![Rate in which the English language is spoken at home in Australia - 2016](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Rate_in_which_the_English_language_is_spoken_at_home_in_Australia_-_2016.png)
Australian English (AusE, AusEng, AuE, AuEng, en-AU) is the set of
varieties
Variety may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Entertainment formats
* Variety (radio)
* Variety show, in theater and television
Films
* ''Variety'' (1925 film), a German silent film directed by Ewald Andre Dupont
* ''Variety'' (1935 film), ...
of the
English language
English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the ...
native to
Australia. It is the country's
common language
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
and ''de facto''
national language
A national language is a language (or language variant, e.g. dialect) that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with a nation. There is little consistency in the use of this term. One or more languages spoken as first languages in the te ...
; while Australia has no
official language
An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...
, English is the
first language
A first language, native tongue, native language, mother tongue or L1 is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' or ''mother tongu ...
of
the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the ''
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
''
national language
A national language is a language (or language variant, e.g. dialect) that has some connection—de facto or de jure—with a nation. There is little consistency in the use of this term. One or more languages spoken as first languages in the te ...
since
European settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of
Australians
Australians, colloquially known as Aussies, are the citizens, nationals and individuals associated with the country of Australia. This connection may be residential, legal, historical or ethno-cultural. For most Australians, several (or all) ...
. It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.
Australian English began to diverge from
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
and
Irish English after the
First Fleet established the
Colony of New South Wales in 1788. Australian English arose from a
dialectal 'melting pot' created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of Great Britain and Ireland,
though its most significant influences were
the dialects of Southeast England.
By the 1820s, the native-born colonists' speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.
Australian English differs from other varieties in its
phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
,
pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way in which a word or a language is spoken. This may refer to generally agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking a given word or language in a specific dialect ("correct pronunciation") or simply the way a particular ...
,
lexicon,
idiom,
grammar
In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraints, a field that includes domain ...
and
spelling
Spelling is a set of conventions that regulate the way of using graphemes (writing system) to represent a language in its written form. In other words, spelling is the rendering of speech sound (phoneme) into writing (grapheme). Spelling is one ...
. Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous
regional and sociocultural varieties. 'General Australian' describes the ''de facto''
standard dialect
A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and usage, although occasionally the term refers to the entirety of a language that includes ...
, which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural
markers and is often used in the media.
History
![The First Fleet entering Port Jackson, January 26, 1788, drawn 1888 A9333001h](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/The_First_Fleet_entering_Port_Jackson%2C_January_26%2C_1788%2C_drawn_1888_A9333001h.jpg)
The earliest Australian English was spoken by the first generation of native-born colonists in the
Colony of New South Wales from the end of the 18th century. These native-born children were exposed to a wide range of dialects from across the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
.
Similar to
early American English, the process of
dialect levelling
Dialect levelling or leveling (in American English) is the process of an overall reduction in the variation or diversity of features between two or more dialects. Typically, this comes about through assimilation, mixture, and merging of certain d ...
and
koineisation which ensued produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all.
Peter Miller Cunningham
Peter Miller Cunningham (1789–1864) was a Scottish naval surgeon and pioneer in Australia.
Life
Peter Miller Cunningham was the fifth son of John Cunningham, land steward and farmer (1743–1800), and brother of Thomas Mounsey Cunningham (1776 ...
's 1827 book ''Two Years in New South Wales'' described the distinctive accent and vocabulary that had developed among the native-born colonists.
![Doudiet Swearing allegiance to the Southern Cross](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Doudiet_Swearing_allegiance_to_the_Southern_Cross.jpg)
The dialects of
South East England
South East England is one of the nine official regions of England at the first level of ITL for statistical purposes. It consists of the counties of Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Berkshi ...
, including most notably the traditional
Cockney
Cockney is an accent and dialect of English, mainly spoken in London and its environs, particularly by working-class and lower middle-class Londoners. The term "Cockney" has traditionally been used to describe a person from the East End, or ...
dialect of London, were particularly influential on the development of the new variety and constituted 'the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing' Australian English.
All the other regions of England were represented among the early colonists. A large proportion of early convicts and colonists were from Ireland, and spoke
Irish
Irish may refer to:
Common meanings
* Someone or something of, from, or related to:
** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe
***Éire, Irish language name for the isle
** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit ...
as a sole or
first language
A first language, native tongue, native language, mother tongue or L1 is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' or ''mother tongu ...
. They were joined by other non-native speakers of English from
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a Anglo-Scottish border, border with England to the southeast ...
and
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the Bristol Channel to the south. It had a population in ...
.
The first of the
Australian gold rushes in the 1850s began a large wave of
immigration
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, a ...
, during which about two percent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of
New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
and
Victoria
Victoria most commonly refers to:
* Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia
* Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada
* Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory
* Victoria, Seychelle ...
. The Gold Rushes brought immigrants and linguistic influences from many parts of the world. An example was the introduction of vocabulary from
American English
American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States and in most circumstances i ...
, including some terms later considered to be typically Australian, such as ''bushwhacker'' and ''squatter''. This American influence was continued with the popularity of American films from the early 20th century and the influx of American military personnel during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
; seen in the enduring persistence of such universally-accepted terms as ''
okay
''OK'' (spelling variations include ''okay'', ''O.K.'', ''ok'' and ''Ok'') is an English word (originating in American English) denoting approval, acceptance, agreement, assent, acknowledgment, or a sign of indifference. ''OK'' is frequently ...
'' and ''guys''.
The publication of
Edward Ellis Morris
Edward Ellis Morris (25 December 1843 – 1 January 1902) was an English educationist and miscellaneous writer and latterly in colonial Australia.
Biography
Morris was born in Madras, British India, fourteenth child of John Carnac Morris, a ...
's ''Austral English: A Dictionary Of Australasian Words, Phrases And Usages'' in 1898, which extensively catalogued Australian English vocabulary, started a wave of academic interest and codification during the 20th century which resulted in Australian English becoming established as an
endonormative variety with its own internal norms and standards. This culminated in publications such as the 1981 first edition of the
Macquarie Dictionary
The ''Macquarie Dictionary'' () is a dictionary of Australian English. It is generally considered by universities and the legal profession to be the authoritative source on Australian English. It also pays considerable attention to New Zealand ...
, a major English language dictionary based on Australian usage, and the 1988 first edition of
The Australian National Dictionary
''The Australian National Dictionary: Australian Words and Their Origins'' is a historical dictionary of Australian English, recording 16,000 words, phrases, and meanings of Australian origin and use. The first edition of the dictionary, edited by ...
, a historical dictionary documenting the history of Australian English vocabulary and idiom.
Phonology and pronunciation
The most obvious way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with
New Zealand English. Like most dialects of English, it is distinguished primarily by the phonetic quality of its vowels.
Vowels
![Australian English diphthong chart - part 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Australian_English_diphthong_chart_-_part_2.svg)
The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include
monophthong
A monophthong ( ; , ) is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new position of articulation. The monophthongs can be contrasted with diphthongs, wh ...
s and
diphthongs, mostly correspond to the
tense vowels used in analyses of
Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard and most prestigious form of spoken British English. For over a century, there has been argument over such questions as the definition of RP, whether it is geog ...
(RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels.
There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English
phonemic length distinction, which is also present in some regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US. An example of this feature is the distinction between ''ferry'' and ''fairy'' .
As with New Zealand English and General American English, the
weak-vowel merger is complete in Australian English: unstressed is merged into (
schwa), unless it is followed by a velar consonant. Examples of this feature are the following pairings, which are pronounced identically in Australian English: ''Rosa's'' and ''roses'', as well as ''Lennon'' and ''Lenin''. Other examples are the following pairs, which rhyme in Australian English: ''abbott'' with ''rabbit'', and ''dig it'' with ''bigot''.
Most varieties of Australian English exhibit only a partial
trap-bath split. The words ''bath'', ''grass'' and ''can't'' are always pronounced with the "long" of ''father''. Throughout the majority of the country, the "flat" of ''man'' is the dominant pronunciation for the ''a'' vowel in the following words: ''dance'', ''advance'', ''plant'', ''example'' and ''answer''. The exception is the state of
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
, where a more advanced trap-bath split has taken place, and where the dominant pronunciation of all the preceding words incorporates the "long" of ''father''.
Consonants
There is little variation in the sets of
consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are and pronounced with the lips; and pronounced with the front of the tongue; and pronounced wi ...
s used in different English dialects but there are variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception.
Australian English is uniformly
non-rhotic
Rhoticity in English is the pronunciation of the historical rhotic consonant by English speakers. The presence or absence of rhoticity is one of the most prominent distinctions by which varieties of English can be classified. In rhotic variet ...
; that is, the sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. As with many non-rhotic dialects,
linking can occur when a word that has a final in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An
intrusive may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel and after word final . This can be heard in "law-r-and order," where an intrusive R is voiced between the AW and the A.
As with North American English,
Intervocalic alveolar flapping
Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or ''t''-voicing, is a phonological process found in many varieties of English, especially North American, Cardiff, Ulster, Australian and New Zealand English, whereby ...
is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic and surface as the
alveolar tap Alveolus (; pl. alveoli, adj. alveolar) is a general anatomical term for a concave cavity or pit.
Uses in anatomy and zoology
* Pulmonary alveolus, an air sac in the lungs
** Alveolar cell or pneumocyte
** Alveolar duct
** Alveolar macrophage
* M ...
after
sonorants other than as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. Examples of this feature are that the following pairs are pronounced similarly or identically: ''latter'' and ''ladder'', as well as ''rated'' and ''raided''.
''Yod''-dropping generally occurs after , , , but not after , and . Accordingly, ''suit'' is pronounced as , ''lute'' as , ''Zeus'' as and ''enthusiasm'' as . Other cases of and , as well as and , have
coalesced to , , and respectively for many speakers. is generally retained in other
consonant cluster
In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fie ...
s.
In common with most varieties of
Scottish English
Scottish English ( gd, Beurla Albannach) is the set of varieties of the English language spoken in Scotland. The transregional, standardised variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English (SSE). Scottish Standard ...
and
American English
American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States and in most circumstances i ...
, the phoneme is pronounced as a "dark" (velarised) ''l'' () in almost all positions, unlike other dialects such as
Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard and most prestigious form of spoken British English. For over a century, there has been argument over such questions as the definition of RP, whether it is geog ...
and
Hiberno (Irish) English, where a light ''l'' (i.e. a non-velarised ''l'') is used in many positions.
The
wine–whine merger is complete in Australian English.
Pronunciation
Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility.
The affixes ''-ary'', ''-ery'', ''-ory'', ''-bury'', ''-berry'' and ''-mony'' (seen in words such as ''necessary, mulberry'' and ''matrimony'') can be pronounced either with a full vowel () or a schwa (). Although some words like ''necessary'' are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa while younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel, which is similar to the situation in British English.
Words ending in unstressed ''-ile'' derived from Latin adjectives ending in ''-ilis'' are pronounced with a full vowel, so that ''fertile'' sounds like ''fur tile'' rather than rhyming with ''turtle'' .
In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to various isolated words, with some of those pronunciations being unique to Australian English. For example:
* As with American English, the vowel in ''yoghurt'' and the prefix ''homo-'' (as in ''homosexual'' or ''homophobic'') are pronounced with rather than ;
* ''Vitamin'', ''migraine'' and ''privacy'' are all pronounced with in the stressed syllable () rather than ;
* The prefix ''paedo-'' (as in ''paedophile'') is pronounced rather than ;
* In loanwords, the vowel spelled with is often nativized as the vowel (), as in American English, rather than the vowel (), as in British English. For example, ''pasta'' is pronounced , analogous to American English , rather than , as in British English;
* ''Urinal'' is stressed on the first syllable and with the
schwa for ''I'': ;
* ''Harass'' and ''harassment'' are pronounced with the stress on the second, rather than the first syllable;
* The suffix ''-sia'' (as in ''
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
'', ''
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
'' and ''
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
'') is pronounced rather than ;
* The word ''foyer'' is pronounced , rather than ;
* ''Tomato'', ''vase'' and ''data'' are pronounced with instead of : ;
* ''Zebra'' is pronounced rather than ;
* Conversely, ''precedence'', ''precedent'' and derivatives are mainly pronounced with the vowel in the stressed syllable, rather than : ;
* ''Basil'' is pronounced , rather than ;
* Conversely, ''cache'' is pronounced , rather than ;
* ''Buoy'' is pronounced as (as in ''boy'') rather than ;
* The ''E'' in ''congress'' and ''progress'' is not reduced: ;
* Conversely, the unstressed ''O'' in both ''silicon'' and ''phenomenon'' stands for a schwa: ;
* The colour name ''maroon'' is pronounced with the vowel: .
Variation
Relative to many other national dialect groupings, Australian English is relatively homogeneous across the country. Some relatively minor regional differences in pronunciation exist. A limited range of
word choices is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals may be inferred if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak
creole languages
A creole language, or simply creole, is a stable natural language that develops from the simplifying and mixing of different languages into a new one within a fairly brief period of time: often, a pidgin evolved into a full-fledged language. Wh ...
derived from Australian English, such as
Australian Kriol,
Torres Strait Creole
Torres Strait Creole ( tcs, Yumplatok), also known as Torres Strait Pidgin, Brokan/Broken, Cape York Creole, Lockhart Creole, Kriol, Papuan, Broken English, Blaikman, Big Thap, Pizin, and Ailan Tok, is an English-based creole language (a varie ...
and
Norfuk
Norfuk ( pih, Norfuk) (increasingly spelt Norfolk) or Norf'k is the language spoken on Norfolk Island (in the Pacific Ocean) by the local residents. It is a blend of 18th-century English and Tahitian, originally introduced by Pitkern-speakin ...
.
Academic research has also identified notable
sociocultural
Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or social evolution are theories of sociobiology and cultural evolution that describe how societies and culture change over time. Whereas sociocultural development traces processes that tend t ...
variation within Australian English, which is mostly evident in phonology.
Regional variation
Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, there are some regional variations. The dialects of English spoken in the various
states and territories of Australia differ slightly in vocabulary and phonology.
Most regional differences are in word usage. Swimming clothes are known as ''cossies'' or ''swimmers'' in New South Wales, ''togs'' in Queensland, and ''bathers'' in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia. What Queensland calls a ''stroller'' is usually called a ''pram'' in Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.
[Pauline Bryant (1985): Regional variation in the Australian English lexicon, Australian Journal of Linguistics, 5:1, 55–66]
Preference for some synonymous words also differ between states. ''Garbage'' (i.e., garbage bin, garbage truck) dominates over ''rubbish'' in New South Wales and Queensland, while ''rubbish'' is more popular in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.
Additionally, the word ''footy'' generally refers to the most popular
football code
Football is a family of team sports that involve, to varying degrees, Kick (football), kicking a Football (ball), ball to score a Goal (sport), goal. Unqualified, Football (word), the word ''football'' normally means the form of football tha ...
in an area; that is,
rugby league
Rugby league football, commonly known as just rugby league and sometimes football, footy, rugby or league, is a full-contact sport played by two teams of thirteen players on a rectangular field measuring 68 metres (75 yards) wide and 11 ...
or
rugby union
Rugby union, commonly known simply as rugby, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In it ...
depending on the local area, in most of New South Wales and Queensland, and
Australian rules football elsewhere. In some pockets of Melbourne & Western Sydney it will refer to Association football. Beer glasses are also
named differently in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative ''eh'' (also spelled ''ay'' or ''aye''), which is particularly associated with Queensland. ''
Secret Santa
Secret Santa is a Western Christmas tradition in which members of a group or community are randomly assigned a person to whom they give a gift. The identity of the gift giver is to remain a secret and should not be revealed.
Deriving from the ...
'' () and ''Kris Kringle'' are used in all states, with the former being more common in Queensland.
;South Australia
The most pronounced variation in phonology is between
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
and the other states and territories. The
trap–bath split
The – split is a vowel split that occurs mainly in Southern English in England (including Received Pronunciation), Australian English, New Zealand English, Indian English, South African English and to a lesser extent in some Welsh Engli ...
is more complete in South Australia, in contrast to the other states. Accordingly, words such as ''dance'', ''advance'', ''plant'', ''example'' and ''answer'' are pronounced with (as in ''father'') far more frequently in South Australia while the older (as in ''mad'') is dominant elsewhere in Australia.
''L''-vocalisation is also more common in South Australia than other states.
;Centring diphthongs
In Western Australian and Queensland English, the vowels in ''near'' and ''square'' are typically realised as centring diphthongs (), whereas in the other states they may also be realised as monophthongs: .
;Salary–celery merger
A feature common in Victorian English is
salary–celery merger
In the history of English phonology, there have been many diachronic sound changes affecting vowels, especially involving phonemic splits and mergers. A number of these changes are specific to vowels which occur before .
Historical diphthongiz ...
, whereby a Victorian pronunciation of ''Ellen'' may sound like ''Alan'' and Victoria's capital city ''
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
'' may sound like ''Malbourne'' to speakers from other states. There is also regional variation in before (as in ''school'' and ''pool'').
;Full-fool allophones
In some parts of Australia, notably Victoria, a fully backed allophone of , transcribed , is common before . As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone for is further forward in Queensland and New South Wales than Victoria.
Sociocultural variation
The General Australian accent serves as the
standard variety of English across the country. According to linguists, it emerged during the 19th century. General Australian is the dominant variety across the continent, and is particularly so in urban areas. The increasing dominance of General Australian reflects its prominence on radio and television since the latter half of the 20th century.
Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the ''Broad'' sociocultural variant, which differs from General Australian in its phonology. The Broad variant is also found across the continent and is relatively more prominent in rural and outer-suburban areas.
A largely historical ''Cultivated'' sociocultural variant, which adopted features of British
Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard and most prestigious form of spoken British English. For over a century, there has been argument over such questions as the definition of RP, whether it is geog ...
and which was commonplace in official media during the early 20th century, had become largely extinct by the onset of the 21st century.
Australian Aboriginal English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.
Academics have also noted the emergence of numerous ethnocultural dialects of Australian English that are spoken by people from some
minority non-English speaking backgrounds. These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as
Afro-Asiatic languages and
languages of Asia
A wide variety of languages are spoken throughout Asia, comprising different language families and some unrelated isolates. The major language families include Austroasiatic, Austronesian, Caucasian, Dravidian, Indo-European, Afroasiatic, Turk ...
.
Samoan English is also influencing Australian English.
High rising terminal
The high rising terminal (HRT), also known as upspeak, uptalk, or high rising intonation (HRI) is a feature of some variants of English where declarative sentences can end with a rising pitch similar to that typically found in yes-or-no questions ...
was noted and studied in Australian English earlier than in other varieties of English; to this effect, the feature is sometimes called ''Australian questioning intonation''. Research published in 1986, regarding vernacular speech in
Sydney, suggested that high rising terminal was initially spread by young people in the 1960s, and also claimed it was used more than twice as often by young people than older people, and more common among women than men.
In the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
, it has occasionally been considered one of the variety's stereotypical features, and its spread there blamed on the popularity of
Australian soap operas.
Vocabulary
Intrinsic traits
![Banjo Patterson](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Banjo_Patterson.jpg)
Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect and have been written on extensively.
Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include ''
outback'', meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, ''
the bush
"The bush" is a term mostly used in the English vernacular of Australia and New Zealand where it is largely synonymous with '' backwoods'' or ''hinterland'', referring to a natural undeveloped area. The fauna and flora contained within this a ...
'', meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and ''g'day'', a greeting. ''Dinkum'', or ''fair dinkum'' means "true" or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection. The derivative ''dinky-di'' means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian".
Australian poetry
Australian literature is the written or literary work produced in the area or by the people of the Commonwealth of Australia and its preceding colonies. During its early Western history, Australia was a collection of British colonies; as such, ...
, such as "
The Man from Snowy River The Man from Snowy River may refer to:
* "The Man from Snowy River" (poem), an 1890 Australian poem by Banjo Paterson.
* '' The Man from Snowy River and Other Verses'' an 1895 poetry collection by Banjo Paterson (including the above)
* ''The Man ...
", as well as
folk songs
Folk music is a music genre that includes traditional folk music and the contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has be ...
such as "
Waltzing Matilda
"Waltzing Matilda" is a song developed in the Australian style of poetry and folk music called a bush ballad. It has been described as the country's "unofficial national anthem".
The title was Australian slang for travelling on foot (waltzing) ...
", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.
Australian English, in common with British English, uses the word ''
mate
Mate may refer to:
Science
* Mate, one of a pair of animals involved in:
** Mate choice, intersexual selection
** Mating
* Multi-antimicrobial extrusion protein, or MATE, an efflux transporter family of proteins
Person or title
* Friendship ...
'' to mean ''
friend
Friendship is a relationship of mutual affection between people. It is a stronger form of interpersonal bond than an "acquaintance" or an "association", such as a classmate, neighbor, coworker, or colleague.
In some cultures, the concept of ...
'', as well as the word ''
bloody
''Bloody'', as an adjective or adverb, is a commonly used expletive attributive in British English, Australian English, Irish English, Indian English and a number of other Commonwealth nations. It has been used as an intensive since at lea ...
'' as a mild
expletive or intensifier. ''Bloody'' is taken to be milder in Australia than it is in the UK, where the word is considered
profanity
Profanity, also known as cursing, cussing, swearing, bad language, foul language, obscenities, expletives or vulgarism, is a socially offensive use of language. Accordingly, profanity is language use that is sometimes deemed impolite, rud ...
.
Several words used by Australians were at one time used in the United Kingdom but have since fallen out of usage or changed in meaning there. For example, ''creek'' in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it is typically a watercourse in a marshy area; ''paddock'' in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; ''bush'' or ''scrub'' in Australia, as in North America, means a wooded area, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as
Shepherd's Bush and
Wormwood Scrubs
Wormwood Scrubs, known locally as The Scrubs (or simply Scrubs), is an open space in Old Oak Common located in the north-eastern corner of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham in west London. It is the largest open space in the borough, ...
).
Some elements of
Aboriginal languages Aboriginal language may refer to:
* Indigenous language
* Australian Aboriginal languages
* Taiwanese aboriginal languages
* Indigenous languages of the Americas
* Aboriginal Malay languages
The Malayic languages are a branch of the Malayo-P ...
have been
adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example
dingo) and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as ''kangaroo'', ''boomerang'', ''budgerigar'', ''wallaby'' and so on have become international. Other examples are ''
cooee
Cooee! () is a shout originated in Australia to attract attention, find missing people, or indicate one's own location. When done correctly—loudly and shrilly—a call of "cooee" can carry over a considerable distance. The distance one's cooe ...
'' and ''hard yakka''. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced ) which travels long distances. ''Cooee'' is also a notional distance: ''if he's within cooee, we'll spot him''. ''Hard yakka'' means ''hard work'' and is derived from ''yakka'', from the
Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also of Aboriginal origin is the word ''bung'', from the Sydney
pidgin English (and ultimately from the Sydney Aboriginal language), meaning "dead", with some extension to "broken" or "useless". Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local
Ngunnawal language
Ngunnawal/Ngunawal is an Australian Aboriginal languages, Australian Aboriginal language, the traditional language of the Ngunnawal people, Ngunnawal. Ngunnawal is very closely related to the Gandangara language and the two were most likely hi ...
word meaning "meeting place".
Litotes
In rhetoric, litotes (, or ), also known classically as ''antenantiosis'' or ''moderatour'', is a figure of speech and form of verbal irony in which understatement is used to emphasize a point by stating a negative to further affirm a positive, o ...
, such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are also used.
Diminutives and
hypocorism
A hypocorism ( or ; from Ancient Greek: (), from (), 'to call by pet names', sometimes also ''hypocoristic'') or pet name is a name used to show affection for a person. It may be a diminutive form of a person's name, such as ''Izzy'' for I ...
s are common and are often used to indicate familiarity. Some common examples are ''arvo'' (afternoon), ''barbie'' (barbecue), ''
smoko
In Australian, New Zealand and Falkland Islands English, a smoko (also "smoke-o" or "smoke-oh") is a short, often informal break taken during work or military duty, although any short break such as a rest or a coffee or tea break can be call ...
'' (cigarette break), ''Aussie'' (Australian) and ''Straya'' (Australia). This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames (other English speaking countries create
similar diminutives). For example, "Gazza" from Gary, or "Smitty" from John Smith. The use of the suffix ''-o'' originates in ga, ó, which is both a postclitic and a suffix with much the same meaning as in Australian English.
In informal speech, incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as" (as in "That car is sweet as."). "Full", "fully" or "heaps" may precede a word to act as an intensifier (as in "The waves at the beach were heaps good."). This was more common in regional Australia and South Australia but has been in common usage in urban Australia for decades. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance, "really good" can become "real good".
Australia's switch to the
metric system
The metric system is a system of measurement that succeeded the decimalised system based on the metre that had been introduced in France in the 1790s. The historical development of these systems culminated in the definition of the Interna ...
in the 1970s changed most of the country's vocabulary of measurement from
imperial
Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism.
Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to:
Places
United States
* Imperial, California
* Imperial, Missouri
* Imperial, Nebraska
* Imperial, Pennsylvania
* Imperial, Texa ...
to metric measures. Since the switch to metric, heights of individuals are listed in centimetres on official documents and distances by road on signs are listed in terms of kilometres and metres.
Comparison with other varieties
Where
British and American English vocabulary differs, sometimes Australian English shares a usage with one of those varieties, as with petrol (AmE: ''gasoline'') and mobile phone (AmE: ''cellular phone'') which are shared with British English, or truck (BrE: ''lorry'') and
eggplant (BrE: ''aubergine'') which are shared with American English.
In other circumstances, Australian English sometimes favours a usage which is different from both British and American English as with:
["The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.]
Differences exist between Australian English and other varieties of English, where different terms can be used for the same subject or the same term can be ascribed different meanings. Non-exhaustive examples of terminology associated with food, transport and clothing is used below to demonstrate the variations which exist between Australian English and other varieties:
* ''Food'': capsicum (BrE: ''(red/green) pepper''; AmE: ''bell pepper''); (potato) chips (refers both to BrE ''crisps'' and AmE ''French fries''); chook (sanga) (BrE and AmE: ''chicken (sandwich)''); coriander (shared with BrE. AmE: ''cilantro''); entree (refers to AmE ''appetizer'' whereas AmE ''entree'' is referred to in AusE as ''main course''); eggplant (shared with AmE. BrE: ''aubergine''); fairy floss (BrE: ''candy floss''; AmE: ''cotton candy''); ice block or icy pole (BrE: ''ice lolly''; AmE: ''popsicle''); jelly (refers to AmE ''Jell-o'' whereas AmE ''jelly'' refers to AusE ''jam''); lollies (BrE: ''sweets''; AmE: ''candy''); marinara (sauce) (refers to a tomato-based sauce in AmE and BrE but a seafood sauce in AusE); mince or minced meat (Shared with BrE. AmE: ''ground meat'');
prawn
Prawn is a common name for small aquatic crustaceans with an exoskeleton and ten legs (which is a member of the order decapoda), some of which can be eaten.
The term "prawn"Mortenson, Philip B (2010''This is not a weasel: a close look at nature' ...
(which in BrE refers to large crustaceans only, with small crustaceans referred to as ''shrimp''. AmE universally: ''shrimp''); snow pea (shared with AmE. BrE ''mangetout''); pumpkin (AmE: ''squash'', except for the large orange variety - AusE ''squash'' refers only to a small number of uncommon species; BrE: ''marrow''); tomato sauce (also used in BrE. AmE: ''ketchup''); zucchini (shared with AmE. BrE: ''courgette'')
* ''Transport'': aeroplane (shared with BrE. AmE: ''airplane''); bonnet (shared with BrE. AmE: ''hood''); bumper (shared with BrE. AmE: ''fender''); car park (shared with BrE. AmE: ''parking lot''); convertible (shared with AmE. BrE: ''cabriolet''); footpath (BrE: ''pavement''; AmE: ''sidewalk''); horse float (BrE: ''horsebox''; AmE: ''horse trailer''); indicator (shared with BrE. AmE: ''turn signal''); peak hour (BrE and AmE: ''rush hour''); petrol (shared with BrE. AmE: ''gasoline''); railway (shared with BrE. AmE: ''railroad''); sedan (car) (shared with AmE. BrE: ''saloon (car)''); semitrailer (shared with AmE. BrE: ''artic'' or ''articulated lorry''); station wagon (shared with AmE. BrE: ''estate car''); truck (shared with AmE. BrE: ''lorry''); ute (BrE and AmE: ''pickup truck''); windscreen (shared with BrE. AmE: ''windshield'')
* ''Clothing'': gumboots (BrE: ''Wellington boots'' or ''Wellies''; AmE: ''rubber boots'' or ''galoshes''); jumper (shared with BrE. AmE: ''sweater''); nappy (shared with BrE. AmE: ''diaper''); overalls (shared with AmE. BrE: ''dungarees''); raincoat (shared with AmE. BrE: ''mackintosh'' or ''mac''); runners (footwear) (BrE: ''trainers''. AmE: ''sneakers''); sandshoe (BrE: ''pump'' or ''plimsoll''. AmE: ''tennis shoe''); singlet (BrE: ''vest''. AmE: ''tank top'' or ''wifebeater''); skivvy (BrE: ''polo neck''; AmE: ''turtleneck''); swimmers or togs or bathers (BrE: ''swimming costume''. AmE: ''bathing suit'' or ''swimsuit''); thongs (refers to BrE and AmE ''flip-flops (footwear)''. In BrE and AmE refers to ''g-string (underwear)'')
Terms with different meanings in Australian English
There also exist words which in Australian English are ascribed different meanings from those ascribed in other varieties of English, for instance:
* Asian in Australian (and American) English commonly refers to people of East Asian ancestry, while in British English it commonly refers to people of South Asian ancestry
* Biscuit in Australian (and British) English refers to AmE ''cookie'' and ''cracker'', while in American English it refers to a
leavened bread product
* (potato) Chips refers both to British English ''crisps'' (which is not commonly used in Australian English) and to American English ''French fries'' (which is used alongside ''hot chips'')
* Football in Australian English most commonly refers to
Australian rules football,
rugby league
Rugby league football, commonly known as just rugby league and sometimes football, footy, rugby or league, is a full-contact sport played by two teams of thirteen players on a rectangular field measuring 68 metres (75 yards) wide and 11 ...
or
rugby union
Rugby union, commonly known simply as rugby, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In it ...
. In British English ''football'' is most commonly used to refer to ''association football'', while in North American English ''football'' is used to refer to ''
gridiron''
* Pants in Australian (and American) English most commonly refers to British English ''trousers'', but in British English refers to Australian English ''underpants''
* Nursery in Australian English refers to a
plant nursery
A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to a desired size. Mostly the plants concerned are for gardening, forestry or conservation biology, rather than agriculture. They include retail nurseries, which sell to the general p ...
whereas in British English it often refers to a
child care
Child care, otherwise known as day care, is the care and supervision of a child or multiple children at a time, whose ages range from two weeks of age to 18 years. Although most parents spend a significant amount of time caring for their child(r ...
or daycare for pre-school age children
* Paddock in Australian English refers to an open field or meadow whereas in American and British English it refers to a small agricultural enclosure
* Premier in Australian English refers specifically to the
head of government of an Australian state, whereas in British English it is used interchangeably with ''
Prime Minister
A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister i ...
''
* Public school in Australian (and American) English refers to a state school. Australian and American English use ''private school'' to mean a non-government or independent school, in contrast with British English which uses ''public school'' to refer to the same thing
* Pudding in Australian (and American) English refers to
a particular sweet dessert dish, while in British English it often refers to dessert (the
food course) in general
* Thong in Australian English it refers to British and American English ''flip-flop'' (footwear), whereas in both American and British English it refers to Australian English ''
G-string
A G-string is a type of thong, a narrow piece of fabric, leather, or satin that covers or holds the genitals, passes between the buttocks, and is attached to a waistband around the hips. A G-string can be worn both by men and by women. It may ...
'' (underwear)
* Vest in Australian (and American) English refers to a padded upper garment or British English ''waistcoat'' but in British English refers to Australian English ''singlet''
Idioms taking different forms in Australian English
In addition to the large number of uniquely Australian idioms in common use, there are instances of idioms taking different forms in Australian English than in other varieties, for instance:
* A drop in the ocean (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE ''a drop in the bucket''
* A way to go (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE ''a ways to go''
* Home away from home (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE ''home from home''
* Take (something) with a grain of salt (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to UK ''take with a pinch of salt''
* Touch wood (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE ''knock on wood''
* Wouldn't touch (something) with a ten-foot pole (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE ''wouldn't touch with a barge pole''
British and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English
There are extensive terms used in other varieties of English which are not widely used in Australian English. These terms usually do not result in Australian English speakers failing to comprehend speakers of other varieties of English, as Australian English speakers will often be familiar with such terms through exposure to media or may ascertain the meaning using context.
Non-exhaustive selections of British English and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English together with their definitions or Australian English equivalents are found in the collapsible table below:
Grammar
The general rules of English Grammar which apply to Australian English are described at
English grammar
English grammar is the set of structural rules of the English language. This includes the structure of words, phrases, clauses, Sentence (linguistics), sentences, and whole texts.
This article describes a generalized, present-day Standard English ...
. Grammatical differences between varieties of English are minor relative to differences in phonology and vocabulary and do not generally affect intelligibility. Examples of grammatical differences between Australian English and other varieties include:
*Collective nouns are generally singular in construction, e.g., ''the government was unable to decide'' as opposed to ''the government were unable to decide'' or ''the group was leaving'' as opposed to ''the group were leaving''. This is in common with
American English
American English, sometimes called United States English or U.S. English, is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States and in most circumstances i ...
.
*Australian English has an extreme distaste for the modal verbs ''shall'' (in non-legal contexts), ''shan't'' and ''ought'' (in place of ''will'', ''won't'' and ''should'' respectively), which are encountered in British English.
However, ''shall'' is found in the
Australian Constitution, Acts of Parliament, and other formal or legal documents such as contracts.
*Using ''should'' with the same meaning as ''would'', e.g. ''I should like to see you'', encountered in British English, is almost never encountered in Australian English.
*''River'' follows the name of the river in question, e.g., ''Brisbane River'', rather than the British convention of coming before the name, e.g., ''River Thames''. This is also the case in
North American
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Ca ...
and
New Zealand English. In
South Australian English however, the reverse applies when referring to the following three rivers:
Murray
Murray may refer to:
Businesses
* Murray (bicycle company), an American manufacturer of low-cost bicycles
* Murrays, an Australian bus company
* Murray International Trust, a Scottish investment trust
* D. & W. Murray Limited, an Australian who ...
,
Darling and
Torrens. The
Derwent in Tasmania also follows this convention.
*While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, i.e., ''She resigned Thursday'', they are retained in Australian English: ''She resigned on Thursday''. This is shared with British English.
*The institutional nouns ''hospital'' and ''university'' do not take the
definite article
An article is any member of a class of dedicated words that are used with noun phrases to mark the identifiability of the referents of the noun phrases. The category of articles constitutes a part of speech.
In English, both "the" and "a(n)" a ...
: ''She's in hospital'', ''He's at university''. This is in contrast to American English where ''the'' is required: ''In the hospital'', ''At the university''.
*''On the weekend'' is used in favour of the British ''at the weekend'' which is not encountered in Australian English.
*Ranges of dates use ''to'', i.e., ''Monday to Friday'', rather than ''Monday through Friday''. This is shared with British English and is in contrast to American English.
*When speaking or writing out numbers, ''and'' is always inserted before the tens, i.e., ''one hundred and sixty-two'' rather than ''one hundred sixty-two''. This is in contrast to American English, where the insertion of ''and'' is acceptable but nonetheless either casual or informal.
*The preposition ''to'' in ''write to'' (e.g. ''I'll write to you'') is always retained, as opposed to American usage where it may be dropped.
*Australian English does not share the British usage of ''read'' (v) to mean ''study'' (v). Therefore, it may be said that ''He studies medicine'' but not that ''He reads medicine''.
*When referring to time, Australians will refer to 10:30 as ''half past ten'' and do not use the British ''half ten''. Similarly, ''a quarter to ten'' is used for 9:45 rather than ''(a) quarter of ten'', which is sometimes found in American English.
*Australian English does not share the British English meaning of ''sat'' to include ''sitting'' or ''seated''. Therefore, uses such as ''I've been sat here for an hour'' are not encountered in Australian English.
*To ''have a shower'' or ''have a bath'' are the most common usages in Australian English, in contrast to American English which uses ''take a shower'' and ''take a bath''.
*The past participle of ''saw'' is ''sawn'' (e.g. ''sawn-off shotgun'') in Australian English, in contrast to the American English ''sawed''.
*The verb ''visit'' is transitive in Australian English. Where the object is a person or people, American English also uses ''visit with'', which is not found in Australian English.
*An outdoor event which is cancelled due to inclement weather is ''rained out'' in Australian English. This is in contrast to British English where it is said to be ''rained off''.
*In informal speech, sentence-final ''but'' may be used, e.g. ''I don't want to go but'' in place of ''But I don't want to go''.
This is also found in
Scottish English
Scottish English ( gd, Beurla Albannach) is the set of varieties of the English language spoken in Scotland. The transregional, standardised variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English (SSE). Scottish Standard ...
.
*In informal speech, the
discourse marker
A discourse marker is a word or a phrase that plays a role in managing the flow and structure of discourse. Since their main function is at the level of discourse (sequences of utterances) rather than at the level of utterances or sentences, disc ...
s ''yeah no'' (or ''yeah nah'') and ''no yeah'' (or ''nah yeah'') may be used to mean ''no'' and ''yes'' respectively.
Spelling and style
As in all English-speaking countries, there is no central authority that prescribes official usage with respect to matters of
spelling
Spelling is a set of conventions that regulate the way of using graphemes (writing system) to represent a language in its written form. In other words, spelling is the rendering of speech sound (phoneme) into writing (grapheme). Spelling is one ...
, grammar, punctuation or style.
Spelling
![International English Spelling updated](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/International_English_Spelling_updated.svg)
There are several dictionaries of Australian English which adopt a
descriptive
In the study of language, description or descriptive linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a speech community. François & Ponsonnet (2013).
All acad ...
approach. The ''
Macquarie Dictionary
The ''Macquarie Dictionary'' () is a dictionary of Australian English. It is generally considered by universities and the legal profession to be the authoritative source on Australian English. It also pays considerable attention to New Zealand ...
'' is most commonly used by universities, governments and courts as the
standard Standard may refer to:
Symbols
* Colours, standards and guidons, kinds of military signs
* Standard (emblem), a type of a large symbol or emblem used for identification
Norms, conventions or requirements
* Standard (metrology), an object th ...
for Australian English spelling. The
Australian Oxford Dictionary
The ''Australian Oxford Dictionary'', sometimes abbreviated as ''AOD'', is a dictionary of Australian English published by Oxford University Press.Warden, Ian "Some Balltearers For The Scrabble Board" 27 October 1999 Canberra Times P7
The ''AOD' ...
is another commonly-used dictionary of Australian English.
Australian spelling is significantly closer to
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies.
** Britishness, the British identity and common culture
* British English, ...
than
American spelling
Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most notable variations being British and American ...
, as it did not adopt the systematic
reforms
Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement ...
promulgated in
Noah Webster
Noah ''Nukh''; am, ኖህ, ''Noḥ''; ar, نُوح '; grc, Νῶε ''Nôe'' () is the tenth and last of the pre-Flood patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible ( Book of Genesis, chapters 5 ...
's
1828 Dictionary. Notwithstanding, the Macquarie Dictionary often lists most American spellings as acceptable secondary variants.
The minor systematic differences which occur between Australian and American spelling are summarised below:
["The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.]
* French-derived words which in American English end with or, such as ''color'', ''honor'', ''behavior'' and ''labor'', are spelt with our in Australian English: ''colour'', ''honour'', ''behaviour'' and ''labour''. Exceptions are the
Australian ''Labor'' Party and some (especially
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
n) placenames which use ''Harbor'', notably
Victor ''Harbor''.
* Words which in American English end with ize, such as ''realize'', ''recognize'' and ''apologize'' are spelt with ise in Australian English: ''realise'', ''recognise'' and ''apologise''. The British
Oxford spelling
Oxford spelling (also ''Oxford English Dictionary'' spelling, Oxford style, or Oxford English spelling) is a spelling standard, named after its use by the University of Oxford, that prescribes the use of British spelling in combination with th ...
, which uses the ize endings, remains a minority variant. The Macquarie Dictionary says that the ''-ise'' form as opposed to ''-ize'' sits at 3:1. The sole exception to this is ''capsize'', which is used in all varieties.
* Words which in American English end with yze, such as ''analyze'', ''paralyze'' and ''catalyze'' are spelt with yse in Australian English: ''analyse'', ''paralyse'' and ''catalyse''.
* French-derived words which in American English end with er, such as ''fiber'', ''center'' and ''meter'' are spelt with re in Australian English: ''fibre'', ''centre'' and ''metre'' (the unit of measurement only, not physical devices; so ''gasometer'', ''voltmeter'').
* Words which end in American English end with log, such as ''catalog'', ''dialog'' and ''monolog'' are usually spelt with logue in Australian English: ''catalogue'', ''dialogue'' and ''monologue'', however the ''Macquarie Dictionary'' lists the log spelling as the preferred variant for ''analog''.
* A double-consonant l is retained in Australian English when adding suffixes to words ending in ''l'' where the consonant is unstressed, contrary to American English. Therefore, Australian English favours ''cancelled'', ''counsellor'', and ''travelling'' over American ''canceled'', ''counselor'' and ''traveling''.
* Where American English uses a double-consonant ll in the words ''skillful'', ''willful'', ''enroll'', ''distill'', ''enthrall'', ''fulfill'' and ''installment'', Australian English uses a single consonant: ''skilful'', ''wilful'', ''enrol'', ''distil'', ''enthral'', ''fulfil'' and ''instalment''. However, the Macquarie Dictionary has noted a growing tendency to use the double consonant.
* The American English ''defense'' and ''offense'' are spelt ''defence'' and ''offence'' in Australian English.
* In contrast with American English, which uses ''practice'' and ''license'' for both nouns and verbs, ''practice'' and ''licence'' are nouns while ''practise'' and ''license'' are verbs in Australian English.
* Words with ae and oe are often maintained in words such as ''oestrogen'' and ''paedophilia'', in contrast to the American English practice of using e alone (as in ''estrogen'' and ''pedophilia''). The ''Macquarie Dictionary'' has noted a shift within Australian English towards using e alone, and now lists some words such as ''encyclopedia'', ''fetus'', ''eon'' or ''hematite'' with the e spelling as the preferred variant and hence Australian English varies by word when it comes to these sets of words.
Minor systematic difference which occur between Australian and British spelling are as follows:
["The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.]
* Words often ending in eable in British English end in able in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours ''livable'' over ''liveable'', ''sizable'' over ''sizeable'', ''movable'' over ''moveable'', etc., although both variants are acceptable.
* Words often ending in eing in British English end in ing in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours ''aging'' over ''ageing'', or ''routing'' over ''routeing'', etc., although both variants are acceptable.
* Words often ending in mme in British English end in m in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours ''program'' over ''programme'' (in all contexts) and ''aerogram'' over ''aerogramme'', although both variants are acceptable. Similar to Canada, New Zealand and the United States, ''(kilo)gram'' is the only spelling.
Other examples of individual words where the preferred spelling is listed by the ''Macquarie Dictionary'' as being different from current British spellings include ''analog'' as opposed to ''analogue'', ''guerilla'' as opposed to ''guerrilla'', ''verandah'' as opposed to ''veranda'', ''burqa'' as opposed to ''burka'', ''pastie'' (noun) as opposed to ''pasty'', ''neuron'' as opposed to ''neurone'', ''hicup'' as opposed to ''hicough'', ''annex'' as opposed to ''annexe'', ''raccoon'' as opposed to ''racoon'' etc.
["The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.] Unspaced forms such as ''onto'', ''anytime'', ''alright'' and ''anymore'' are also listed as being equally as acceptable as their spaced counterparts.
["The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.]
There is variation between and within varieties of English in the treatment of -t and -ed endings for past tense verbs. The Macquarie Dictionary does not favour either, but it suggests that ''leaped'', ''leaned'' or ''learned'' (with -ed endings) are more common but ''spelt'' and ''burnt'' (with -t endings) are more common.
["The Macquarie Dictionary", 8th Edition. Macquarie Dictionary Publishers, 2020.]
Different spellings have existed throughout Australia's history. What are today regarded as American spellings were popular in Australia throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the Victorian Department of Education endorsing them into the 1970s and ''
The Age
''The Age'' is a daily newspaper in Melbourne, Australia, that has been published since 1854. Owned and published by Nine Entertainment, ''The Age'' primarily serves Victoria, but copies also sell in Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory ...
'' newspaper until the 1990s. This influence can be seen in the spelling of the
Australian Labor Party
The Australian Labor Party (ALP), also simply known as Labor, is the major centre-left political party in Australia, one of two major parties in Australian politics, along with the centre-right Liberal Party of Australia. The party forms t ...
and also in some place names such as
Victor Harbor. The ''
Concise Oxford English Dictionary'' has been attributed with re-establishing the dominance of the British spellings in the 1920s and 1930s. For a short time during the late 20th century,
Harry Lindgren's 1969 spelling reform proposal (
''Spelling Reform 1'' or ''SR1'') gained some support in Australia and was adopted by the
Australian Teachers' Federation
The Australian Education Union (AEU) is an Australian trade union, founded in 1984 as the Australian Teachers Union, which is registered with Fair Work Australia as an employee group, and is affiliated with the Australian Council of Trade Union ...
.
Punctuation and style
Prominent general
style guides
A style guide or manual of style is a set of standards for the writing, formatting, and design of documents. It is often called a style sheet, although that term also has multiple other meanings. The standards can be applied either for gener ...
for Australian English include the ''Cambridge Guide to Australian English Usage'', the ''Australian Government Style Manual''
(formerly the ''
Style Manual: For Authors, Editors and Printers''), the ''Australian Handbook for Writers and Editors'' and the ''Complete Guide to English Usage for Australian Students''.
Both
single and double quotation marks are in use, with single quotation marks preferred for use in the first instance, with double quotation marks reserved for quotes of speech within speech.
Logical (as opposed to typesetter's) punctuation is preferred for punctuation marks at the end of quotations. For instance, ''Sam said he 'wasn't happy when Jane told David to "go away"'.'' is used in preference to ''Sam said he "wasn't happy when Jane told David to 'go away.'"''
The DD/MM/YYYY
date format
A calendar date is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system. The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified. The number of days between two dates may be calculated. For example, "25 " is ten days after " ...
is followed and the 12-hour clock is generally used in everyday life (as opposed to service, police, and airline applications).
With the exception of screen sizes,
metric system
The metric system is a system of measurement that succeeded the decimalised system based on the metre that had been introduced in France in the 1790s. The historical development of these systems culminated in the definition of the Interna ...
units are used in everyday life, having supplanted
imperial units
The imperial system of units, imperial system or imperial units (also known as British Imperial or Exchequer Standards of 1826) is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act 1824 and continued to be developed th ...
upon the country's switch to the metric system in the 1970s.
In
betting
Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of value ("the stakes") on a random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy are discounted. Gambling thus requires three elem ...
,
decimal odds
Odds provide a measure of the likelihood of a particular outcome. They are calculated as the ratio of the number of events that produce that outcome to the number that do not. Odds are commonly used in gambling and statistics.
Odds also have ...
are used in favour of fractional odds, used in the United Kingdom, or moneyline odds, used in the United States.
Keyboard layout
There are
two major English language keyboard layouts, the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout. Keyboards and keyboard software for the Australian market universally uses the US keyboard layout, which lacks the pound sterling,
euro
The euro ( symbol: €; code: EUR) is the official currency of 19 out of the member states of the European Union (EU). This group of states is known as the eurozone or, officially, the euro area, and includes about 340 million citizens . ...
and
negation symbols and uses a different layout for punctuation symbols than the UK keyboard layout.
See also
* ''
The Australian National Dictionary
''The Australian National Dictionary: Australian Words and Their Origins'' is a historical dictionary of Australian English, recording 16,000 words, phrases, and meanings of Australian origin and use. The first edition of the dictionary, edited by ...
''
*
Australian English vocabulary
*
New Zealand English
*
South African English
*
Zimbabwean English
Zimbabwean English (ZimE; en-ZIM; en-ZW) is a regional variety of English found in Zimbabwe. While the majority of Zimbabweans speak Shona (75%) and Ndebele (18%) as a first language, standard English is the primary language used in education ...
*
Falkland Islands English
Falkland Islands English is mainly British in character. However, as a result of the isolation of the islands, the small population has developed and retains its own accent/dialect, which persists despite many immigrants from the United Kingdo ...
*
Diminutives in Australian English
Diminutive forms of words are commonly used in everyday Australian English. While many dialects of English make use of diminutives and hypocorisms, Australian English uses them more extensively than any other.Sussex, Roland. 2004. Abstand, Ausb ...
*
International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects
This chart shows the most common applications of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to represent English language pronunciations.
See Pronunciation respelling for English for phonetic transcriptions used in different dictionaries.
*AmE, ...
*
Strine Strine, also spelled Stryne , describes a broad accent of Australian English. The term is a syncope, derived from a shortened phonetic rendition of the pronunciation of the word "Australian" in an exaggerated Broad Australian accent, drawing upon ...
References
Citations
Works cited
*
Further reading
*
* Mitchell, Alexander G. (1995). ''The Story of Australian English.'' Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.
External links
Aussie English, The Illustrated Dictionary of Australian EnglishAustralian National Dictionary Centrefree newsletter from the Australian National Dictionary Centre, which includes articles on Australian EnglishAustralian Word Mapat the
ABC
ABC are the first three letters of the Latin script known as the alphabet.
ABC or abc may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Broadcasting
* American Broadcasting Company, a commercial U.S. TV broadcaster
** Disney–ABC Television ...
—documents regionalisms
R. Mannell, F. Cox and J. Harrington (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology Macquarie University
Aussie English for beginnersthe origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge at the National Museum of Australia.
{{authority control
Languages attested from the 18th century
Dialects of English
Sociolinguistics
Languages of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Oceanian dialects of English
Languages of Australia