''Arbutus unedo'' is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family
Ericaceae, native to the
Mediterranean region and western Europe. The tree is well known for its fruits, which bear some resemblance to the
strawberry — hence the common name "strawberry tree". However, it is not closely related to true
strawberries
The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; ''Fragaria × ananassa'') is a widely grown Hybrid (biology), hybrid species of the genus ''Fragaria'', collectively known as the strawberries, which are cultivated worldwide for their fruit. The f ...
of the genus ''Fragaria''.
Its presence in Ireland also lends it the moniker "Irish strawberry tree", or cain, or cane apple (from the Irish name for the tree, ''caithne''), or sometimes "
Killarney
Killarney ( ; ga, Cill Airne , meaning 'church of sloes') is a town in County Kerry, southwestern Ireland. The town is on the northeastern shore of Lough Leane, part of Killarney National Park, and is home to St Mary's Cathedral, Ross ...
strawberry tree". The strawberry tree is the
national tree of
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
because of its green leaves, its white flowers and its red berries, colors that recall the
Italian flag.
Taxonomy
''Arbutus unedo'' was one of the many species described by
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, ...
in Volume One of his landmark 1753 work ''
Species Plantarum'', giving it the name it still bears today.
A study published in 2001 which analyzed
ribosomal DNA from ''Arbutus'' and related genera found ''Arbutus'' to be
paraphyletic, and ''A. unedo'' to be closely related to the other
Mediterranean Basin species such as ''
A. andrachne'' and ''
A. canariensis'' and not to the western North American members of the genus.
''Arbutus unedo'' and ''A. andrachne'' hybridise naturally where their ranges overlap; the
hybrid has been named ''Arbutus'' × ''andrachnoides'' (syn. ''A.'' × ''hybrida'', or ''A. andrachne'' × ''unedo''), inheriting traits of both parent species, though fruits are not usually borne freely, and as a hybrid is unlikely to breed true from seed.
It is sold in California as Arbutus x Marina named for a district in San Francisco where it was hybridized.
Description
''Arbutus unedo'' grows to tall,
rarely up to , with a trunk diameter of up to . It grows in
hardiness zones 7–10.
The leaves are green and glossy on the upper side, dull on the underside, long and broad,
laurel-like and with a serrated or
serrulated margin.
The
hermaphrodite
In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes.
Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have ...
flowers are white (yellow when
desiccated), bell-shaped, in diameter, and flower from a reddish hanging panicle in autumn.
They are pollinated by bees, and have a mild sweet scent.
Twigs are reddish-brown and abundantly foliose, and often have small hairs.
The fruit is a red berry, diameter,
spherical in shape with a rough surface.
It matures in about 12 months, in autumn, at the same time as the next flowering. It is edible; the fruit is sweet when reddish. Seeds are small, brown and angular
and are often
dispersed by
frugivorous birds.
The name ''unedo'' is attributed to
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ...
, who allegedly claimed that "''unum tantum edo''", meaning "I eat only one". It is not known whether he meant that the fruit was so good he could eat only one, or whether he meant that the fruit was uninteresting so he ate only one.
Distribution
''Arbutus unedo'' is widespread in the Mediterranean region: in
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, In recognized minority languages of Portugal:
:* mwl, República Pertuesa is a country located on the Iberian Peninsula, in Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Macaronesian ...
,
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' ( Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
and southeastern
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan ar ...
; southward in
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, religi ...
,
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria ...
,
Libya
Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Su ...
, and
Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
, and eastward in
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
,
Slovenia
Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, and ...
,
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capit ...
,
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = ...
,
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wit ...
,
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a list of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolia, Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with ...
,
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
,
Palestine,
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Ri ...
,
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
and
Syria. It is also found in western France,
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the ...
,
Bulgaria
Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Mac ...
and southwestern
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
.
Its
disjunct distribution
In biology, a taxon with a disjunct distribution is one that has two or more groups that are related but considerably separated from each other geographically. The causes are varied and might demonstrate either the expansion or contraction of a s ...
, with an isolated
relict population in southwestern and northwestern Ireland, notably in
Killarney
Killarney ( ; ga, Cill Airne , meaning 'church of sloes') is a town in County Kerry, southwestern Ireland. The town is on the northeastern shore of Lough Leane, part of Killarney National Park, and is home to St Mary's Cathedral, Ross ...
and around
Lough Gill in
County Sligo, which is its most northerly stand in the world, is a remnant of former broader distribution during the milder climate of the
Atlantic period, the warmest and moistest
Blytt–Sernander period, when the climate was generally warmer than today. The red-flowered variant, named ''A. unedo rubra'' by
William Aiton in 1785, was discovered growing wild in Ireland in 1835.
Cultivation
''Arbutus unedo'' is quite an easy plant to cultivate, and is adaptable to many climates. Once established it is fairly drought resistant, frost resistant, shade tolerant and
salt tolerant.
Lower production of fruit mass has however been reported in case of summer droughts, and frosts in flowering time were seen to decrease the numbers of fruits.
''Arbutus unedo'' is naturally adapted to dry summer climates, and has become a very popular ornamental plant in California and the rest of the west coast of North America. It can grow easily in
USDA hardiness zone 7 or warmer.
It also grows well in the cool, wet summers of western Ireland and England, and temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Pests include
scales and
thrips, and diseases include
anthracnose, ''
Phytophthora'', root rot, and
rust.
Unlike most of the Ericaceae, ''A. unedo'' grows well in
basic
BASIC (Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages designed for ease of use. The original version was created by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College ...
(limy)
pH soils, even though it does better in more acidic soils.
The fruit production is not very high and is highly variable on the weather, and that may be part of the reason this plant is not frequently cultivated. The average yield in a two years study is around 46
kg per
hectare
The hectare (; SI symbol: ha) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100- metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is ...
, and 180 grams per cubic metre of crown. However, very little work has so far been done in terms of genotype selection.
''Arbutus unedo'' has been seen to form a
mycorrhizal relationship. Inoculation with ''
Pisolithus tinctorius'' has shown to greatly improve the plant's root mass, size, tolerance to drought and nutritional status.
In cultivation in the UK, the
form
Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something happens.
Form also refers to:
* Form (document), a document (printed or electronic) with spaces in which to write or enter dat ...
''A. unedo'' f. ''rubra''
and the
cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture ...
‘Atlantic’
have gained the
Royal Horticultural Society’s
Award of Garden Merit
Propagation
Propagation can be done via
seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...
,
layering, or
cutting.
The seed should undergo a one-month
cold stratification
In horticulture, stratification is a process of treating seeds to simulate natural conditions that the seeds must experience before germination can occur. Many seed species have an embryonic dormancy phase, and generally will not sprout until this ...
period, then soaked for 5 to 6 days in warm water to improve germination success. Seedlings are prone to damp, and should be cared for in the first year.
Germination rate is low, rarely over 20%.
Layering can take up to two years, but has a good success rate, while cutting is done with a long mature wood, preferably with a heel in November to December. The success rate however is not very high.
Uses
Culinary uses
''Arbutus unedos fruits have a high content of
sugars (40%), and
antioxidant vitamins such as
vitamin C,
beta-carotene,
niacin,
tocopherols, and organic acids that are precursors to
omega-3 and
omega-6 fatty acids (nearly 9%).
They are edible fresh, but that is an uncommon consumption, especially because the mature fruit tends to bruise very easily, making transportation difficult.
They are used mostly for jam, marmalades, yogurt and
alcoholic beverages,
[ such as the Portuguese '' medronho'', a type of strong brandy. Many regions of ]Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the ...
prepare the traditional drink rakia from the fruits of the plant (''mare'' or ''kocimare'' in Albanian), whence comes the name of the drink, which is ''raki kocimareje''. In order to reduce the high content of methanol in the drink, the spirit is distilled twice.
The flowers are pollinated by bees, and the resulting honey
Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
is bitter tasting but still considered a delicacy.
Herbal medicine
''Arbutus unedos leaves have been employed in traditional and folk medicine in the form of a decoction said to have the following properties: astringent, diuretic, urinary anti-septic, antiseptic, intoxicant, rheumatism, tonic, and more recently, in the therapy of hypertension and diabetes.[
The leaves are reported to have a high concentration of flavonol antioxidants, especially quercitin, best extracted with a decoction, and together with the fruits are a source of antioxidants.
The leaves also have ]anti-inflammatory
Anti-inflammatory is the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation or swelling. Anti-inflammatory drugs, also called anti-inflammatories, make up about half of analgesics. These drugs remedy pain by reducing inflammation as ...
properties
The nectar contains the isoprenoid unedone (2-(1,2-dihydroxypropyl)-4,4,8-trimethyl-1-oxaspiro .5ct-7-en-6-one) which is biologically active against a common and debilitating parasite of bumble bees, ''Crithidia bombi
''Crithidia'' is a genus of trypanosomatid Euglenozoa. They are parasites that exclusively parasitise arthropods, mainly insects. They pass from host to host as cysts in infective faeces and typically, the parasites develop in the digestive trac ...
'', so could provide a naturally occurring way for bees to withstand the burden of disease which has been reported to be a contributing factor in pollinator declines. The compound is glycosylated to an inactive form unedone-8-O-glycoside once consumed by the bee (perhaps to reduce any toxic effects against the bee herself) then transformed back to the active aglycone by the bee's microbiome in the hindgut where the parasite is most prevalent and damaging - suggesting that the microbiome assists in the anti-parasitic process.
Ecological design
In landscape design, ecosystem restoration or permaculture based designs, ''A. unedo'' can have many purposes. While the ornamental one is the most common, this can be a valuable plant also for restoring degraded ecosystems and preventing desertification. Being a pioneer plant and growing well also in poor soils, can be used in a wide array of situations.
* The flowers are a significant source of nectar and pollen for bees, while the fruits are food for the birds.
* Its salt tolerance, coupled with it being an evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has foliage that remains green and functional through more than one growing season. This also pertains to plants that retain their foliage only in warm climates, and contrasts with deciduous plants, which ...
, make it a good choice for wind barriers in lands close to the sea.
* ''A. unedo'' is fire resistant (can regrow after a fire), and being a pioneer plant can contribute to the discontinuity of fire-prone pines and eucalyptus monocultures; for the same reasons it is a good candidate for reforestation in Mediterranean areas.
* The dense foliage throughout the year can be a shelter for insects and small animals during the winter
Winter is the coldest season of the year in Polar regions of Earth, polar and temperate climates. It occurs after autumn and before spring (season), spring. The tilt of Axial tilt#Earth, Earth's axis causes seasons; winter occurs when a Hemi ...
.
* Its extensive root system can help in the soil stabilization process.
Other uses
* The wood is quite hard and well suited for a various uses such as fire wood and to make pipes. Since it does not usually grow straight, it is not well suited for construction or similar uses.
* The tree is also grown as an ornamental plant, because of its nice-looking and -smelling flowers and fruit and their interesting presence on the plant at the same time, and because it is an evergreen. It is used as a single or multi-trunked ornamental tree, and as a specimen or hedge
A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and sometimes trees, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges that are used to separate a road from adjoin ...
shrub in gardens and public landscapes.
History
Its Mediterranean habitat, elegant details of leaf and habit and dramatic show of fruit with flowers made ''Arbutus unedo'' notable in Classical Antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations ...
, when it was called Andrachne, and for which Theophrastos (4th c. BCE) wrote about it, as well as the ancient army medical herbalist Pedanios Dioscorides e Materia Medica, Book II-150
E, or e, is the fifth letter and the second vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''e'' (pronounced ); plura ...
in addition, Pliny thought it should not be planted where bees are kept, for the bitterness it imparts to honey.
The first evidence of its importation into northern European gardens was to 16th-century England from Ireland. In 1586 a correspondent in Ireland sent plants to the Elizabethan courtiers Lord Leicester
Earl of Leicester is a title that has been created seven times. The first title was granted during the 12th century in the Peerage of England. The current title is in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and was created in 1837.
Early creations ...
and Sir Francis Walsingham
Sir Francis Walsingham ( – 6 April 1590) was principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 20 December 1573 until his death and is popularly remembered as her " spymaster".
Born to a well-connected family of gentry, ...
.[Quoted in Alice M. Coats, ''Garden Shrubs and Their Histories'' (1964) 1992, ''s.v.'' "Arbutus".] An earlier description by Rev. William Turner (''The Names of Herbes'', 1548) was probably based on hearsay. The Irish association of ''Arbutus'' in English gardens is reflected in the inventory taken in 1649 of Henrietta Maria's Wimbledon: "one very fayre tree, called the Irish arbutis standing in the midle parte of the sayd kitchin garden, very lovely to look upon"[ By the 18th century ''Arbutus unedo'' was well known enough in English gardens for Batty Langley to make the bold and impractical suggestion that it might be used for hedges, though it "will not admit of being clipped as other evergreens are".][
In the United States, ]Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was previously the nati ...
lists the plant in his Monticello gardens in 1778.
The form ''A. unedo'' f. ''rubra'' and the hybrid ''A.'' × ''andrachnoides'', have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.
Symbolic uses
Ancient history
The tree is mentioned by Roman poet Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the ...
, in Book I: 89–112 "The Golden Age" of his '' Metamorphoses'': "Contented with food that grew without cultivation, they collected mountain strawberries and the fruit of the strawberry tree, wild cherries, blackberries clinging to the tough brambles, and acorns fallen from Jupiter's spreading oak-tree."
The name of the Italian promontory Mount Conero, situated directly south of the port of Ancona
Ancona (, also , ) is a city and a seaport in the Marche region in central Italy, with a population of around 101,997 . Ancona is the capital of the province of Ancona and of the region. The city is located northeast of Rome, on the Adriatic ...
on the Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) ...
, derives from the Greek name κόμαρος (komaròs) indicating the strawberry tree which is common on the slopes of the mountain. Mount Conero, the only coastal high point on the Adriatic sea between Trieste
Trieste ( , ; sl, Trst ; german: Triest ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital city, and largest city, of the autonomous region of Friuli Venezia Giulia, one of two autonomous regions which are not subdivided into pr ...
and the Gargano massif in the region of Apulia, assists navigators to sail across the Adriatic sea since ancient times.
Spain
'' The Garden of Earthly Delights'', a painting by Hieronymus Bosch, was originally listed by José de Sigüenza
José de Sigüenza (Sigüenza, 1544 - El Escorial, 22 May 1606) was a monk of the Order of Saint Jerome, historian, poet, and theologian. He was the prior of the monastery of El Escorial, where he served as both librarian and historian.
He is b ...
, in the inventory of the Spanish Crown as ''La Pintura del Madroño'' – "The Painting of the Strawberry Tree".
The tree makes up part of the Coat of arms of Madrid (''El oso y el madroño'', The Bear and the Strawberry Tree) of the city of Madrid
Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), an ...
, Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' ( Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
. In the center of the city (Puerta del Sol) there is a statue of a bear eating the fruit of the ''Madroño'' tree. The image appears on city crests, taxi cabs, man-hole covers, and other city infrastructure. The fruit of the ''Madroño'' tree ferments on the tree if left to ripen, so some of the bears become drunk from eating the fruits.
Italy
The strawberry tree () began to be considered one of the national symbols of Italy in the 19th century, during the Italian unification
The unification of Italy ( it, Unità d'Italia ), also known as the ''Risorgimento'' (, ; ), was the 19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single ...
, because with its autumn colors is reminiscent of the flag of Italy (green for its leaves, white for its flowers and red for its berries).
For this reason the poet Giovanni Pascoli dedicated a poem to the strawberry tree. He refers to the Aeneid
The ''Aeneid'' ( ; la, Aenē̆is or ) is a Latin Epic poetry, epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Troy, Trojan who fled the Trojan_War#Sack_of_Troy, fall of Troy and travelled to ...
passage in which Pallas, killed by Turnus, was posed on branches of a strawberry tree. He saw in the colours of that plant a prefiguration of the flag of Italy and considered Pallas the first ''national cause martyr''.[Giovanni Pascoli, in the autograph note to his poem "Il corbezzolo" ("The strawberry tree"), compared the ]virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: t ...
ian, deposed after death on branches of a strawberry tree, to the Italian martyrs wrapped up, during the burial ceremonies, in the Italian flag. Pascoli's ode says:
See also
* ''Arbutus unedo'' hybrids
References
External links
''Arbutus unedo'' — Calphotos Photo gallery, University of California
about uses of this tree in Welsh and Irish witchcraft
Very wide-spacing article with many reference published on Forestry
Plants for a Future website
{{Authority control
unedo
Flora of Europe
Flora of North Africa
Flora of Ireland
Trees of Mediterranean climate
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Bird food plants
Garden plants of Africa
Garden plants of Europe
Ornamental trees
Shrubs
Drought-tolerant plants
Drought-tolerant trees
Edible fruits
Melliferous flowers
National symbols of Italy
Flora of Sicily
Flora of the Mediterranean Basin
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