![Toussaint_Louverture](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Toussaint_Louverture.jpg)
The Indigenous Army (french: link=no, Armée Indigène), also known as the Army of
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue () was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the area of modern-day Haiti, from 1659 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city in the island, Santo Domingo, which came to refer ...
(french: link=no, Armée de Saint-Domingue) or Lame Endijèn in
Haitian Creole
Haitian Creole (; ht, kreyòl ayisyen, links=no, ; french: créole haïtien, links=no, ), commonly referred to as simply ''Creole'', or ''Kreyòl'' in the Creole language, is a French-based creole language spoken by 10–12million people wor ...
, was the name bestowed to the coalition of anti-slavery rebels who fought in the
Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution (french: révolution haïtienne ; ht, revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by slave revolt, self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt ...
. Encompassing both black slaves, maroons, and
affranchi
Affranchi () is a former French legal term denoting a freedman or emancipated slave, but was a term used to refer pejoratively to mulattoes. It is used in the English language to describe the social class of freedmen in Saint-Domingue, an ...
s (black and
mulatto
(, ) is a racial classification to refer to people of mixed African and European ancestry. Its use is considered outdated and offensive in several languages, including English and Dutch, whereas in languages such as Spanish and Portuguese is ...
freedmen alike),
the rebels were not officially titled the Armée indigène until January 1803, under the leadership of then-general
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Jean-Jacques Dessalines (Haitian Creole: ''Jan-Jak Desalin''; ; 20 September 1758 – 17 October 1806) was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent First Empire of Haiti, Haiti under the Constitution of Haiti, 1 ...
.
[Fombrun, Odette Roy]
"History of the Haitian Flag of Independence"
Flag Heritage Foundation.org. Accessed February 22, 2018. Predated by insurrectionists such as
François Mackandal
François Mackandal (c.1730-c.1758) was a Haitian Maroon leader in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti). He is sometimes described as a Haitian vodou priest, or houngan. For joining Maroons to kill slave owners in Saint-Dom ...
,
Vincent Ogé
Vincent Ogé ( – 6 February 1791) was a Dominican Creole revolutionary, merchant, military officer and goldsmith best known for his role in leading a failed uprising against French colonial rule in the colony of Saint-Domingue in 1790. A mixed ...
and
Dutty Boukman
Dutty Boukman (or Boukman Dutty; died 7 November 1791) was an early leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born in Senegambia (present-day Senegal and Gambia), he was enslaved
to Jamaica. He eventually ended up in Haiti, where he became a leader ...
,
Toussaint Louverture
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...
, succeeded by Dessalines, led, organized, and consolidated the rebellion. The now full-fledged fighting force utilized its manpower advantage and strategic capacity to overwhelm
French troops, ensuring the Haitian Revolution was the most successful of its kind.
Etymology
Despite its name, the moniker had no relation to the
indigenous populations of Hispaniola, as the native
Taíno
The Taíno were a historic Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, indigenous people of the Caribbean whose culture has been continued today by Taíno descendant communities and Taíno revivalist communities. At the time of European contact in the ...
people no longer existed in any discernible number at the advent of the Haitian Revolution. Rather, the word ''indigène'' was used in French as a euphemism for
non-white
The term "person of color" ( : people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is primarily used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is primarily associated with, the U ...
(cf. ''
indigénat
The ''Code de l'indigénat'' ( "native code"), called ''régime de l'indigénat'' or simply ''indigénat'' by modern French historians, were diverse and fluctuating sets of laws and regulations characterized by arbitrariness which created in prac ...
''). Although the term indigène in french refers to the native of the land, Dessalines utilized that term to separate themselves from the french philosophy and slave-based economy and to galvanize the affranchi, bossale, and creoles around one common goal, the independence of Hayti. A precedent to the term indigène was Dessalines' first army known as Armée des Incas referring to the
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
in
South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
. The finality of the term happened on January 1st, 1804 when Dessalines restore the native name of the Island from ''St-Domingue'' to ''Hayti'' and later on in the speech he declared by chasing out the French troops he then avenges the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
.
Pre-Haitian Revolution and context
In the late 18th century and early 19th century, the
French colony of
Saint-Domingue
Saint-Domingue () was a French colony in the western portion of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in the area of modern-day Haiti, from 1659 to 1804. The name derives from the Spanish main city in the island, Santo Domingo, which came to refer ...
, later established as
Haiti
Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...
post-revolution, was founded on the western half of the island of
Hispaniola
Hispaniola (, also ; es, La Española; Latin and french: Hispaniola; ht, Ispayola; tnq, Ayiti or Quisqueya) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and th ...
in the
Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
. An agriculturally potent landmass, France regarded the colony as a highly valuable asset and the shining star of its imperial crown, producing most of the world's sugar and coffee by the 1780s.
[Lawless, Robert, and James A. Ferguson]
"Haiti"
''Encyclopædia Britannica''. February 7, 2018. Accessed February 22, 2018. A forced labor plantation economy, historians note that the chattel slavery established within the colony was brutal, with torture being commonplace. Disease, such as
yellow fever
Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains – particularly in the back – and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In ...
, was epidemically prevalent, contributing to the high slave mortality rate. In efforts to save money, some plantation owners hastened the death of sickly slaves through intentional starvation, aware that replacements would be shipped to the colony.
[Jackson, Maurice, and Jacqueline Bacon. ''African Americans and the Haitian revolution selected essays and historical documents''. New York: Routledge, 2010.] Enforced by the
Code Noir
The (, ''Black code'') was a decree passed by the French King Louis XIV in 1685 defining the conditions of slavery in the French colonial empire. The decree restricted the activities of free people of color, mandated the conversion of all e ...
, these cruel living conditions led the slaves to conspire to revolt, eventually forming the Armée Indigène. Enveloped in misery and inhumane treatment, many slaves found solace in
Vodou,
though always in a conciliatory fashion, as the practice was explicitly banned by plantation owners.
Despite their free status, the gens de couleur were not safe from the discrimination. Petits blancs (poor whites) resented the gens de couleur because of their wealth and power, gained by the ability to buy other slaves. In 1789, The
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (french: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789, links=no), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolu ...
gave hope to the gens de couleur that France would look at every citizen equally, regardless of position or race, giving them better living conditions and rights.
[McPhee, Peter. ''Liberty or Death''. S.l.: Yale Univ Press, 2017.] However, the vague interpretation of the Declaration would leave the gens de couleur's social position unchanged. In fact, the grand blancs would take advantage of the Declaration and use it to gain independence from trade regulations. In addition, slavery was not officially abolished. Since the 1780s, free men of color such as
Julien Raimond
Julien Raimond (1744 – 1801) was a Saint Dominican indigo planter in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now the Republic of Haiti, who became a leader in its revolution and the formation of Haiti.
Early activism
He was born a free man of c ...
and Vincent Oge had tried to get free people of color the rights that belonged to them by representing the colonies in the
National Assembly
In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repre ...
. One of these rights was the right to vote; however, the free people of color were still denied of this right.
With 300 armed gens de couleur and affranchis, Vincent Oge led an insurrection, which attempted to disarm the white men of Grande-Rivière.
["Case Study 1: St. Domingue - Vincent Oge & Toussaint l'Ouverture"](_blank)
Case Study 1: St. Domingue - Vincent Oge & Toussaint l'Ouverture: The Abolition of Slavery Project. Accessed February 22, 2018. [Shen, Kona]
The Haitian Revolution 1791. Accessed February 22, 2018. Taking place on 29 October 1790, this event became known as the Oge Rebellion, and ended in failure. Oge and his rebels were executed on the wheel, and his barbaric death would cause even more tension amongst the free people of color and eventually the enslaved, who already had the mindset of revolution.
Haitian Revolution
Maroon War
By the end of the 18th century, a century after the Treaty of Ryswick the social tension in St-Domingue have reach a level enough, and the different maniel or doco (independent maroon communities) have gained a level of organization all around the island to start a revolution.
* Plaine-du-Nord, in the Grand-Nord region, Dutty Boukman, and Cecile Fatiman commanded thousand of maroon and rebel slave to ravage the crops;
* Plaine du-Cul-de-Sac, in the West region, Sanglaou;
* Plaine de Léoganes and Jacmel, in West region, Romaine-la-Prophétesse
* Plaine des Cayes, in the Tiburon Peninsula region, the Macaya-Marrons attacked the city of Les Cayes for closed to a year.
* Massif the Baoruco (
Massif de la Selle
In geology, a massif ( or ) is a section of a planet's crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole. The term also refers to a ...
and
Sierra the Baoruco), Lamour Dérance, a maroon hostile to both Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines.
The first rebellion broke out in August 1791, when religious Vodoun priest ''ougan-sanba''
Dutty Boukman
Dutty Boukman (or Boukman Dutty; died 7 November 1791) was an early leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born in Senegambia (present-day Senegal and Gambia), he was enslaved
to Jamaica. He eventually ended up in Haiti, where he became a leader ...
ordered the slaves to attack
Bois Caïman
Bois Caïman ( ht, Bwa Kayiman, lit=Alligator Forest) was the site of the first major meeting of enslaved blacks during which the first major slave insurrection of the Haitian Revolution was planned.
Role during the Haitian Revolution
Before ...
. While they were seeking their rights as Frenchmen, the slaves also engaged in acts of cruelty, such as rape, poison, and murder against the white plantation owners. In a couple of weeks, the number of slaves participating in the rebellion was over 100,000. By 1792, a third of Saint-Domingue was under the control of the slaves, and France was ready to quell the rebellion.
[Steward, T. G. ''The Haitian revolution, 1791 to 1804; or, Side lights on the French Revolution''. New York: Russell & Russell, 1971]
Gens de Couleur rights
While the blacks are fighting for the end of slavery the mulattos was asking France to recognize them as a full citizen and give them the right to participate in the colony's political life.
The wealthy gens de couleur were given citizenship in May 1791, which caused tension between them and the grands blancs, and as a result, fighting broke out between the two groups. Because of this, the poorer gens de couleur, like the slaves, were also resentful of grands blancs, who were in the way of what was the beginning of equality for everyone in Saint-Domingue. They gave political rights to the gen de couleur, and sent
Léger-Félicité Sonthonax to Saint-Domingue as its new governor; he was a man against slavery and the plantation owners. Many gens-de-couleur gained military experience by participating in the Savannah Battle alongside the Americans against the British, this situation would help in the War of Knives when the British Navy would block the supply of the french troops in favor of Toussaint's Army. The period reach its height when the mulatto commander like Pétion, Beauvais, Pinchinnat and more gained the battle of Pernier.
War of Knives
While all of this was happening, Toussaint Louverture was training his own army in the ways of guerilla warfare, and helping the Spanish, who declared war against France in 1793; various outside powers assisted the Haitian insurgents during the early years of the revolution in hopes that they could take over Saint-Domingue from the French amidst the confusion of the French Revolutionary Wars. Louverture, alongside Dessalines and his army, would go back to the French in 1794, a while after France abolished slavery in the colonies.
[Fagg, John E]
"Toussaint Louverture"
''Encyclopædia Britannica''. December 18, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2018.
By 1798, Toussaint and Rigaud had jointly contained both external and internal threats to the colony. In April 1798, British commander Thomas Maitland approached Toussaint to negotiate a British withdrawal, which was concluded in August.
In early 1799, Toussaint also independently negotiated "Toussaint's Clause" with the United States government, allowing American merchants to trade with Saint-Domingue despite the ongoing Quasi-War between the U.S. and France.
In July 1798, Toussaint and Rigaud traveled in a carriage together from Port-au-Prince to Le Cap to meet the recently arrived representative Théodore-Joseph d'Hédouville, sent by France's new Directory regime. Oral tradition asserts that during this carriage ride, Toussaint and Rigaud made a pact to collaborate against Hédouville's meddling. However, those efforts soon came undone, as Hédouville intentionally treated Rigaud with more favor than Toussaint, in an effort to sow tension between the two leaders. In a letter to Rigaud, Hédouville criticized "the perfidy of General Toussaint Louverture" and absolved Rigaud of Toussaint's authority as general-in-chief. He invited Rigaud to "take command of the Department of the South".
Hédouville eventually fled Saint-Domingue, sailing from Le Cap in October 1798 due to threats by Toussaint resulting a year fight between the two generals.
Following his victory over Rigaud, Toussaint declared a general amnesty in July 1800. But Toussaint's general Jean-Jacques Dessalines became infamous during this period for carrying out brutal reprisals and massacres against Rigaud's supporters. Some historians have asserted that Toussaint himself ordered massacres, but delegated the killing to his generals to avoid culpability.
9Many of Rigaud's generals were exiled to France and some to Cuba.
Later, Louverture would establish a Haitian constitution the Constitution of 1805 being the first constitution to abolish slavery and declared himself governor for life.
Expedition of St-Domingue
Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
did not accept this claim, and sent a troop of more than 30 000 men under the leadership of his brother-in-law
Charles-Victor Emmanuel Leclerc. When the troops arrived in St-Domingue many Haitian generals refused to give access to the french navy to disembark and famously
Henry Christophe
Henri Christophe (; 6 October 1767 – 8 October 1820) was a key leader in the Haitian Revolution and the only monarch of the Kingdom of Haiti.
Christophe was of Bambara people, Bambara ethnicity in West Africa, and perhaps of Ibo people, Igb ...
rather burned the city on their commandment than betray Toussaint.
After the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot in
Petite-Rivière de L'Artibonite, the french realized they can not win against Louverture on the battlefield and decided to use a ruse to capture him. They invited him to a meeting in
Gonaives, where he was captured and put on a boat ''Creole'' to
Cap-Francais et another boat ''le Héros'' to
Brest
Brest may refer to:
Places
*Brest, Belarus
**Brest Region
**Brest Airport
**Brest Fortress
* Brest, Kyustendil Province, Bulgaria
* Břest, Czech Republic
*Brest, France
** Arrondissement of Brest
**Brest Bretagne Airport
** Château de Brest
*Br ...
in
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
locked up Louverture, where he would die in
Fort de Joux
The Fort de Joux or Château de Joux is a castle, later transformed into a fort, located in La Cluse-et-Mijoux in the Doubs department in the Jura mountains of France. It commands the mountain pass ''Cluse de Pontarlier''.
History
The Ch ...
.
Organization of the troop
After the Haitians discover the secret plan of the french was to reinstate slavery and killed all males over the age of 14 both the old Toussaint's troops and Rigaud's troops. This is the last step toward the Independence of Hayti but many obstacles were on the way to glory, notably the disorganization of the Haitian troops.
In 1802 Pétions left the french side and meet J-J Dessalines in
Plaisance to convince him to lead the Armée Indigène. After that Dessalines traveled all over the
North
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography.
Etymology
T ...
to organize the troops of Clerveaux, Christophe, and Cappois. From May 14 to May 18, 1803, he then went to
Arcahaie
Arcahaie ( ht, Lakayè) is a commune in the Arcahaie Arrondissement, in the Ouest Ouest (French for west) may refer to:
*Ouest (department), Haiti
*Ouest Department (Ivory Coast), defunct administrative subdivision of Ivory Coast
* Ouest Province ...
to organize the troops of the West with Gabart, Vernet, Pétion, and Cangé. Finally, on July 5th, 1803 he was in Camp-Gérard outside of the city of
Les Cayes
Les Cayes ( , ), often referred to as Aux Cayes (; ht, Okay), is a commune and seaport in the Les Cayes Arrondissement, in the Sud department of Haiti, with a population of 71,236. Due to its isolation from the political turmoil of the capita ...
to organize the troops in the
South
South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west.
Etymology
The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...
under the leadership of Nicolas Geffrard, Laurent Férou, Étienne Gérin, and Magloire Ambroise.
These series of meetings culminated in the renaming of the army, Armée Indigène, and the basis of the Haitian flag.
Saint-Domingue's flag changed to a red and blue flag with the slogan “Liberte a la Mort” (Liberty or Death) in white lettering.
Bonaparte would try to reestablish the slave regime by sending general
Charles Leclerc
Charles Marc Hervé Perceval Leclerc (; born 16 October 1997) is a Monégasque racing driver, currently racing in Formula One for Scuderia Ferrari. He won the GP3 Series championship in 2016 and the FIA Formula 2 Championship in .
Leclerc ...
to Saint-Domingue, but were decisively defeated by the military superiority of the Armée Indigène, though racist historians unwilling to accept this stunning fact claimed it was because of an outbreak of yellow fever.
["Haitian Revolution"](_blank)
''Encyclopædia Britannica''. December 28, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2018. Because of this, the Armée Indigène was now known as the army that freed Saint-Domingue.
March
When marching for campaign the troops are usually organised as such: the
Chasseurs
''Chasseur'' ( , ), a French term for "hunter", is the designation given to certain regiments of French and Belgian light infantry () or light cavalry () to denote troops trained for rapid action.
History
This branch of the French Army or ...
are in front scouting, followed by the
Grenadiers
A grenadier ( , ; derived from the word ''grenade'') was originally a specialist soldier who threw hand grenades in battle. The distinct combat function of the grenadier was established in the mid-17th century, when grenadiers were recruited from ...
or artillery troops in case of marching against a fort. the
Carabiniers
A carabinier (also sometimes spelled carabineer or carbineer) is in principle a soldier armed with a carbine. A carbiniere is a carabiniere musket or rifle and were commonplace by the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The word is ...
which form most of the army are the infantery troops and lastly the
Dragoons
Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat ...
which are the cavallery troops.
Some famous regiments are:
*3rd half-brigade under the leadership of Lamartinière, the hero of Crête-à-Pierrot, based in
Port-Républicain;
* 4th half-brigade under the leadership of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the commander-chief, based in
St-Marc;
* 9th half-brigade under the leadership of Francois Cappois Lamort, the hero of Vertières, based in
Port-de-Paix
Port-de-Paix (; ht, Pòdepè or ; meaning "Port of Peace") is a List of communes of Haiti, commune and the capital of the Nord-Ouest (department), Nord-Ouest Departments of Haiti, department of Haiti on the Atlantic coast. It has a population of ...
;
* Dragoons of l'Artibonite under the leadership of Charlotin Marcadieu;
* the Guard of Honor of Toussaint Louverture composed of 2000 mans, including 400 mounted man and music bands.
Conquest of Haiti
After the troops,
regiment
A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation.
In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscripted ...
,
brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute a division.
Br ...
, and
demi-brigade
A ''demi-brigade'' ( en, Half-brigade) is a military formation used by the French Army since the French Revolutionary Wars. The ''Demi-brigade'' amalgamated the various infantry organizations of the French Revolutionary infantry into a single ...
have been organized by JJD the troops could now focus and conquering Hayti back from the french.
* January 16, 1803, Nicolas Geffrad Sr. and Étienne Gérin conquered the city of
Anse-à-Veau
Anse-à-Veau ( ht, Ansavo) is a commune in the Anse-à-Veau Arrondissement, in the Nippes department of Haiti. The postal code is HT 7510.
In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Anse-a-Veau was swollen by refugees from the afflicted are ...
, thus freeing the department of
Nippes
Nippes ( French) or Nip ( Haitian Creole) is one of the ten departments (the highest-level political subdivisions) of Haiti located in southern Haiti. It is the most recently created department, having been split from Grand'Anse in 2003. The ...
against the french general Bernard;
* April 12, 1803, Francois Lamort Cappois conquered the city of
Port-de-Paix
Port-de-Paix (; ht, Pòdepè or ; meaning "Port of Peace") is a List of communes of Haiti, commune and the capital of the Nord-Ouest (department), Nord-Ouest Departments of Haiti, department of Haiti on the Atlantic coast. It has a population of ...
and the island of
Tortuga, thus cutting all french supply between
Cap-Francais and
Mole-St-Nicolas and freeing the department of Haut-
Nord-Ouest (department)
Nord-Ouest (French) or Nòdwès (Haitian Creole; both meaning "North West") is one of the ten departments of Haiti as well as the northernmost one. It has an area of and a population of 728,807 (2015 Census). Its capital is Port-de-Paix.
Depart ...
aiganst the french generals Clauzel and Boscus;
* Pétion, and Larose conquered the city of
Arcahaie
Arcahaie ( ht, Lakayè) is a commune in the Arcahaie Arrondissement, in the Ouest Ouest (French for west) may refer to:
*Ouest (department), Haiti
*Ouest Department (Ivory Coast), defunct administrative subdivision of Ivory Coast
* Ouest Province ...
, thus freeing the region of Haut-
Ouest Ouest (French for west) may refer to:
*Ouest (department), Haiti
*Ouest Department (Ivory Coast), defunct administrative subdivision of Ivory Coast
* Ouest Province, Cameroon
* Ouest Province, Rwanda
*Ouest-France, a French newspaper
* West France ...
;
* May 18, 1803, ''Congress of Arcahaie'' with Pétion, Gabart, Vernet, Cangé, Larose, and Dessalines on galvanizing the troops of Artibonite and West and vote on the Haitian flag.
* June 30, 1803, Louis Gabart and Dessalines conquered the city of
Mirebalais
Mirebalais ( ht, Mibalè) is a commune in the Centre department of Haiti, approximately 60 km northeast of Port-au-Prince on National Road 3. The city was established in 1702.
American Rotarians have made a number of mission-type trips t ...
, thus freeing the department of
Centre
Center or centre may refer to:
Mathematics
*Center (geometry), the middle of an object
* Center (algebra), used in various contexts
** Center (group theory)
** Center (ring theory)
* Graph center, the set of all vertices of minimum eccentricity ...
;
* July 5, 1803, ''Congress of Camp-Gérrard'' with Geffrard, Férou, Gérin, Boisrond Tonerre, and Dessalines on galvanizing the troops of Tiburon Peninsula.
* August 4, 1803, Laurent Férou conquered the city of
Jérémie
Jérémie ( ht, Jeremi) is a commune and capital city of the Grand'Anse department in Haiti. It had a population of about 31,000 at the 2003 census. It is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. The Grande-Anse River flows near the ...
, thus freeing the department of
Grand'Anse );
* André Vernet, Cappois and Dessalines conquered the city of
Gonaives, thus freeing the department of Bas-
Artibonite;
* September 4, 1803, Louis Gabart and Dessalines conquered the city of
St-Marc, thus freeing the department of Bas-
Artibonite aiganst the french generals Hénin;
* September 9, 1803, Toussaint Brave conquered the city of
Fort-Liberté
Fort-Liberté ( ht, Fòlibète) is a commune and administrative capital of the Nord-Est department of Haiti. It is close to the border of the Dominican Republic and is one of the oldest cities in the country. Haiti's independence was proclaimed ...
, thus freeing the department of
North-East
The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sepa ...
against the french general
Pamphile de laCroix;
* September 17, 1803, Magloire Ambroise and Cangé conquered the city of
Jacmel
Jacmel (; ht, Jakmèl) is a commune in southern Haiti founded by the Spanish in 1504 and repopulated by the French in 1698. It is the capital of the department of Sud-Est, 24 miles (39 km) southwest of Port-au-Prince across the Tiburon Peninsula ...
, thus freeing the department of
North-West
The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, Radius, radially arrayed compass directions (or Azimuth#In navigation, azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east ...
against the french general Pageot;
* Cangé conquered the city of
Léogane, thus freeing the department of
Ouest-Mériddional;
* October 9, 1803, Pétion, Cangé, Gabart and Dessalines conquered the city of
Port-au-Prince
Port-au-Prince ( , ; ht, Pòtoprens ) is the capital and most populous city of Haiti. The city's population was estimated at 987,311 in 2015 with the metropolitan area estimated at a population of 2,618,894. The metropolitan area is define ...
, thus freeing the department of
Ouest Ouest (French for west) may refer to:
*Ouest (department), Haiti
*Ouest Department (Ivory Coast), defunct administrative subdivision of Ivory Coast
* Ouest Province, Cameroon
* Ouest Province, Rwanda
*Ouest-France, a French newspaper
* West France ...
against the french general Lavalette;
* October 16, 1803, Geffrard, and Coco Herne conquered the city of
Les Cayes
Les Cayes ( , ), often referred to as Aux Cayes (; ht, Okay), is a commune and seaport in the Les Cayes Arrondissement, in the Sud department of Haiti, with a population of 71,236. Due to its isolation from the political turmoil of the capita ...
, thus freeing the department of
Sud against the french general Brunet;
* November 19, 1803, Christophe, Clerveaux, Cappoix, Romain and Dessalines conquered the city of
Cap-Francais, thus freeing the department of
Nord against the french general
Rochambeau;
* November 29, 1803, ''Congress of Fort-Liberté'' with Christophe, Clerveaux, Cappoix, Toussaint, and Dessalines declared the independence of St-Domingue with the Northen Troops;
* December 4, 1803, Vincent Pourcelly conquered the city of
Mole-St-Nicolas, thus freeing the department of Bas-
Nord-Ouest chasing the last troops out of Haiti and french general Louis Noailles;
* January 1, 1804, ''Congress of Gonaives'' the
Independence of Hayti is declared by the Armée Indigéne.
Strategy
The Haitians used their knowledge of the land to wage a full fledge guerilla warfare. Toussaint and Dessalines were inspired by the maroons such as Enriquillo and Boukman and ordered several mountaintop fortresses to be built over each plaine in the mountain ranges of Haiti.
After France and Britain break their
peace
Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups. ...
and declared war on each order, Dessalines capitalized on that concluding a deal with the British Navy, resulting in a
blockade
A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force.
A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are le ...
of the major bays of the island and seizing any french boat leaving the cities of Haiti to seek refuge elsewhere.
Structures and Hierarchy
The army followed the military structure of french military structure due to shared history and experience. The troops were organized by Dessalines into 6 military divisions, 2 in the North, 2 in the West, and 2 in the South
Naval Forces
During the revolutions, Haitians did not have the time nor the need to organise a marine force. Mainly because since war was declared between France and England again, the Indigène troops only had to force the french troops to admit their capitulation, accord them a cease-fire to gather their troops and french civilians and the British Navy in the bays would then take them as prisonners.
After the revolution and the establishment of the Haitian State under Dessalines, Christophe, Pétion, Geffrard and so forth would organise a naval fleet for defense and cabotage.
Campaign of Santo-Domingo
Casualties
While the actions of the Armée Indigène were fueled by
Enlightenment principles that advocated for the equality of all Frenchmen, the Haitian Revolution had many casualties. Both sides suffered losses from their own violence. The Haitians suffered about 200,000 casualties, while their French opponents suffered tens of thousands of casualties, mostly to
yellow fever
Yellow fever is a viral disease of typically short duration. In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains – particularly in the back – and headaches. Symptoms typically improve within five days. In ...
. Dessalines would later be known for the 1804 massacre of the slave-owning French who did not want to leave Hayti, which lasted for two months.
However, the violence of the Haitians would not outshine the cruelty of the french generals who were drowning boat load of revolutionary Haitians such as
Jacques Maurepas and the introduction of human-eating dogs from Cuba.
Legacy
The actions of the Armée Indigène in the Haitian Revolution would serve as inspiration to the slaves in the United States. Haiti was finally recognized by France in 1825, and later by the United States, in 1862.
South American leader
Simon Bolivar
Simon may refer to:
People
* Simon (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name Simon
* Simon (surname), including a list of people with the surname Simon
* Eugène Simon, French naturalist and the genus ...
and Miranda traveled to Hayti looking for military support for the ''Liberation of
Grand-Colombia''.
In Lakoun Souvnans a Vodoun community in Gonaives, Artibonite, which keeps a Dawonmen Wayal (Royal Dahomean: EN) categories there loas or Vodoun deities in classification similar to the Indigène troops, some loas are:
*Loa-chasè or
chasseur
''Chasseur'' ( , ), a French term for "hunter", is the designation given to certain regiments of French and Belgian light infantry
Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a mor ...
s-loas
*Loa-grenadye or
genadier loas
*Loa-gad or
guard
Guard or guards may refer to:
Professional occupations
* Bodyguard, who protects an individual from personal assault
* Crossing guard, who stops traffic so pedestrians can cross the street
* Lifeguard, who rescues people from drowning
* Prison ...
-loas
Fortification
After the Independence of Hayti, the Haitians were preparing for an eventual return of French troops, and Dessalines decide to reorganize the country. The basic of administrative division of the country went from parish to military garrison and department to military division. The
Empire of Hayiti had six military divisions each administratively autonomous from each under the general guidance of Jacques 1st, resulting in a ''quasi-federalism''.
The emperor then ordered all division-general to build forts and docos in the mountains controlling all the major plains, bays, and all interior roads. Nowadays, most forts are still in place although they are not used for military purposes the most famous are:
*
Citadelle Henry over the city of Cap-Haitian and the northern plains
* Fortification of
Dessalines
Dessalines ( ht, Desalin) wrongly referred to as ''Marchand-Dessalines'' ( ht, Machan Desalin), is a commune in the Artibonite department of Haiti. It is named after Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ru ...
, the capital of the empire, designed by Alexandre Pétion overlooking the Artibonite Valley
* Twin forts Jacques and Alexandre over the city of Port-au-Prince and the Cul-de-Sac plaine
* Platon Citadelle over the city of Les Cayes and the Cayes plaine
List of generals
Commanders-in-chief
*
Toussaint Louverture
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (; also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda; 20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803) was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louverture ...
, Commander-in-chief (1793-180, governor-general of Saint-Domingue 1801–1803)
*
Jean-Jacques Dessalines
Jean-Jacques Dessalines (Haitian Creole: ''Jan-Jak Desalin''; ; 20 September 1758 – 17 October 1806) was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent First Empire of Haiti, Haiti under the Constitution of Haiti, 1 ...
, Commander-in-chief (1803-1804, first president and later emperor of Haiti)
Division generals
*
Henri Christophe
Henri Christophe (; 6 October 1767 – 8 October 1820) was a key leader in the Haitian Revolution and the only monarch of the Kingdom of Haiti.
Christophe was of Bambara ethnicity in West Africa, and perhaps of Igbo descent. Beginning with t ...
, commander of
Dondon
Dondon ( ht, Dondon) is a commune in the Saint-Raphaël Arrondissement, in the Nord department of Haiti. It has 25,846 inhabitants.
Notable people
* Louis Moreau-Lislet
Louis Moreau-Lislet ( Dondon, 7 October 1766 – New Orleans, 3 Decemb ...
and the 1st division of North region
*
Alexandre Pétion
Alexandre Sabès Pétion (; April 2, 1770 – March 29, 1818) was the first president of the Republic of Haiti from 1807 until his death in 1818. He is acknowledged as one of Haiti's founding fathers; a member of the revolutionary quartet that ...
, commander of
Arcahaie
Arcahaie ( ht, Lakayè) is a commune in the Arcahaie Arrondissement, in the Ouest Ouest (French for west) may refer to:
*Ouest (department), Haiti
*Ouest Department (Ivory Coast), defunct administrative subdivision of Ivory Coast
* Ouest Province ...
and the 2nd division of West region
*
Augustin Clervaux, commander of
Marmelade
Marmelade ( ht, Mamlad) is a commune and former duchy in the Artibonite department of Haiti. It is the chief town of the Marmelade Arrondissement, which also includes the commune of Saint Michel de l'Attalaye.
Marmelade is the home town of Pr ...
and the 2nd division of North region
*
Nicolas Geffrard, and the 1st division of South region
*
Andre Vernet, commander of
Gonaives and the 1st division of West region
*
Louis Gabart, commander of
St-Marc and the
Artibonite region
Brigadier-generals
*
Paul Romain
Paul may refer to:
*Paul (given name), a given name (includes a list of people with that name)
*Paul (surname), a list of people
People
Christianity
*Paul the Apostle (AD c.5–c.64/65), also known as Saul of Tarsus or Saint Paul, early Chris ...
, commander of
Limbé
*
Étienne Élie Gerin, commander of
Anse-à-Veau
Anse-à-Veau ( ht, Ansavo) is a commune in the Anse-à-Veau Arrondissement, in the Nippes department of Haiti. The postal code is HT 7510.
In the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Anse-a-Veau was swollen by refugees from the afflicted are ...
*
François Capois
François Capois (or François Cappoix; 1766 – October 8, 1806, nicknamed Capois-La-Mort, also Cappoix-la-Mort, meaning "Capois-Death") was a Haitian officer in the Haitian Revolution (1791–1794) for independence from France.
He was bor ...
, commander of
Port-de-Paix
Port-de-Paix (; ht, Pòdepè or ; meaning "Port of Peace") is a List of communes of Haiti, commune and the capital of the Nord-Ouest (department), Nord-Ouest Departments of Haiti, department of Haiti on the Atlantic coast. It has a population of ...
*
Jean-Philippe Daut
* Jean-Louis François, commander of
Aquin
Aquin (; ht, Aken) is a commune in the Aquin Arrondissement, in the Sud department of Haiti. It is a port on the south coast of the Tiburon Peninsula
The Tiburon Peninsula (french: Péninsule de Tiburon), or The Xaragua Peninsula, simpl ...
*
Laurent Férou, commander of
Jérémie
Jérémie ( ht, Jeremi) is a commune and capital city of the Grand'Anse department in Haiti. It had a population of about 31,000 at the 2003 census. It is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. The Grande-Anse River flows near the ...
*
Pierre Cangé, commander of
Léogane
*
Laurent Bazelais
*
Magloire Ambroise
Magloire Ambroise (Jacmel, Saint-Domingue, 1774 - Port-au-Prince December 7, 1807), was a hero of the Haitian Independence. His military career began in the colonial army.
Life
During the War of Knives between Toussaint Louverture in the North a ...
, commander of
Jacmel
Jacmel (; ht, Jakmèl) is a commune in southern Haiti founded by the Spanish in 1504 and repopulated by the French in 1698. It is the capital of the department of Sud-Est, 24 miles (39 km) southwest of Port-au-Prince across the Tiburon Peninsula ...
* J. J. Herne, commander of
Les Cayes
Les Cayes ( , ), often referred to as Aux Cayes (; ht, Okay), is a commune and seaport in the Les Cayes Arrondissement, in the Sud department of Haiti, with a population of 71,236. Due to its isolation from the political turmoil of the capita ...
* Toussaint-Brave, commander of
Fort-Liberté
Fort-Liberté ( ht, Fòlibète) is a commune and administrative capital of the Nord-Est department of Haiti. It is close to the border of the Dominican Republic and is one of the oldest cities in the country. Haiti's independence was proclaimed ...
* Yayou, commander of
Grande Riv du Nord
Other generals
*
Jacques Maurepas
*
Jean-François Papillon Jean-François Papillon (died in the early 1800s) was one of the principal leaders in the Haitian Revolution against slavery and French rule. He led the initial uprising of enslaved workers and later allied with Spain against the French.
He was bo ...
*
Georges Biassou
George Biassou (1 January 1741 – 14 July 1801) was an early leader of the 1791 slave rising in Saint-Domingue that began the Haitian Revolution. With Jean-François and Jeannot, he was prophesied by the vodou priest, Dutty Boukman, to lead ...
*
Jeannot Bullet
*
Louis Michel Pierrot
*
Hyacinthe Moïse
Hyacinthe is a given name. It is generally a male name. The form Hyacinth may be masculine or feminine.
People with this name
* Hyacinthe (actor) (1814–1887), French actor and operetta singer
* Hyacinthe Besson (1816–1861), French painter an ...
*
Joseph Balthazar Inginac
Joseph Balthazar Inginac (also known as Balthazar Inginac) (1775 in Leogane - 1847) in Leogane - was a Haitian diplomat and member of the presidential inner circle. He served as the secretary-general for the two longest-serving presidents, A ...
*
Charlotin Marcadieu Chief of Cavalry
Adjutants-general
*
Guy-Joseph Bonnet
*Chevalier
*Marion
*Morelly
*Papalier
Officers
*
Nicolas Pierre Mallet
References
External links
*
:commons:File:Manuel_Lopez_Lopez_Iodibo_-_Desalines_-_Huyes_del_valor_frances,_pero_matando_blancos.jpg
(Picture of Dessalines is named Huyes del valor frances, pero matando blancos, by Manuel Lopes Lopez Iodibo. It is an engraving in the book Vida de J.J. Dessalines, gefe de los negros de Santo Domingo and is located in the John Carter Brown Library)
*
:commons:File:G%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral_Toussaint_Louverture.jpg
(Picture of Toussaint Louverture is named Le général Toussaint Louverture. The artist is unknown, and it is currently in the New York Public Library)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Armee indigene
Haitian Revolution
Disbanded armies
Military history of Haiti