Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' ( grc, Ῥητορική, Rhētorikḗ; la, Ars Rhetorica) is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of

persuasion Persuasion or persuasion arts is an umbrella term for Social influence, influence. Persuasion can influence a person's Belief, beliefs, Attitude (psychology), attitudes, Intention, intentions, Motivation, motivations, or Behavior, behaviours. ...

, dating from the 4th century BCE. The English title varies: typically it is titled ''Rhetoric'', the ''Art of Rhetoric'', ''On Rhetoric'', or a ''Treatise on Rhetoric''.

Background

Aristotle is generally credited with developing the basics of the system of rhetoric that "thereafter served as its touchstone", influencing the development of rhetorical theory from ancient through modern times. The ''Rhetoric'' is regarded by most rhetoricians as "the most important single work on persuasion ever written." Gross and Walzer concur, indicating that, just as

Alfred North Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead (15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947) was an English mathematician and philosopher. He is best known as the defining figure of the philosophical school known as process philosophy, which today has found applicat ...

considered all Western philosophy a footnote to Plato, "all subsequent rhetorical theory is but a series of responses to issues raised" by Aristotle's ''Rhetoric''. This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions, dating back to Peter Ramus' attacks on Aristotelian rhetoric in the late 16th century and continuing to the present. Like the other works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity, the ''Rhetoric'' seems not to have been intended for publication, being instead a collection of his students' notes in response to his lectures. The treatise shows the development of Aristotle's thought through two different periods while he was in Athens, and illustrates Aristotle's expansion of the study of rhetoric beyond Plato's early criticism of it in the ''

Gorgias Gorgias (; grc-gre, Γοργίας; 483–375 BC) was an ancient Greek sophist, pre-Socratic philosopher, and rhetorician who was a native of Leontinoi in Sicily. Along with Protagoras, he forms the first generation of Sophists. Several doxogr ...

'' () as immoral, dangerous, and unworthy of serious study. Plato's final dialogue on rhetoric, the ''

Phaedrus Phaedrus may refer to: People * Phaedrus (Athenian) (c. 444 BC – 393 BC), an Athenian aristocrat depicted in Plato's dialogues * Phaedrus (fabulist) (c. 15 BC – c. AD 50), a Roman fabulist * Phaedrus the Epicurean (138 BC – c. 70 BC), an Epic ...

'' (), offered a more moderate view of rhetoric, acknowledging its value in the hands of a true philosopher (the "midwife of the soul") for "winning the soul through discourse." This dialogue offered Aristotle, first a student and then a teacher at Plato's Academy, a more positive starting point for the development of rhetoric as an art worthy of systematic, scientific study. The ''Rhetoric'' was developed by Aristotle during two periods when he was in Athens, the first, from 367–347 BCE (when he was seconded to Plato in the Academy); and the second, from 335–322 BCE (when he was running his own school, the Lyceum). The study of rhetoric was contested in classical Greece: on the one side were the sophists, and on the other side were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The trio saw rhetoric and poetry as tools that were too often used to manipulate others by

appealing to emotion Appeal to emotion or ''argumentum ad passiones'' (meaning the same in Latin) is an informal fallacy characterized by the manipulation of the recipient's emotions in order to win an argument, especially in the absence of factual evidence. This kind ...

and omitting facts. They particularly accused the sophists, including

and

Isocrates Isocrates (; grc, Ἰσοκράτης ; 436–338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, one of the ten Attic orators. Among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time, Isocrates made many contributions to rhetoric and education throu ...

, of this manipulation. Plato, particularly, laid the blame for the arrest and the death of Socrates at the feet of sophistical rhetoric. In stark contrast to the emotional rhetoric and poetry of the sophists was a rhetoric grounded in philosophy and the pursuit of enlightenment. One of the most important contributions of Aristotle's approach was that he identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with logic and

dialectic Dialectic ( grc-gre, διαλεκτική, ''dialektikḗ''; related to dialogue; german: Dialektik), also known as the dialectical method, is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing ...

—of philosophy. Indeed, the first line of the ''Rhetoric'' is "Rhetoric is a counterpart ('' antistrophe'') of dialectic". According to Aristotle, logic is concerned with reasoning to reach scientific certainty while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with probability and, thus, are the branches of philosophy that are best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate; it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn. Conversely, rhetoric is a tool for practical debate; it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric create a partnership for a system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission.

English translation

Most English readers in the 20th century relied on four translations of the ''Rhetoric''. The first, by Richard C. Jebb, was published in 1909. The next two translations were published in 1924. John H. Freese's translation was published as a part of the

Loeb Classical Library The Loeb Classical Library (LCL; named after James Loeb; , ) is a series of books originally published by Heinemann in London, but is currently published by Harvard University Press. The library contains important works of ancient Greek and L ...

while W. Rhys Roberts' was published as a part of the Oxford University series of works in the Classics. Roberts' translation was edited and republished in 1954. The 1954 edition is widely considered the most readable of these translations and is widely available online. The fourth standard translation, by Lane Cooper, came out in 1932. Not until the 1990s did another major translation of the Rhetoric appear. Published in 1991 and translated by George A. Kennedy, a leading classicist and rhetorician, this work is notable for the precision of its translation and for its extensive commentary, notes, and references to modern scholarship on Aristotle and the ''Rhetoric.'' It is generally regarded today as the standard scholarly resource on the ''Rhetoric''.

Neo-Aristotelian theory

Rhetorical theory and criticism in the first half of the 20th century was dominated by neo-Aristotelian criticism, the tenets of which were grounded in the ''Rhetoric'' and were traditionally considered to have been summed up most clearly in 1925 by Herbert Wichelns. However, Forbes I. Hill argues that while Wichelns traditionally gets the credit for summing up neo-Aristotelian theory, Hoyt Hopewell Hudson is more deserving of this credit instead. The dominance of neo-Aristotelian criticism was "virtually unchallenged until the 1960s" and even now is considered not only as one of many approaches to criticism, but as fundamental for understanding other theoretical and critical approaches as they "developed largely in response to tsstrengths and weaknesses."

Overview of Book I

The ''Rhetoric'' consists of three books. Book I offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working definition; it also offers a detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric. Book II discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on: those grounded in credibility ('' ethos''), in the emotions and psychology of the audience (''

pathos Pathos (, ; plural: ''pathea'' or ''pathê''; , for "suffering" or "experience") appeals to the emotions and ideals of the audience and elicits feelings that already reside in them. Pathos is a term used most often in rhetoric (in which it is c ...

''), and in patterns of reasoning ('' logos''). Book III introduces the elements of style (word choice, metaphor, and sentence structure) and arrangement (organization). Some attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is referred to the Poetics for more information in that area. Many chapters in Book I of Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' cover the various typical deliberative arguments in Athenian culture. ;Chapter One: Aristotle first defines rhetoric as the counterpart ('' antistrophe'') of

(Book 1:1:1–2). He explains the similarities between the two but fails to comment on the differences. Here he introduces the term enthymeme (Book 1:1:3). ;Chapter Two: Aristotle's famous definition of rhetoric is viewed as the ability in any particular case to see the available means of persuasion. He defines '' pisteis'' (plural of , , ) as atechnic (inartistic) and entechnic (artistic). Of the ''pisteis'' provided through speech there are three parts: ''ethos'', ''pathos'', and ''logos''. He introduces

paradigm In science and philosophy, a paradigm () is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to a field. Etymology ''Paradigm'' comes f ...

s and

syllogism A syllogism ( grc-gre, συλλογισμός, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. ...

s as means of persuasion. ;Chapter Three: Introduces the three genres of rhetoric:

deliberative Deliberative rhetoric (Greek: ''genos'' ''symbouleutikon;'' Latin: ''genus deliberativum,'' sometimes called legislative oratory) is one of the three kinds of rhetoric described by Aristotle. Deliberative rhetoric juxtaposes potential future outcome ...

, forensic, and epideictic rhetoric. Here he also touches on the "ends" the orators of each of these genres hope to reach with their persuasions—which are discussed in further detail in later chapters (Book 1:3:5–7). Aristotle introduces these three genres by saying that " e kinds of rhetoric are three in number, corresponding to the three kinds of hearers". ;Chapter Four: Aristotle discusses the types of political topics of deliberative rhetoric. The five most common are finance, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and the framing of laws. ;Chapter Five: Aristotle discusses the different ethical topics of deliberative rhetoric. Aristotle identifies the telos, goal, of human action with

eudaimonia Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία ; sometimes anglicized as eudaemonia or eudemonia, ) is a Greek word literally translating to the state or condition of 'good spirit', and which is commonly translated as 'happiness' or 'welfare'. In wor ...

, or "happiness" and describes the many factors contributing to it (Book 1:5:5–18). ;Chapter Six: This is a continuation of Chapter Five, explaining in greater detail the stoikhea (elements) of the "good" described in the previous chapter. ;Chapter Seven: Introduces the term '' koinon'' of degree. Discusses the "ends" of deliberative rhetoric in relation to the greater good or more advantageous. ;Chapter Eight: Aristotle defines and discusses the four forms of ''

politeia ''Politeia'' (πολιτεία) is an ancient Greek word used in Greek political thought, especially that of Plato and Aristotle. Derived from the word ''polis'' ("city-state"), it has a range of meanings from " the rights of citizens" to a "form ...

'' useful in deliberative rhetoric: democracy, oligarchy,

aristocracy Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'. At t ...

, and monarchy. ;Chapter Nine: This chapter discusses the virtues and concepts of ''to kalon'' (the honorable) included in epideictic rhetoric. Aristotle describes what makes certain topics appropriate or worthy for praise or blame. He also states that it is important to highlight certain traits of the subject of praise. ;Chapter Ten: Aristotle discusses what syllogisms should be derived from ''kategoria'' (accusations) and '' apologia'' (defenses) for judicial rhetoric. He also introduces the wrongdoing, which is useful for judicial rhetoric. ;Chapter Eleven: This chapter discusses the many different types of '' hedone'' (pleasure) useful for judicial rhetoric. Aristotle states these as the reasons for people doing wrong. ;Chapter Twelve: This chapter, also about judicial rhetoric, discusses people's dispositions of mind and whom people wrong from the ''hedone'' discussed in the previous chapter. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of willingness, or intentions, of wrongdoings. ;Chapter Thirteen: Aristotle classifies all acts that are just and unjust defined in judicial rhetoric. He also distinguishes what kinds of actions are fair and unfair with being just. ;Chapter Fourteen: This chapter parallels the ''koinon'' described in Chapter Seven. Aristotle is clarifying the magnitude in relation to questions of "wrongdoing" meant for judicial rhetoric. ;Chapter Fifteen: Aristotle summarizes the arguments available to a speaker in dealing with evidence that supports or weakens a case. These atechnic ''pisteis'' contain laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, and oaths.

Overview of Book II

Book II gives advice for all types of speeches. Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' generally concentrates on '' ethos'' and ''

'', and—as noted by Aristotle—both affect judgment. Specifically, Aristotle refers to the effect of ''ethos'' and ''pathos'' on an audience since a speaker needs to exhibit these modes of persuasion before that audience.

Chapter 1

In Chapter 1, Aristotle notes that emotions cause men to change their opinions and judgments. As such, emotions have specific causes and effects (Book 2.1.2–3). A speaker can therefore employ this understanding to stimulate particular emotions from an audience. However, Aristotle states that along with ''pathos'', the speaker must also exhibit ''ethos'', which for Aristotle encompasses '' phronesis'', '' arete'', and ''

eunoia In rhetoric, ''eunoia'' ( grc, εὔνοιᾰ, eúnoia, well mind; beautiful thinking) is the good will speakers cultivate between themselves and their audiences, a condition of receptivity. In Book VIII of the '' Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristot ...

'' (Book 2.1.5–9).

Chapters 2–11

Chapters 2–11 explore those emotions useful to a rhetorical speaker. Aristotle provides an account on how to arouse these emotions in an audience so that a speaker might be able to produce the desired action successfully (Book 2.2.27). Aristotle arranges the discussion of the emotions in opposing pairs, such as anger and calmness or friendliness and enmity. For each emotion, Aristotle discusses the person's state of mind, against whom one directs the emotion, and for what reasons (Book 2.1.9). It is pertinent to understand all the components in order to stimulate a certain emotion within another person. For example, to Aristotle, anger results from the feeling of belittlement (Book 2.2.3–4). Those who become angry are in a state of distress due to a foiling of their desires (Book 2.2.9). The angry direct their emotion towards those who insult the latter or that which the latter values. These insults are the reasoning behind the anger (Book 2.2.12–27). In this way, Aristotle proceeds to define each emotion, assess the state of mind for those experiencing the emotion, determine to whom people direct the emotion, and reveal their reasoning behind the emotion. The significance of Aristotle's analysis stems from his idea that emotions have logical grounding and material sources.

Chapters 12–17

George A. Kennedy in a note to ''On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse'' remarks that ethos predominantly refers to the "moral character" of actions and mind. On page 148, Kennedy reveals the purpose of chapters 12–17 as a demonstration to the speaker of "how his ethos must attend and adjust to the ethos of varied types of auditor if he is to address them successfully." As seen in the chapters explaining the various emotions, in chapters 12–17 Aristotle focuses on the necessary means of successfully persuading an audience. Yet, in these chapters, Aristotle analyzes the character of different groups of people so that a speaker might adjust his portrayed ethos in order to influence the audience. First, he describes the young as creatures of desire, easily changeable and swiftly satisfied. The young hate to be belittled because they long for superiority (Book 2.12.1–15). According to Aristotle, the old are distrustful, cynical, and small-minded for unlike the young their past is long and their future short (Book 2.13.1–5). The old do not act on a basis of desire but rather act for profit (Book 2.13.13–14). Those in the prime of life represent the mean to Aristotle, possessing the advantages of both old and young without excess or deficiency (Book 2.14.1). One of good birth, wealth, or power has the character of a lucky fool, a character in which insolence and arrogance breed if these good fortunes are not used to one's advantage (Book 2.15–17).

Chapters 18–26

Although Book II primarily focuses on ethos and pathos, Aristotle discusses

and enthymeme as two common modes of persuasion. There exist two kinds of paradigm: comparisons, referencing that which has happened before, and fables, inventing an illustration (Book 2.20.2–3). Maxims, or succinct, clever statements about actions, serve as the conclusion of enthymemes (Book 2.1–2). In choosing a maxim, one should assess the audience views and employ a fitting maxim (Book 2.21.15–16). Amplification and deprecation, although not elements of an enthymeme, can contribute to refuting an opponent's enthymeme or revealing a falsehood by exposing it as just or unjust, good or evil, etc. Aristotle also mentions the koina, fallacious enthymemes, and

lysis Lysis ( ) is the breaking down of the membrane of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic (that is, "lytic" ) mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a ''lysate''. In molecular bio ...

(the refutation of an opponent's enthymeme). In all of these techniques, Aristotle considers popular wisdom and audiences as a central guide. Thus, the speaker's effect on the audience serves as a key theme throughout Book II. Book II ends with a transition to Book III. The transition concludes the discussion of pathos, ethos, paradigms, enthymemes, and maxims so that Book III may focus on delivery, style, and arrangement.

Overview of Book III

Book III of Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' is often overshadowed by the first two books. While Books I and II are more systematic and address ethos, logos, and

, Book III is often considered a conglomeration of Greek stylistic devices on rhetoric. However, Book III contains informative material on

lexis Lexis may refer to: * Lexis (linguistics), the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language, the artifact of which is known as a lexicon *Lexis (Aristotle), a complete group of words in a language *LexisNexis, part of the LexisNexis onl ...

(style) which refers to the "way of saying" (in Chapters 1-12) and taxis, which refers to the arrangement of words (in Chapters 13-19).

Chapters 1–12: style (lexis)

;Chapter 1 : Summarizes Aristotle's Book I and Book II and introduces the term hypokrisis ( pronuntiatio). Aristotle argues that voice should be used to most accurately represent the given situation as exemplified by poets (Bk. 3 1:3-4). ;Chapter 2 : Highlights aretê, which is defined as virtue or excellence. When applied to rhetoric, aretê means natural rather than forced or artificial (Bk. 3 2:1-4). Metaphors are also addressed as a skill that cannot be taught and should bestow "verbal beauty" (Bk. 3 2:6-13). ;Chapter 3 : Deals with "frigid" language. This occurs when one uses elaborate double words,

archaic Archaic is a period of time preceding a designated classical period, or something from an older period of time that is also not found or used currently: *List of archaeological periods **Archaic Sumerian language, spoken between 31st - 26th cent ...

, and rare words, added descriptive words or phrases, and inappropriate metaphors (Bk. 3 3:1-4). ;Chapter 4 : Discusses another figurative part of speech, the simile (also known as an eikon). Similes are only occasionally useful in speech due to their poetic nature and similarity to metaphor. ;Chapter 5 : Addresses how to speak properly by using connectives, calling things by their specific name, avoiding terms with ambiguous meanings, observing the gender of nouns, and correctly using singular and plural words (Bk. 3 5:1-6). ;Chapter 6 : Gives practical advice on how to amplify language by using onkos (expansiveness) and syntomia (conciseness). Not using the term circle, but giving its definition, would exemplify onkos, and using the word as the definition would exemplify syntomia (Bk.3 5:1-3). ;Chapter 7 : Aristotle expands on the use of appropriate style in addressing the subject. "Lexis will be appropriate if it expresses emotion and character and is proportional to the subject matter". Aristotle stresses emotion, credibility, genus (like age), and moral state as important considerations (Bk. 3 7:1-6). ;Chapter 8 : Rhythm should be incorporated into prose to make it well "rhythmed" but not to the extent of a poem (Bk.3 8:3-7). ;Chapter 9 : Looks at

periodic style Periodicity or periodic may refer to: Mathematics * Bott periodicity theorem, addresses Bott periodicity: a modulo-8 recurrence relation in the homotopy groups of classical groups * Periodic function, a function whose output contains values tha ...

and how it should be seen as a rhythmical unit and used to complete a thought to help understand meaning (Bk.3 9:3-4). ;Chapter 10 : Aristotle further highlights the metaphor and addresses how it brings about learning and enables visualization (Bk. 3 10:1-6). ;Chapter 11 : Explains why devices of style can defamiliarize language. Aristotle warns that it is inappropriate to speak in hyperbole (Bk. 3 11:15). ;Chapter 12 : The three genres of oral and written language are deliberative, judicial, and

epideictic The epideictic oratory, also called ceremonial oratory, or praise-and-blame rhetoric, is one of the three branches, or "species" (eidē), of rhetoric as outlined in Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'', to be used to praise or blame during ceremonies. Origi ...

, all of which are written by logographoi (speech writers) who are each skilled at different types of speeches. This transitions into the next section of chapters on taxis.

Chapters 13–19: parts of speech

;Chapter 13 : Covers the necessary parts of a speech which include the prosthesis (which is the statement of the proposition) and then the pistis (which is the proof of the statement), along with the prooemium (introduction) and epilogue (Bk. 3 13:1-4). ;Chapter 14 : Discusses the prooemiun (introduction), which demonstrates how the introduction should be used in both

and judicial speeches. Both have the main goal of signaling the end of the speech (Bk. 3 14:1-11). ;Chapter 15 : Handles

prejudicial attacks Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived (usually unfavourable) evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's per ...

according to Aristotle which later on became part of

Stasis (argumentation theory) ''Inventio'', one of the five canons of rhetoric, is the method used for the ''discovery of arguments'' in Western rhetoric and comes from the Latin word, meaning "invention" or "discovery". ''Inventio'' is the central, indispensable canon of rh ...

which is "determining the question at issue in a trial". ;Chapter 16 : Diēgēsis or narration is discussed and demonstrates how one must work through an argument by using logos. Narration differs in epideictic, judicial, and deliberative narratives. ;Chapter 17 : Looks at the pistis or the proof in an oration, and how it varies in each type of speech. ;Chapter 18 : Erotēsis, also known as interrogation referred to asking and demanding responses in trials during Aristotle's time. It is seen as, "most opportune when an opponent has said one thing and when if the right question is asked, an absurdity results" (Bk. 3 19:1). ;Chapter 19 : Aristotle's final chapter in Book III discusses epilogues, which are the conclusion of speeches and must include four things: "disposing the hearer favorably toward the speaker and unfavorably to the opponent, amplifying and minimizing, moving the hearer into emotional reactions, and giving reminder of the speech's main points" (Bk. 3 19:1-4). Scholars are turning to Book III once again to develop theories about Greek style and its contemporary relevance.

Importance of deliberative rhetoric

Amélie Oksenberg Rorty discusses the structure and characteristics of deliberative rhetoric in her research. She cites Aristotle to persuade her audience of the characteristics of deliberative rhetoric's influential nature. "Aristotle marks as central to deliberative rhetoric: considerations of prudence and justice, the projected political and psychological consequences of the decision and the likelihood of encouraging—or entrenching—similar rebellious attitudes amongst allies." The outstanding characteristic of deliberative rhetoric is practicality. Rorty argues, "the deliberative rhetorician who wishes to retain his reputation as trustworthy must pay attention to what is, in fact, actually likely to happen." Additionally, Aristotle focuses on deliberative rhetoric so heavily because "it most clearly reveals the primary importance of truth as it functions within the craft of rhetoric itself." A path to action is determined through deliberative rhetoric, since an individual following practical means is likely to foresee likely events and act accordingly. In interpreting Aristotle's work on use of rhetoric,

Bernard Yack Bernard Yack (born 1952) is a Canadian born American political theorist. He received his B.A. from the University of Toronto and his Ph.D. in Philosophy from Harvard University, where he was a student of Judith Shklar. Yack has taught at numerous u ...

discusses the vast need for public discourse and public reasoning. He states: "We deliberate together in political communities by making and listening to each other's attempts to persuade us that some future action will best serve the end that citizens share with each other…It is this shared goal that distinguishes deliberative rhetoric, and therefore public reasoning, from the other forms of rhetoric and political judgment that Aristotle examines." Shared goals are of utmost importance when deliberating on an issue that affects the common good. Without such a version of deliberative rhetoric, arguments would unfairly favor the interests of power and neglect the rights of the common people.

References

External links

* * * {{Authority control Works by Aristotle Rhetoric works Philosophy books Treatises Philosophy of Aristotle