties. The amendments also generally extended to indigenous peoples and officially recognized Afro-Bolivians as a minority group in Bolivia despite them not being included in the national census three years later. In addition to the country's constitution being updated in 2009, President Morales created the Vice Ministry for Decolonization to create policies that criminalize racism while working to improve literacy and create better race relations in Bolivia. The Vice Ministry for Decolonization also works to dismantle colorism and racism influenced by European colonization while also promoting the philosophy of "intercultural-ity" in which citizens of the nation recognize every ethnic groups' traditions and cultural practices as contributions to society.


Notable Afro-Bolivians


Politics


Ceremonial monarchy

*
Julio Pinedo Julio Pinedo (born 19 February 1942) is the ceremonial king of the Afro-Bolivian community of the Nor Yungas province, crowned in 1992, thirty years after the death of the previous king, his grandfather Bonifacio Pinedo. His position gained off ...
, Current Afro-Bolivian king *
Bonifacio Pinedo Bonifacio Pinedo (died 1954) was a king of Bolivia as the Afro-Bolivian king. Born in the tropical regions of Yungas in Bolivia, his monarchy is one of the few traditional African monarchies that has survived the vicissitudes of the middle passag ...
, Former Afro-Bolivian king


Government

* Mónica Rey Gutiérrez, supranational delegate to the Plurinational Legislative Assembly of Bolivia


Activism

*
Marfa Inofuentes Marfa Inofuentes Pérez (1969–2015) was an Afro-Bolivian activist involved in the Constitutional reform movement to recognize black Bolivians as an ethnic minority in the country. After achieving the goal for Afro-Bolivians to be protected und ...
, Afro-Bolivian activist


Sports


Basketball

*
Josh Reaves Joshua Alexander Reaves (born June 4, 1997) is a Bolivian-American professional basketball player for the Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA G League. He played college basketball at Penn State. Early life and high school Reaves was born and g ...
, professional basketball player for the
Dallas Mavericks The Dallas Mavericks (often referred to as the Mavs) are an American professional basketball team based in Dallas. The Mavericks compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Western Conference (NBA), Western Conferenc ...
of the
NBA The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a professional basketball league in North America. The league is composed of 30 teams (29 in the United States and 1 in Canada) and is one of the major professional sports leagues in the United St ...


Soccer

*
Edemir Rodríguez Edemir Rodríguez Mercado (born October 21, 1984 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra) is a Bolivian football defender who plays for Club Always Ready. Career In June 2012, Rodriguez joined FC Baku in the Azerbaijan Premier League. Rodríguez has been ...
, football player, currently playing for Club Bolivar *
Jairo Quinteros Jairo Quinteros Sierra (born 7 February 2001) is a Bolivian professional Association football, footballer who plays as a Defender (association football), defender for Segunda División club Real Zaragoza and the Bolivia national football team, Bo ...
, football player on loan to Club Bolivar from
Inter Miami CF Club Internacional de Fútbol Miami, known as Inter Miami CF or simply Inter Miami, is an American professional soccer club based in the Miami metropolitan area. Established in 2018, the club began play in Major League Soccer (MLS) in the 2020 ...
*
Leonel Morales Leonel Morales (born 2 September 1988, Coripata, Bolivia) is a Bolivian football left-back who plays for Real Potosí. International career Morales made his debut for Bolivia national football team, Bolivia in an October 2014 friendly match again ...
, football player *
Augusto Andaveris Augusto Andaveris Iriondo (born 5 May 1979 in the Chicaloma, La Paz Department) is a Bolivian football striker who currently plays for Club Always Ready.Ramiro Castillo, football player *
Gustavo Pinedo Gustavo Pinedo Zabala (born February 18, 1988 in Coripata) is a Bolivian Football (soccer), footballer, who is currently playing for Club Aurora. Club career Pinedo is a Bolivian national. He began his football career playing abroad for Spanish ...
, football player *
Marcelo Moreno Martins Marcelo Martins Moreno (born 18 June 1987), known as Marcelo Martins in Bolivia and as Marcelo Moreno in other countries, is a Bolivian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Paraguayan Primera División club Cerro Porteño and cap ...
*
Jaime Arrascaita Jaime Darío Arrascaita Iriondo (born 2 September 1993) is a Bolivian footballer who plays as a midfielder for The Strongest in Bolivian Primera División. Club career Arrascaita was recruited in 2010 by Bolívar to be part of their lower divis ...
*
Joel Bejarano Joel Bejarano Azogue (born March 21, 1996 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra) is a Bolivian footballer who currently plays as a midfielder. Club career statistics International career Bejarano was a member of the Bolivian squad that participated in t ...


See also

* Caporales *
Afro-Bolivian Saya The Saya is a music and dance that originated in the Collao Meseta region of Peru-Bolivia. The artform's name comes from the Kikongo term ''nsaya'', which means communal work led by a singing voice, akin to a work song. The Saya's instrumentatio ...
*
Yungas The Yungas (Aymara ''yunka'' warm or temperate Andes or earth, Quechua ''yunka'' warm area on the slopes of the Andes) is a bioregion of a narrow band of forest along the eastern slope of the Andes Mountains from Peru and Bolivia, and extends into ...


External links


Afro-Bolivian family


References

{{African diaspora
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
La Paz Department (Bolivia) Ethnic groups in Bolivia Angolan diaspora