The campaign to establish
Austro-Hungarian
Austria-Hungary, often referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire,, the Dual Monarchy, or Austria, was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of ...
rule
Rule or ruling may refer to:
Education
* Royal University of Law and Economics (RULE), a university in Cambodia
Human activity
* The exercise of political or personal control by someone with authority or power
* Business rule, a rule perta ...
in
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and H ...
lasted from 29 July to 20 October 1878 against the local resistance fighters supported by the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. The
Austro-Hungarian Army
The Austro-Hungarian Army (, literally "Ground Forces of the Austro-Hungarians"; , literally "Imperial and Royal Army") was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts: the joint arm ...
entered the country in two large movements: one from the north into
Bosnia
Bosnia and Herzegovina ( sh, / , ), abbreviated BiH () or B&H, sometimes called Bosnia–Herzegovina and often known informally as Bosnia, is a country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans. Bosnia and He ...
, and another from the south into
Herzegovina
Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia. It has never had strictly defined geogra ...
. A series of battles in August culminated in the fall of
Sarajevo
Sarajevo ( ; cyrl, Сарајево, ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its a ...
on the 19th after a day of
street-to-street fighting. In the hilly countryside a
guerrilla campaign continued until the last rebel stronghold fell after their leader was captured.
Background
![Bosnia-Herzegovina and Sanjak of Novibazar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Bosnia-Herzegovina_and_Sanjak_of_Novibazar.JPG)
Following the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, the
Congress of Berlin
The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a diplomatic conference to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, which had been won by Russia against the Ottoman Empire. Represented at th ...
was organized by the
Great Powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...
. By article 25 of the resulting
Treaty of Berlin (13 July 1878), Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under the sovereignty of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
, but the Austro-Hungarian Empire was granted the authority to occupy the
''vilayet'' (province) of Bosnia and Herzegovina indefinitely, taking on its military defence and civil administration. The Austro-Hungarians also received the right to indefinitely occupy strategic posts in the
''sanjak'' of Novi Pazar:
The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the administration of the Sanjak of Novi-Pazar, which extends between Serbia and Montenegro in a South-Easterly direction to the other side of Mitrovitza, the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia. To this end the governments of Austria-Hungary and Turkey reserve to themselves to come to an understanding on the details.
Although the Ottomans protested the occupation of Novi Pazar, the
Imperial and Royal (K.u.K.) Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy
Count Gyula Andrássy de Csíkszentkirály et Krasznahorka (8 March 1823 – 18 February 1890) was a Hungarian statesman, who served as Prime Minister of Hungary (1867–1871) and subsequently as Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (1871–1 ...
secretly assured the former that the occupation in Novi Pazar was "to be regarded as provisional". This Austro-Hungarian expansion southward at the expense of the Ottoman Empire was designed to prevent the extension of
Russian
Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including:
*Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
influence and the union of
Serbia
Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
and
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = M ...
.
The Austro-Hungarians expected no trouble in carrying out their occupation. It would be, in Andrássy's words, "a walk with a brass band" (''Spaziergang mit einer Blasmusikkapelle''). This opinion did not take into account that the Serbs had just fought
a war for independence from the Ottoman Empire, while
Herzegovina had revolted. Resistance to the Austro-Hungarian takeover came mainly from the
Orthodox Serbs (43% of the population) and the
Bosnian Muslims
The Bosniaks ( bs, Bošnjaci, Cyrillic: Бошњаци, ; , ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to the Southeast European historical region of Bosnia, which is today part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who share a common Bosnian ancestry, cu ...
(39%), barely at all from the
Catholic Croats (18%). The Muslim population stood to lose the most under the new Christian government. The resistors were characterised by the Austro-Hungarian government as "uncivilised" (''unzivilisiert'') and "treacherous" (''verräterisch'').
Troops
![Prehod 17](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Prehod_17._pe%C5%A1polka_%C4%8Dez_Savo.jpg)
The Austro-Hungarian Army engaged in a major mobilization effort to prepare for the assault on Bosnia and Herzegovina, commanding by the end of June 1878 a force of 82,113 troops, 13,313 horses and 112 cannons in the VI, VII, XX, and XVIII infantry divisions as well as a rear army in the
Kingdom of Dalmatia
The Kingdom of Dalmatia ( hr, Kraljevina Dalmacija; german: Königreich Dalmatien; it, Regno di Dalmazia) was a crown land of the Austrian Empire (1815–1867) and the Cisleithanian half of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918). It encompassed the entir ...
. The primary commander was
Josip Filipović
Josip Filipović, ''Freiherr'' (Baron) von Philippsberg, also Josef von Philippovich or Joseph Philippovich (April 1818 – 6 August 1889), was an Austro-Hungarian general (''Feldzeugmeister'').
Life and career
Filipović was born in the Milita ...
; the forward XVIII infantry division was under the command
Stjepan Jovanović
Stjepan Jovanović (Stephan ''Freiherr'' (Baron) von Jovanovich; 5 January 1828 – 8 December 1885) was a military commander of the Austrian Empire from the Military Frontier.
Jovanović was born in the village of Pazarište near Gospić in Li ...
, while the rear army commander in Dalmatia was
Gavrilo Rodić
Gavrilo or Gabriel Rodić, ''Freiherr'' (Baron) von Rodich, (13 December 1812 – 21 May 1890) was an Austro-Hungarian general in the Imperial Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Army.
Biography
Rodić was born in Vrginmost, Habsburg Croatia, and rai ...
. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October.
The Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time consisted of roughly 40,000 troops with 77 cannons, that combined with local militias to around 93,000 men. Fierce resistance from Muslims was expected as Austro-Hungarians realized their occupation meant that Bosnian Muslims would lose their privileged status based on their religion.
Occupation
![Gefecht bei Jaice 1878](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Gefecht_bei_Jaice_1878.jpg)
The original occupying force, the
13th Corps under General
Josip Filipović
Josip Filipović, ''Freiherr'' (Baron) von Philippsberg, also Josef von Philippovich or Joseph Philippovich (April 1818 – 6 August 1889), was an Austro-Hungarian general (''Feldzeugmeister'').
Life and career
Filipović was born in the Milita ...
, crossed the
river Sava
The Sava (; , ; sr-cyr, Сава, hu, Száva) is a river in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, a right-bank and the longest tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia and along its border with Bosnia and Herzegovina ...
near Brod,
Kostajnica and
Gradiška. The various ''
Abteilung
''Abteilung'' (; abbrv. ''Abt.'') is a German word that is often used for German or Swiss military formations and depending on its usage could mean detachment, department or battalion; it can also refer to a military division. In German, it ...
en'' assembled at
Banja Luka
Banja Luka ( sr-Cyrl, Бања Лука, ) or Banjaluka ( sr-Cyrl, Бањалука, ) is the second largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the largest city of Republika Srpska. Banja Luka is also the ''de facto'' capital of this entity. I ...
and advanced down the road on the left side of the
Vrbas river
The Vrbas ( sr-cyrl, Врбас, ) is a major river with a length of , in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a right tributary of the Sava river. The city of Banja Luka is located on the river banks.
Etymology
The word ''vrba'' means 'willow' i ...
. They encountered resistance by local Muslims under the
dervish
Dervish, Darvesh, or Darwīsh (from fa, درویش, ''Darvīsh'') in Islam can refer broadly to members of a Sufi fraternity
A fraternity (from Latin language, Latin ''wiktionary:frater, frater'': "brother (Christian), brother"; whence, ...
Hadži Loja, supported (almost openly) by the evacuating
Ottoman Army
The military of the Ottoman Empire ( tr, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun silahlı kuvvetleri) was the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire.
Army
The military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The foundation era covers the ...
troops. On 3 August a troop of
hussars
A hussar ( , ; hu, huszár, pl, husarz, sh, husar / ) was a member of a class of light cavalry, originating in Central Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely ...
was ambushed near
Maglaj
Maglaj ( sr-cyrl, Маглај) is a town and municipality located in the Zenica-Doboj Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina, south of Doboj. It ...
on the
Bosna river, prompting Filipović to institute
martial law
Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory.
Use
Marti ...
. On 7 August a pitched battle was fought near
Jajce
Jajce (Јајце) is a town and municipality located in the Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the 2013 census, the town has a population of 7,172 inhabitants, with ...
and the Austro-Hungarian infantry lost 600 men.
A second occupying force, the
18th Division of 9,000 men under General
Stjepan Jovanović
Stjepan Jovanović (Stephan ''Freiherr'' (Baron) von Jovanovich; 5 January 1828 – 8 December 1885) was a military commander of the Austrian Empire from the Military Frontier.
Jovanović was born in the village of Pazarište near Gospić in Li ...
, advanced out of
Austrian Dalmatia along the
Neretva
The Neretva ( sr-cyrl, Неретва, ), also known as Narenta, is one of the largest rivers of the eastern part of the Adriatic basin. Four HE power-plants with large dams (higher than 150,5 metres) provide flood protection, power and water s ...
. On 5 August the division captured
Mostar
Mostar (, ; sr-Cyrl, Мостар, ) is a city and the administrative center of Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the historical capital of Herzegovina.
Mostar is sit ...
, the chief city of Herzegovina. On 13 August at
Ravnice in Herzegovina more than 70 Hungarian officers and soldiers were killed in action. In response, the Empire mobilised the
3rd
Third or 3rd may refer to:
Numbers
* 3rd, the ordinal form of the cardinal number 3
* , a fraction of one third
* Second#Sexagesimal divisions of calendar time and day, 1⁄60 of a ''second'', or 1⁄3600 of a ''minute''
Places
* 3rd Street (d ...
,
4th and
5th Corps.
![Gefecht dalmatinischer landesschuetzen bei livno am 15](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Gefecht_dalmatinischer_landesschuetzen_bei_livno_am_15._august_1878.jpg)
The Austro-Hungarian troops were occasionally met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there, and significant battles occurred near
Čitluk,
Stolac
Stolac is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cities in Bosnia and Herzego ...
,
Livno
Livno ( sr-cyrl, Ливно, ) is a city and the administrative center of Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated on the river Bistrica in the southeastern edge of the Livno Field ...
and
Klobuk
Klobuk of Patriarch Philaret of Moscow (1619-33), Kremlin museum
A klobuk is an item of monastic clothing worn by monks and, in the Russian tradition, also by nuns, in the Byzantine Rite, composed of a kamilavka (stiffened round black headco ...
. Despite setbacks at
Maglaj
Maglaj ( sr-cyrl, Маглај) is a town and municipality located in the Zenica-Doboj Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina, south of Doboj. It ...
and
Tuzla
Tuzla (, ) is the third-largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the administrative center of Tuzla Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, it has a population of 110,979 inhabitants.
Tuzla is the economic, cultural, ed ...
,
Sarajevo
Sarajevo ( ; cyrl, Сарајево, ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its a ...
was occupied in October 1878.
![Sarajevo 1878](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Sarajevo_1878..jpg)
On 19 August the Bosnian capital,
Sarajevo
Sarajevo ( ; cyrl, Сарајево, ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its a ...
, a town of 50,000 inhabitants at the time, was captured only after the deployment of 52 guns and violent street fighting. A day earlier Filipović had arrested the former Ottoman governor,
Hafiz Pasha. A formal report of the
Austro-Hungarian General Staff
The Imperial and Royal General Staff (german: k.u.k. Generalstab) of Austria-Hungary was part of the Ministry of War. It was headed by the Chief of the General Staff for the Whole Armed Forces (''Chef des Generalstabes für die gesamte bewaffnete ...
remarked "small windows and numerous roof gaps allowed the discharge of fire in different directions and the most sustainable defense" and "the accused insurgents, in the nearest houses, barricaded all entrances and kept up a destructive fire against the infantry." According to Filipović's own account:
"There ensued one of the most terrible battles conceivable. The troops were fired upon from every house, from every window, from each split door; and even women took part. Located at the western entrance to the city, the military hospital was full of sick and wounded insurgents. . ."
The occupiers lost 57 killed and 314 wounded of the 13,000 soldiers employed in the operation. They estimated the insurgent fatalities at 300, but made no effort to estimate civilian casualties. In the days following there were many executions of accused rebels following summary trials.
After the fall of Sarajevo the main insurgents retreated into the mountainous country beyond the city and there maintained their resistance for several weeks. Hadži Loja surrendered to the K.u.K. Hungarian Infantry Regiment No. 37 ''Erzherzog Joseph'' on 3 October in the ravine by
Rakitnica
Rakitnica ( sr-cyrl, Ракитница) is the main tributary of the first section of the Neretva river, also called Upper Neretva ''( bs, Gornja Neretva)''. It meets Neretva from the right, flowing from north to south, between Bjelašnica and ...
. He was sentenced to death, but his sentence was later commuted to five years' imprisonment. The castle of
Velika Kladuša
Velika Kladuša ( sr-cyrl, Велика Кладуша, ; lit. "Great Kladuša") is a town and municipality located in Una-Sana Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is situated in the far n ...
surrendered on 20 October.
Tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model
colony
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the ''metropole, metropolit ...
". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav
nationalism
Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...
, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization.
Results
![Der gegenwaertige Stand des Okkupationswerkes](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Der_gegenwaertige_Stand_des_Okkupationswerkes.jpg)
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was forced to use five corps with a collective strength of 153,300 soldiers and 112 guns to subdue Bosnia and Herzegovina. The General Staff estimated there were 79,000 armed insurgents assisted (illegally) by 13,800 regular Ottoman soldiers with about 77 guns. Total Austro-Hungarian losses were almost 5,200: 946 dead, 272 missing, and 3,980 wounded. The unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. There is no reliable estimate of Bosnian or Ottoman losses. During the campaign, an article in the German-language Hungarian newspaper ''
Pester Lloyd
''Pester Lloyd'' is a German-language online daily newspaper from Budapest, Hungary with a focus "on Hungary and Eastern Europe".
History during the Austrian Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Its first stint of existence was from 1854 to ...
'' criticising the army's preparedness for the occupation was censored on the orders of Emperor-King
Franz Joseph
Franz Joseph I or Francis Joseph I (german: Franz Joseph Karl, hu, Ferenc József Károly, 18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916) was Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, and the other states of the Habsburg monarchy from 2 December 1848 until his ...
.
Following the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary also occupied the
Sanjak of Novi Pazar
The Sanjak of Novi Pazar ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, Novopazarski sandžak, Новопазарски санџак; tr, Yeni Pazar sancağı) was an Ottoman sanjak (second-level administrative unit) that was created in 1865. It was reorganized in 1880 and ...
on September 10, 1879, implementing another one of the conclusions of the
Congress of Berlin
The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a diplomatic conference to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, which had been won by Russia against the Ottoman Empire. Represented at th ...
.
Legacy
There is an exhibition in the
Museum of Military History in Vienna about the 1878 campaign. It contains several items from the personal property of General Filipović, an insurgent banner and captured Ottoman weapons.
Notes
References
;Citations
;Bibliography
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{{Wars and battles involving Serbs
Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Military operations involving Austria-Hungary
Military operations involving the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman period in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Ottoman period in the history of Kosovo
Ottoman period in the history of Montenegro
Ottoman Serbia
1878 in Austria-Hungary
1878 in the Ottoman Empire
1870s in Bosnia and Herzegovina
1878 in Serbia
Conflicts in 1878
1913 disestablishments in Europe