The wedge-tailed eagle (''Aquila audax'') is the largest
bird of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predators h ...
in the continent of
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
. It is also found in southern
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
to the north and is distributed as far south as the state of
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
.
[ Adults of this species have long, broad wings, fully feathered legs, an unmistakable wedge-shaped tail, an elongated maxilla, a strong beak and powerful feet.] The wedge-tailed eagle is one of 12 species of large, predominantly dark-coloured booted eagles in the genus '' Aquila'' found worldwide. Genetic research has clearly indicated that the wedge-tailed eagle is fairly closely-related to other, generally large members of the ''Aquila'' genus.[Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf, A., Griffiths, C., Haring, E., Huddleston, C.J., Kabra, S., Kocum, A., Krosby, M., Kvaloy, K., Mindell, D., Rasmussen, P., Rov, N., Wadleigh, R., Wink, M. & Gjershaug, J.O. (2017). ''Phylogeny and new taxonomy of the Booted Eagles (Accipitriformes: Aquilinae)''. Zootaxa, 4216(4), 301–320.] A large brown-to-black bird of prey, it has a maximum reported wingspan of and a length of up to .
The wedge-tailed eagle is one of its native continent's most generalized birds of prey.[Debus, S. (2017). ''Australasian Eagles and Eagle-like Birds''. CSIRO Publishing.] They reside in most habitats present in Australia, ranging from desert
A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...
and semi-desert
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi-ar ...
to plains
In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands.
In ...
to mountainous areas to forest
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
, even sometimes tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equatori ...
s. Preferred habitats, however, tend towards those that have a fairly varied topography including rocky areas, some open terrain
Open terrain, open country or open ground is terrain which is mostly flat and free of obstructions such as trees and buildings. Examples include farmland, grassland and specially cleared areas such as an airport.
Such terrain is significant in ...
and native woodlot A woodlot is a parcel of a woodland or forest capable of small-scale production of forest products (such as wood fuel, sap for maple syrup, sawlogs, and pulpwood) as well as recreational uses like bird watching, bushwalking, and wildflower apprecia ...
s such as ''Eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as euca ...
'' stands.[Olsen, P. (2005). ''Wedge-tailed Eagle''. Australian Natural History Series. CSIRO Publishing.]
The wedge-tailed eagle is one of the world's most powerful avian predators.[ Although a true ]generalist
A generalist is a person with a wide array of knowledge on a variety of subjects, useful or not. It may also refer to:
Occupations
* a physician who provides general health care, as opposed to a medical specialist; see also:
** General pract ...
which hunts a wide range of prey, including bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
s, reptile
Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalians ( ...
s and, rarely, other taxa, this species is by and large a mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
predator.[Olsen, J. (2014). ''Australian High Country Raptors''. CSIRO Publishing.] The introduction of the European rabbit
The European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') or coney is a species of rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula (including Spain, Portugal, and southwestern France), western France, and the northern Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa. It has ...
(''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') has been a boon to the wedge-tailed eagle and they hunt these and other invasive species
An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
in large volume, although the wedge-tailed eagle otherwise generally lives off of marsupial
Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a po ...
s, including many surprisingly large macropods
Macropod may refer to:
* Macropodidae, a marsupial family which includes kangaroos, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, pademelons, and several others
* Macropodiformes
The Macropodiformes , also known as macropods, are one of the three suborders of the ...
. Additionally, wedge-tailed eagles often eat not inconsiderable amounts of carrion
Carrion () is the decaying flesh of dead animals, including human flesh.
Overview
Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, c ...
, especially while young.[Brown, L, & Amadon, D. (1986) ''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World''. The Wellfleet Press. .] Wedge-tailed eagles tend to pair for several years, possibly mating for life.[
This species generally constructs a large stick nest in an ample tree, normally the largest in a stand, and lays typically two, although sometimes 1 to 4, eggs.][ Usually breeding efforts manage to produce one or two fledglings, which after a few months more tend to disperse widely.][ Nesting failures are usually attributable to human interference such as ]logging
Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars.
Logging is the beginning of a supply chain ...
activity and other alterations, which both degrade habitats and cause disturbances. This species is known to be highly sensitive to human disturbance at the nest, which may lead to abandonment of the young.[ Bekessy, S. A., Wintle, B. A., Gordon, A., Fox, J. C., Chisholm, R., Brown, B., Regan, T., Mooney, N., Read, S. & Burgman, M. A. (2009). ''Modelling human impacts on the Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax fleayi)''. Biological conservation, 142(11), 2438–2448.] Although historically heavily persecuted
Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms ...
by humans via poison
Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
ings and shooting
Shooting is the act or process of discharging a projectile from a ranged weapon (such as a gun, bow, crossbow, slingshot, or blowpipe). Even the acts of launching flame, artillery, darts, harpoons, grenades, rockets, and guided missiles can ...
s, mostly for alleged predation on sheep
Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus ''Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated s ...
, wedge-tailed eagles have proved to be exceptionally resilient and have quickly rebounded to similar or even higher than pre-colonization numbers, thanks in part to humans inadvertently providing several food sources such as rabbits and large volumes of roadkill
Roadkill is an animal or animals that have been struck and killed by drivers of motor vehicles on highways. Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) have increasingly been the topic of academic research to understand the causes, and how it can be mi ...
s.[Knobel, J. (2015). ''The conservation status of the Wedge-tailed Eagle in Australian law and thoughts on the value of early legal intervention in the conservation of a species''. De Jure Law Journal, 48(2), 293–311.]
Taxonomy
The species was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 under the binomial name
In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called nomenclature ("two-name naming system") or binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, bot ...
''Vultur audax''. The genus ''Vultur'' is today used only for a completely unrelated bird of the New World vulture
The New World vulture or condor family, Cathartidae, contains seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas. The "New World" vultures were widespread ...
family, the Andean condor
The Andean condor (''Vultur gryphus'') is a giant South American Cathartid vulture and is the only member of the genus ''Vultur''. Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America, the Andean condor is the larg ...
(''Vultur gryphus'').[Mindell, D. P., Fuchs, J., & Johnson, J. A. (2018). ''Phylogeny, taxonomy, and geographic diversity of diurnal raptors: Falconiformes, Accipitriformes, and Cathartiformes''. In Birds of prey (pp. 3–32). Springer, Cham.] The specific scientific name for the species ''audax'', is derived from the Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''audac'', meaning “bold”, indicative of the perceived disposition of these raptors, perhaps when hunting (although ironically this species is in general highly wary otherwise and even “timid” towards humans).[ At one time, the wedge-tailed eagle was classified in it is own monotypical genus ''Uroaetus'', perhaps due to its unique form. However, this species is clearly quite similar, in many respects of morphology, appearance, behaviour and life history, to other species in the ''Aquila'' genus.][Global Raptor Information Network. 2021. Species account: ''Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax''. Downloaded from http://www.globalraptors.org on 4 November 2021] The eagles of the ''Aquila'' genus are part of the subfamily Aquilinae
The Aquilinae are a subfamily of eagles of the family Accipitridae. The general common name used for members of this subfamily is "booted eagle", although this is also the common name of a member of the subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamau ...
, within the larger Accipitridae
The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-s ...
family. The subfamily is commonly referred to as booted eagles or sometimes as true eagles. These species may be distinguished from most other accipitrids by the feathering covering their legs, regardless of distribution. With some 39 or so species, the Aquilinae is distributed on every continent, excluding Antarctica
Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest contine ...
.[
Via a variety of ]phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
testing, largely via Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondrial D ...
and Nuclear DNA
Nuclear DNA (nDNA), or nuclear deoxyribonucleic acid, is the DNA contained within each cell nucleus of a eukaryotic organism. It encodes for the majority of the genome in eukaryotes, with mitochondrial DNA and plastid DNA coding for the rest. It ...
genes, it has been determined that the wedge-tailed eagle clusters with certain other ''Aquila'' eagles. The species found to share the most genetic similarities is the Verreaux's eagle
Verreaux's eagle (''Aquila verreauxii'') is a large, mostly African, bird of prey. It is also called the black eagle, especially in southern Africa, not to be confused with the Indian black eagle (''Ictinaetus malayensis''), which lives far to t ...
(''Aquila verreauxii'') of Africa. However, the Gurney's eagle
Gurney's eagle (''Aquila gurneyi'') is a large eagle in the family Accipitridae. It is found in New Guinea and Wallacea, and is an occasional vagrant to Australia.
The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the British banker and amateur or ...
(''Aquila gurneyi''), a mostly allopatric
Allopatric speciation () – also referred to as geographic speciation, vicariant speciation, or its earlier name the dumbbell model – is a mode of speciation that occurs when biological populations become geographically isolated from ...
but outwardly fairly similar eagle is clearly a very close relation of the wedge-tailed eagle and the two are likely sister species
In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree.
Definition
The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram:
Taxon A and t ...
, most likely originating from the same radiation across the Indo-Pacific
The Indo-Pacific is a vast biogeographic region of Earth.
In a narrow sense, sometimes known as the Indo-West Pacific or Indo-Pacific Asia, it comprises the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean, and the ...
region.[Lerner, H. R., & Mindell, D. P. (2005). ''Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA''. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 37(2), 327–346.] These species, the wedge-tailed, Gurney's and Verreaux's eagles, form a clade
A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...
or a species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
with the well-known golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird of p ...
(''Aquila chrysaetos''), the most widely distributed species in the entire accipitrid family, as well as outwardly dissimilar (smaller and paler-bellied yet also powerful) eagles like the Bonelli's eagle
The Bonelli's eagle (''Aquila fasciata'') is a large bird of prey. The common name of the bird commemorates the Italian ornithologist and collector Franco Andrea Bonelli. Bonelli is credited with gathering the type specimen, most likely from an ...
(''Aquila fasciata''), the African hawk-eagle
The African hawk-eagle (''Aquila spilogaster'') is a large bird of prey. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family ''Accipitridae''. This species’ feathered legs mark it as a member of the Aquilinae subfamily.Lerner, H., Christidis, L., Gamauf, ...
(''Aquila spilogaster'') and the Cassin's hawk-eagle
Cassin's hawk-eagle (''Aquila africana'') or Cassin's eagle, is a relatively small eagle in the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs mark it as member of the Aquilinae or booted eagle subfamily. A forest-dependent species, it occurs in primary ...
(''Aquila africanus''), the latter three having once been considered members of a different genus. Beyond the aforementioned species, the four other ''Aquila'' species while outwardly similar to eagles such as golden and wedge-tailed eagles, being large, dark and brownish with long wings, are thought to form a separate clade based on genetic testing and are paraphyletic
In taxonomy (general), taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's most recent common ancestor, last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few Monophyly, monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be pa ...
from the members of what can be called the golden eagle clade.[Helbig, A. J., Kocum, A., Seibold, I., & Braun, M. J. (2005). ''A multi-gene phylogeny of aquiline eagles (Aves: Accipitriformes) reveals extensive paraphyly at the genus level''. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 35(1), 147–164.] Other related outliers from, currently from outside the ''Aquila'' genus, are the small-to-mid-sized '' Clanga'' or spotted eagle species and the widely found and quite small ''Hieraeetus
The genus ''Hieraaetus'', sometimes known as small eagles or hawk-eagles, denotes a group of smallish eagles usually placed in the accipitrid subfamilies Buteoninae or Aquilinae.
They are medium-sized birds of prey inhabiting Europe, Asia, Afric ...
'' eagles. One member of the latter genus contains the only other widely found Aquilinae eagle in Australia, the little eagle
The little eagle (''Hieraaetus morphnoides'') is a very small eagle native to Australia, measuring 45–55 cm (17–21.5 inches) in length and weighing 815 g (1.8 lb), roughly the size of a peregrine falcon. It tends to inhabit open w ...
(''Hieraaetus morphnoides'').[
]
Subspecies
Two subspecies of wedge-tailed eagle are recognized. However, the separation of the two subspecies has been called into question, largely because the reported differences in both size
Size in general is the Magnitude (mathematics), magnitude or dimensions of a thing. More specifically, ''geometrical size'' (or ''spatial size'') can refer to linear dimensions (length, width, height, diameter, perimeter), area, or volume ...
and coloration can be attributed to clinal variation
Cline may refer to:
Science
* Cline (biology), a measurable gradient in a single trait in a species across its geographical range
* Cline (hydrology), a fluid layer with a property that varies
* Cline (mathematics) or generalised circle, a circl ...
and some of the insular populations may still be at an intermediate stage of subspecific formation.[Austin, J. J., Olivier, L., Nankervis, D., Brown, W. E., Gardner, M. G., & Burridge, C. P. (2014). ''Twenty microsatellite loci for population and conservation genetic studies of the wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax)''. Australian Journal of Zoology, 62(3), 235–237.]
* ''A. a. audax'' (Latham, 1801) – This subspecies resides in the entire continent of Australia as well as in southern New Guinea. It is the typical wedge-tailed eagle as subsequently described.
* '' A. a. fleayi'' ( Condon & Amadon, 1954) – This race is endemic to Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
. The subspecies is named in honour of David Fleay
David Howells Fleay (; 6 January 1907 – 7 August 1993) was an Australian scientist and biologist who pioneered the captive breeding of endangered species, and was the first person to breed the platypus (''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'') in ...
, an Australian naturalist who was the first to propose the difference of the insular race.[ ''A. a. fleayi'' differs from mainland wedge-tailed eagles mainly via size and colouring.][ It is larger than mainland eagle and is said to have particularly outsize mainland eagles in talon dimensions.][Pay, J. M., Katzner, T. E., Wiersma, J. M., Brown, W. E., Hawkins, C. E., Proft, K. M., & Cameron, E. Z. (2021). ''Morphometric Sex Identification of Nestling and Free-Flying Tasmanian Wedge-Tailed Eagles (Aquila audax fleayi)''. Journal of Raptor Research.] Furthermore, it is a deep chocolate brown colour rather than blackish in overall colour with a whitish buff colouring to the nape rather than tawny-rufous feathers there.[ The juvenile is altogether paler and sandier than equivalent aged wedge-tailed eagle on mainland Australia.][ Although the validity of the subspecies has been questioned, genetic studies have determined that there is no ]gene flow
In population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration or geneflow and allele flow) is the transfer of genetic material from one population to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent a ...
or introgression
Introgression, also known as introgressive hybridization, in genetics is the transfer of genetic material from one species into the gene pool of another by the repeated backcrossing of an interspecific hybrid with one of its parent species. Intr ...
between Tasmanian and other wedge-tailed eagles; furthermore, the insular race was likely formed by marine dispersals, a process wedge-tailed eagles may continue to engage in despite usually avoiding large bodies of water, albeit usually in narrower strait
A strait is an oceanic landform connecting two seas or two other large areas of water. The surface water generally flows at the same elevation on both sides and through the strait in either direction. Most commonly, it is a narrow ocean channe ...
s.[Burridge, C. P., Brown, W. E., Wadley, J., Nankervis, D. L., Olivier, L., Gardner, M. G., Barbour, R. & Austin, J. J. (2013). ''Did postglacial sea-level changes initiate the evolutionary divergence of a Tasmanian endemic raptor from its mainland relative?'' Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1773), 20132448.]
Description
This is a very large and quite lanky eagle. It is characteristically black but can appear tar
Tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon, obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat. "a dark brown or black bit ...
to charcoal
Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, cal ...
brown depending on lighting and individual variation.[ Wedge-tailed eagles have a massive bill but possess a relatively small and rather flat head with a long, almost vulturine neck. Furthermore, they are distinctive for their prominent carpals and baggy feathered trousers.][ The species tends to perch conspicuously on dead trees, telegraph poles, rocks or the open ground at times. Between the bill size, elongated shape and prominent shoulders this species is highly distinctive, with its long wings extend well down long and markedly wedge-tipped tail while perched.][ They have a large proportion of bare facial skin is thought to be an adaptation to the warm climate not to carrion eating, as the non-carrion eating Verreaux's eagle has similar facial feathering and the golden eagle eats carrion too.][ Against the blackish plumage, the tawny-rufous hackles on the neck, forming a lanceolated shape, as well as the pale brown to rufous crissum and narrow mottled grey-brown band across the greater wing coverts all stand out well.][ The sexes are indistinguishable by plumage.][ The juvenile is mainly darkish brown with extensive rufous feather edging and a paler, fairly streaky head. Furthermore, the juvenile has a lighter brown crissum, light reddish brown to golden nape with similar colouring extending sometimes to the back and wing band. The wing band is considerably more prominent than those of adults, extending to the median and sometimes the lesser coverts. Rarely, a juvenile may be all dull black, lacking rufous edges or a wing band.][ The young eagles are much the same by the 2nd through the 4th years though may be almost invariably visibly in ]moult
In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
and with a narrowing wing band. They become darker around the 5th year with a red-brown nape and a still narrowing wing band. Full mature plumage is not attained until the 7th or 8th year, although sexual maturity can be considered as early as 5.[ Adults have dark brown eyes, while the juvenile has similar but usually slightly darker eyes. Wedge-tailed eagles are typically creamy white on the cere and feet although these can be dull yellow, more so in juveniles than adults.][ The wedge-tailed eagle has a unique ]moult
In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
process in that they moult almost continuously and very slowly, and it may take 3 or more years for an eagle of the species to complete a moult. Moults are arrested only at times of famine and happen so gradually as to not impede the flight or hunting capacities of an eagle.[
In flight, wedge-tailed eagles appear as a very large dark raptor with a well-protruding head, long and relatively narrow-looking wings more or less parallel edged when soaring and most distinctly a long diamond-shaped tail. The shape is fairly dissimilar from any other raptor in the world.][Recher, H. F. (2020). ''The Australian Bird Guide: Revised Edition''. CSIRO Publishing.] Juveniles tend to be broader winged in comparison. The wingspan is around 2.2 times greater than the total length.[ They tend to fly with rather loose but deep and powerful beats. Wedge-tailed eagles spend much time sailing along, looking quite stable and controlled even in strong winds. The species glides and soars on upswept wings with long splayed primaries often the ample tail may be upcurved at the edges often (or “dished”).][Debus, S. (2019). ''Birds of Prey of Australia: a Field Guide''. CSIRO Publishing.] The eagle often spreads its deep wing emarginations to reduce drag in high winds.[ Quite on the contrary to their superlative and controlled appearance once on the wing, flight for wedge-tailed eagles can be a struggle even in normal circumstances unless from it is from a pinnacle or somewhat windy and within the forest they may clamor about to reach the canopy with a "lack of grace".][ Gorged birds on the ground can be vulnerable due to being practically grounded, such as historically to Aboriginal hunters.][ Wedge-tailed eagles have been seen at more than in the air by human gliders.][ The adult is all blackish on the wing but for the tawny-rufous nape and greyish wing band (running less than a quarter of the way down the wing's width). Little relieves the dark coloration below but the pale brown to rufous crissum and the pale greyish bases to their ]flight feather
Flight feathers (''Pennae volatus'') are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired pennaceous feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges (), singular remex (), while those on the tail ...
s.[ Juvenile wedge-tailed eagles appear much browner although in general are not dissimilar in pattern below though the body and wings relative to adult. However, juveniles may show some paler mottling, of an off-rufous colour. Meanwhile, the juvenile's tail and most flight feathers are barred greyish which in turn contrast against the pale based primaries with black tips. Above, the juvenile bears much paler and more sandy rufous colour from the head to at least upper mantle and along broad wing band (as well as more than half the wing width). The lighter dorsal colour sometimes extends to much of the back and scapulars. Rare individual juvenile wedge-tailed eagles are dull black without wing band or paler edges. With much variation in individuals, generally as the young eagles age, the signature wing band shrinks incrementally and after 5th year the plumage darkens.][
]
Size
The female wedge-tailed eagle is one of the world's largest eagles.[Unwin, M., & Tipling, D. (2018). ''The Empire of the Eagle: An Illustrated Natural History''. Yale University Press.] Its nearest rival
A rivalry is the state of two people or groups engaging in a lasting competitive relationship. Rivalry is the "against each other" spirit between two competing sides. The relationship itself may also be called "a rivalry", and each participant o ...
in Australia for size is some 15% smaller linearly and 25% lighter in weight.[ As is typical in birds of prey, the female is larger than the male; although a few individuals are larger by only 0–17%, they average up to 33% larger.][ A full-grown female weighs between , while the smaller males weigh .] Total length varies between and the wingspan typically is between . In 1930, the average weight and wingspans of 43 birds were and .[ The same average figures for a survey of 126 eagles in 1932 were and , respectively.] According to one guide, the mean body mass of male wedge-tailed eagles is while that of females is listed as , which, if accurate, is one of the most extreme examples of size sexual dimorphism known in any bird of prey.[Cherriman, S. C. (2007). ''Territory size and diet throughout the year of the Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax in the Perth region, Western Australia''. B. Sc.(Hons) Thesis, Curtin University, Western Australia.] However, another sample showed far less stark size differences, with 29 males weighing an average of and 29 females an average of . In the same sample, from the Nullarbor Plain
The Nullarbor Plain ( ; Latin: feminine of , 'no', and , 'tree') is part of the area of flat, almost treeless, arid or semi-arid country of southern Australia, located on the Great Australian Bight coast with the Great Victoria Desert to its ...
, males averaged wingspan of (sample of 26) and body length of (sample 5) while females had an average wingspan of (sample 23) and body length of .[Brooker, M. (1996). ''Morphometrics of the Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax''. Corella, 20, 129–134.] However, the Nullarbor Plain eagles appear slightly smaller than wedge-tailed eagle sizes from other surveys, based on body mass and wing chord sizes.[ An average length for males of and was described for wedge-tailed eagles in Queensland. Another source claimed an average male weight of and average female body mass of .][ Yet another book lists males as averaging and females as averaging .][ A sample of 10 males averaged while 19 females weighed .][Parry, S. J. (2001). ''The booted eagles (Aves: Accipitridae): perspectives in evolutionary biology''. University of London, University College London (United Kingdom).][Baker-Gabb, D. J. (1984). ''Morphometric data and dimorphism indices of some Australian raptors''. Corella, 8, 61–63.] The mean body mass of males in Tasmania was while that for females was .[
The largest wingspan ever verified for an eagle was for this species. A female killed in Tasmania in 1931 had a wingspan of , and another female measured barely smaller at .] Similar claims, however, have been made for the Steller's sea eagle
Steller's sea eagle (''Haliaeetus pelagicus''), also known as Pacific sea eagle or white-shouldered eagle, is a very large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It was described first by Peter Simon Pallas in 1811. No subspecies are r ...
(''Haliaeetus pelagicus''), which has been said to reach or exceed in wingspan. Reported claims of wedge-tailed eagles spanning and were unverified and deemed to be unreliable per Guinness World Records
''Guinness World Records'', known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as ''The Guinness Book of Records'' and in previous United States editions as ''The Guinness Book of World Records'', is a reference book published annually, listing world ...
. This eagle's great length and wingspan place it among the largest eagles in the world, but its wings
A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expresse ...
, at more than , and tail
The tail is the section at the rear end of certain kinds of animals’ bodies; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammals, r ...
, at up to , are unusually elongated for its body weight, and nine or ten other eagle species regularly outweigh it.[ It is around the third heaviest ''Aquila'' species, outsized only somewhat by the ]golden eagle
The golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known bird of p ...
and slightly by the Verreaux's eagle
Verreaux's eagle (''Aquila verreauxii'') is a large, mostly African, bird of prey. It is also called the black eagle, especially in southern Africa, not to be confused with the Indian black eagle (''Ictinaetus malayensis''), which lives far to t ...
, although it only slightly exceeds the weight of the Spanish imperial eagle
The Spanish imperial eagle (''Aquila adalberti''), also known as the Spanish eagle or Adalbert's eagle, is a species of eagle native to the Iberian Peninsula. The binomial commemorates Prince Adalbert of Bavaria. Due to its distinct “epaulet ...
(''Aquila adalberti'').[''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), .] Among the entire booted eagle subfamily, in addition to the two heavier ''Aquila'', it is outsized in bulk by the martial eagle
The martial eagle (''Polemaetus bellicosus'') is a large eagle native to sub-Saharan Africa.Ferguson-Lees & Christie, ''Raptors of the World''. Houghton Mifflin Company (2001), . It is the only member of the genus ''Polemaetus''. A species of t ...
(''Polemaetus bellicosus''), while the also long-tailed crowned eagle
The crowned eagle, also known as the African crowned eagle or the crowned hawk-eagle (''Stephanoaetus coronatus''), is a large bird of prey found in sub-Saharan Africa; in Southern Africa it is restricted to eastern areas.Sinclair & Ryan (2003) ...
(''Stephanoaetus coronatus'') can average of a roughly similar body mass to the wedge-tailed eagle, although the latter is marginally the heavier bird.[ The wedge-tailed is significantly exceeded in body mass by only a few eagles, especially the Steller's sea eagle and ]harpy eagle
The harpy eagle (''Harpia harpyja'') is a neotropical species of eagle. It is also called the American harpy eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is sometimes known as the New Guinea harpy eagle or Papuan harpy eagle. It is the ...
(''Harpia harpyja'') and somewhat so by the Philippine eagle
The Philippine eagle (''Pithecophaga jefferyi''), also known as the monkey-eating eagle or great Philippine eagle, is a critically endangered species of eagle of the family Accipitridae which is endemic to forests in the Philippines. It has br ...
(''Pithecophaga jefferyi''), the white-tailed eagle
The white-tailed eagle (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') is a very large species of sea eagle widely distributed across temperate Palearctic, Eurasia. Like all eagles, it is a member of the family Accipitridae (or accipitrids) which includes other diur ...
(''Haliaeetus albicilla'') and the bald eagle
The bald eagle (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') is a bird of prey found in North America. A sea eagle, it has two known subspecies and forms a species pair with the white-tailed eagle (''Haliaeetus albicilla''), which occupies the same niche as ...
(''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'').[ However, it rivals the Steller's and harpy eagles and is known to be exceeded only by the Philippine eagle in total length. The wedge-tailed eagle's wingspan is the largest of any ''Aquila'', and is exceeded amongst all eagles probably only by the white-tailed and Steller's sea eagles in average spread though its average (not maximum) wingspan is rivaled by that of the martial eagle.][Mendelsohn, J.M., Kemp, A.C., Biggs, H.C., Biggs, R., & Brown, C.J. (1989). ''Wing areas, wing loadings and wing spans of 66 species of African raptors''. Ostrich, 60(1), 35-42.]
Among standard measurements, within the nominate subspecies, the wing chord of males may range from while that of the female is from .[ In Tasmania, the wing chord measured from in males and in females.][ In Nullarbor Plain, males averaged in wing chord while females averaged .][ Other Australian wedge-tailed eagles averaged in wing chord among males and among females.][ In Tasmania, the wing chord averaged in males and in females.][ The extreme tail length, slightly to greatly exceeding that of other ''Aquila'', is in males from , averaging in the Nullarbor eagles and in Tasmania, and from , averaging in Nullarbor and in Tasmania. Although they only slightly exceed in tail length the heavier two ''Aquila'' and crowned eagles and they can rival the tail lengths of the Philippine and the ]Harpiinae
The Harpiinae is a bird of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition ...
eagles, Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagles are quite likely to be the longest tailed of all modern eagles.[ The length of the tarsus may be from .][ The tarsus of 7 males averaged while that of 7 females averaged .][ In terms of ]bill
Bill(s) may refer to:
Common meanings
* Banknote, paper cash (especially in the United States)
* Bill (law), a proposed law put before a legislature
* Invoice, commercial document issued by a seller to a buyer
* Bill, a bird or animal's beak
Plac ...
measurements, the exposed culmen may range from in males and in females while total bill length (from the gape
The beak, bill, or rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for eating, preening, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, ...
) is from and , in the sexes respectively. It is likely to be the largest billed ''Aquila'', a bit ahead of the imperial eagles and the Verreaux's eagle, behind only the larger ''Haliaeetus
A sea eagle or fish eagle (also called erne or ern, mostly in reference to the white-tailed eagle) is any of the birds of prey in the genus ''Haliaeetus'' in the bird of prey family Accipitridae.
Taxonomy and evolution
The genus ''Haliaeetus'' ...
'' and Philippine eagles amongst all eagles.[ In Tasmania, culmen lengths averaged in males and in females while the total length of the bill averaged and .][ The hallux claw, the enlarged rear talon on the hind toe, is slightly smaller than that of a golden or Verreaux's eagle, even proportionately, but is by no mean small and is extremely sharp.][ According to one study, wedge-tailed eagles had a hallux claw of , ranging from , in males , ranging from in a sample of 10, in females.][ Another source listed the hallux claw of mainland Australian eagles as averaging in males and in females.][ Meanwhile, in Tasmanian eagles, the hallux claw averaged , ranging from , in males while in females the hallux claw averaged , ranging from .][ In terms of ]osteological
Osteology () is the scientific study of bones, practised by osteologists. A subdiscipline of anatomy, anthropology, and paleontology, osteology is the detailed study of the structure of bones, skeletal elements, teeth, microbone morphology, funct ...
structure and size, the wedge-tailed eagle is said to be proportional to other eagles, being notably smaller and less robust than the heaviest eagles such as Steller's and harpies but fairly similar in osteology in both structure and proportions to the golden eagle.
Identification
Their unique combination of large size, lanky build, long, diamond-shaped tail (though can be round-ended when both central feathers are moulted together), mainly black or rather dark plumage, and long wings seen when soaring or gliding make all ages of the wedge-tailed eagle fairly unmistakable in the majority of their range.[ The only main confusion species is often the black-breasted kite (''Hamirostra melanosternon''), which is surprisingly similar in colouring but is much smaller with a relatively short, squared tail and extensive clear white windows covering a good part of their wings.][ Juveniles of the ]white-bellied sea eagle
The white-bellied sea eagle (''Haliaeetus leucogaster''), also known as the white-breasted sea eagle, is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, it is closely related t ...
(''Haliaeetus leucogaster''), at times mentioned as potentially confusable with a young wedge-tailed eagle, are much paler below with a rather different flight pattern: a short pale tail, bare legs, shorter, broader wings held in stiff dihedral.[ In New Guinea, the ]Gurney's eagle
Gurney's eagle (''Aquila gurneyi'') is a large eagle in the family Accipitridae. It is found in New Guinea and Wallacea, and is an occasional vagrant to Australia.
The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the British banker and amateur or ...
is more similar than those species in form and build but the Gurney's is somewhat smaller and more compact than the wedge-tailed eagle with rich yellow feet, a rather shorter rounded or faintly wedge-tipped tail, shorter and relatively broader wings (in adaptation to more forest-living).[Beehler, B. M., & Pratt, T. K. (2016). ''Birds of New Guinea''. Princeton University Press.] Furthermore, the Gurney's eagle has a much paler immature plumage.[ Although usually considered an island endemic, the Gurney's eagle is possibly capable of marine dispersals, as is the wedge-tailed eagle, that may lead to them to turn up in the forests of northern Australia and historical reports show that a rare vagrant of the species may indeed appear there.][ ]Papuan eagle
The Papuan eagle (''Harpyopsis novaeguineae'') is a large bird of prey.Ferguson-Lees, J., & Christie, D. A. (2001). ''Raptors of the World''. Christopher Helm, London, UK. It is also known by several other names, including Papuan harpy eagle, New ...
(''Harpyopsis novaeguineae''), the only other island raptor in New Guinea that approaches the wedge-tailed in size is a highly distinct and forest-restricted species, being much paler, particularly below, with long bare legs and different proportions, more like a giant ''Accipiter
''Accipiter'' is a genus of Bird of prey, birds of prey in the family Accipitridae. With 51 recognized species it is the most diverse genus in its family. Most species are called goshawks or sparrowhawks, although almost all New World species (ex ...
'' with short rounded wings, a long, somewhat rounded tipped tail and a large, rounded head.[
]
Vocalizations
The wedge-tailed eagle is not a bird well known for its vocalization nor are they often heard.[ They may be silent for long stretches of time, possibly months, at least outside of breeding season.][ When vocalizations have been documented, it usually only near the nest and in aerial display and can be hard to hear unless at close range.][ The commonest calls for wedge-tailed eagles are high, rather thin whistles, sometimes transcribed as ''I-see, I-see'' followed by a short descending ''see-tya''.][ Also documented during the breeding season are various other whistles, yelps and squeals and an often rolling series. Characteristically, all their calls are surprisingly weak though the main call is sometimes considered to have a “melancholy” quality.][ The opinion on their call is not dissimilar to the golden eagle, whose voice is similarly considered unimpressive.][ Female calls in wedge-tailed eagles are similar but are generally lower and harsher than males.][
]
Range and habitat
Wedge-tailed eagles are found throughout Australia, including Tasmania and southern New Guinea in almost all habitats, though they tend to be more common in favourable habitat in southern and eastern Australia.[ In Australia, they may be found almost continuously all the way from the ]Cape York Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula is a large peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest unspoiled wilderness in northern Australia.Mittermeier, R.E. et al. (2002). Wilderness: Earth’s last wild places. Mexico City: Agrupación ...
in the north down to Wilsons Promontory National Park
The Wilsons Promontory National Park, commonly known as Wilsons Prom or The Prom, is a national park in the Gippsland region of Victoria, Australia, located approximately southeast of Melbourne.
The national park is the southernmost national ...
and Great Otway National Park
The Great Otway National Park is a national park located in the Barwon South West region of Victoria, Australia. The national park is situated approximately southwest of Melbourne, in the Otway Ranges, a low coastal mountain range. It conta ...
s in the southern tips of the continent and from Shark Bay
Shark Bay (Malgana: ''Gathaagudu'', "two waters") is a World Heritage Site in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. The http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/shark-bay area is located approximately north of Perth, on the ...
in the western side of the continent to Great Sandy National Park
Great Sandy National Park is a coastal national park in the Fraser Coast Region, Queensland, Australia.
Geography
The park features untouched beaches, large sand dunes, heathlands, rainforests, swamps, creeks, freshwater lakes and mangrove fores ...
and Byron Bay
Byron Bay ( Minjungbal: ''Cavvanbah)'' is a beachside town located in the far-northeastern corner of the state of New South Wales, Australia on Bundjalung Country. It is located north of Sydney and south of Brisbane. Cape Byron, a hea ...
in the east.[ They are widespread throughout the desert interior of Australia, however are rare or occur at low densities in the most arid parts of the continent, such as the ]Lake Eyre Basin
The Lake Eyre basin ( ) is a drainage basin that covers just under one-sixth of all Australia. It is the largest endorheic basin in Australia and amongst the largest in the world, covering about , including much of inland Queensland, large porti ...
. Offshore, the wedge-tailed eagle may be distributed in several of the larger and some of the smaller Australian islands. These include a majority of the Torres Strait Islands
The Torres Strait Islands are a group of at least 274 small islands in the Torres Strait, a waterway separating far northern continental Australia's Cape York Peninsula and the island of New Guinea. They span an area of , but their total land ...
, Albany Island
Albany Island or Pabaju is an island off the north-eastern coast of Cape York Peninsula in the Adolphus Channel and part of the Manar Group of islands of Queensland, Australia. It is within the locality of Somerset in the Shire of Torres.
G ...
, Pipon Island
Pipon Island, also known as Walmbaywi, is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville
Cape Melville is a headland on the eastern coast of the Cape York Peninsula in Australia. To its west lies Princess Charlotte B ...
, the isles of Bathurst Bay
Bathurst Bay is a bay in the localities of Lakefield and Starcke in the Shire of Cook, Queensland, Australia. In the 19th century it was the base for the pearling fleet. It is now a tourist attraction on Cape York Peninsula in northern Que ...
, many small isles in Queensland from Night Island down to the South Cumberland Islands, Fraser Island
Fraser Island (Butchulla: ) is a World Heritage-listed island along the south-eastern coast in the Wide Bay–Burnett region, Queensland, Australia. The island is approximately north of the state capital, Brisbane, and is within the Fraser ...
, Moreton Island
Moreton Island (Mulgumpin) is an island on the eastern side of Moreton Bay on the coast of South East Queensland, Australia. The Coral Sea lies on the east coast of the island. Moreton Island lies northeast of the Queensland capital, Brisbane. ...
, North Stradbroke Island
North Stradbroke Island ( Jandai: ''Minjerribah''), colloquially ''Straddie'' or ''North Straddie'', is an island that lies within Moreton Bay in the Australian state of Queensland, southeast of the centre of Brisbane. Originally there was onl ...
, Montague Island, Kangaroo Island
Kangaroo Island, also known as Karta Pintingga (literally 'Island of the Dead' in the language of the Kaurna people), is Australia's third-largest island, after Tasmania and Melville Island. It lies in the state of South Australia, southwest ...
, the Nuyts Archipelago
The Nuyts Archipelago is an island group located in South Australia in the Great Australian Bight to the south of the town of Ceduna, South Australia, Ceduna on the west coast of the Eyre Peninsula. It consisting of mostly granite, grani ...
, Groote Eylandt
Groote Eylandt ( Anindilyakwa: ''Ayangkidarrba'' meaning "island" ) is the largest island in the Gulf of Carpentaria and the fourth largest island in Australia. It was named by the explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 and is Dutch for "Large Island" in ...
and the Tiwi Islands
The Tiwi Islands ( tiw, Ratuati Irara meaning "two islands") are part of the Northern Territory, Australia, to the north of Darwin adjoining the Timor Sea. They comprise Melville Island, Bathurst Island, and nine smaller uninhabited islands, wi ...
.[ In Tasmania, they may be found essentially throughout as well as some isles of the ]Kent Group
The Kent Group are a grouping of six granite islands located in Bass Strait, north-west of the Furneaux Group in Tasmania, Australia. Collectively, the group is comprised within the Kent Group National Park.
The islands were named Kent's Group ...
, Bass Strait
Bass Strait () is a strait separating the island state of Tasmania from the Australian mainland (more specifically the coast of Victoria, with the exception of the land border across Boundary Islet). The strait provides the most direct waterwa ...
, Flinders Island
Flinders Island, the largest island in the Furneaux Group, is a island in the Bass Strait, northeast of the island of Tasmania. Flinders Island was the place where the last remnants of aboriginal Tasmanian population were exiled by the colon ...
and Cape Barren Island
Cape Barren Island, officially truwana / Cape Barren Island, is a island in the Bass Strait, off the north east coast of Tasmania, Australia. It is the second largest island of the Furneaux Group; Flinders Island lies to the north, with the s ...
.[Fielding, M. W., Buettel, J. C., & Brook, B. W. (2020). ''Trophic rewilding of native extirpated predators on Bass Strait Islands could benefit woodland birds''. Emu-Austral Ornithology, 120(3), 260–262.] In New Guinea, the wedge-tailed eagle is highly range restricted and can be found in predominantly in the Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands
The Trans Fly savanna and grasslands are a lowland ecoregion on the south coast of the island of New Guinea in both the Indonesian and Papua New Guinean sides of the island. With their monsoon and dry season climate these grasslands are quite di ...
and the general area around the Western Province
Western Province or West Province may refer to:
*Western Province, Cameroon
*Western Province, Rwanda
*Western Province (Kenya)
*Western Province (Papua New Guinea)
*Western Province (Solomon Islands)
*Western Province, Sri Lanka
*Western Provinc ...
, as well as in the Merauke Regency
Merauke Regency is a regency in the far south of the Indonesian province of South Papua. It covers an area of 46,791.63 km2, and had a population of 195,716 at the 2010 Census and 230,932 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2 ...
, with some isolated reports in Western New Guinea
Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, or Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the Melanesian island of New Guinea which is administered by Indonesia. Since the island is alternatively named as Papua, the region ...
, the Bensbach River
The Bensbach River is a river in southwestern Papua New Guinea. It is located just to the east of the Maro River in Merauke Regency, Indonesia, and just to the west of the Morehead River in Papua New Guinea.
The mouth of the river, Torasi Estua ...
and the Oriomo River
The Oriomo River is located in southern Papua New Guinea. Originating on the Oriomo Plateau, it enters the sea near the town of Daru.
See also
*Oriomo-Bituri Rural LLG
*Oriomo languages
*Oriomo Plateau
The Oriomo Plateau is a plateau in Wester ...
.[
]
Habitat
The wedge-tailed eagle inhabits an extremely wide range of habitats.[ Although range restricted relative to the golden eagle, it likely occupies a wider range of habitat types than likely any other ''Aquila'' eagle and indeed may outrival any booted eagle species in their usage of diverse habitats, being somewhat more akin to habitat generalist raptors such as '']Buteo
''Buteo'' is a genus of medium to fairly large, wide-ranging raptors with a robust body and broad wings. In the Old World, members of this genus are called "buzzards", but "hawk" is used in the New World (Etymology: ''Buteo'' is the Latin name o ...
'' buzzards. Assorted habitats known to host wedge-tailed eagles includes open woodland
A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with trees, or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the ''plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade (see ...
, savanna
A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to ...
, heath
A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler ...
land, grassland
A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur natur ...
s, desert edge and semi-desert
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi-ar ...
, subalpine forest
Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial f ...
s, montane grasslands and mountain peaks
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak (mountain peak), and zenith are synonymous.
The term (mountain top) is generally used only for a ...
, not-too-dense tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equatori ...
s, monsoon forests, dwarf conifer forests, some wetland
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The ...
s as well as regularly forays to coast
The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in n ...
al areas, though normally along the coasts they occur around plains
In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands.
In ...
somewhat away from the water.[ Favored habitat tends to be remote or rough country, at least partially wooded and not uncommonly varied with some rocky spots as well as in ]shrubland
Shrubland, scrubland, scrub, brush, or bush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity. It m ...
. Wedge-tailed eagles seem to prefer some dead trees
''Dead Trees'' is the fifth studio album by post-hardcore band From First to Last, released April 23, 2015, via Sumerian Records. It is the first and only release to feature vocalist Spencer Sotelo (singer of progressive metal band Periphery (band ...
to be present.[ They may occur around '']Eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as euca ...
'' woodland quite regularly, as well as ''Acacia
''Acacia'', commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australasia. The genus na ...
'' woodland and mixed woodlands of ''Casuarina cristata
''Casuarina cristata'' is an Australian tree of the sheoak family Casuarinaceae known as belah. It is native to a band across inland eastern Australia.
Taxonomy
The Dutch botanist Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel described the belah in 1848, and i ...
-Flindersia maculosa
''Flindersia maculosa'', commonly known as leopardwood or leopard tree, is a species of tree in the family Rutaceae and is endemic to inland areas of eastern Australia. It has mottled bark, simple leaves arranged in opposite pairs, white to cre ...
-Callitris
''Callitris'' is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae (cypress family). There are 16 recognized species in the genus, of which 13 are native to Australia and the other three (''C. neocaledonica, C. sulcata'' and ''C. p ...
'' cypresses
Cypress is a common name for various coniferous trees or shrubs of northern temperate regions that belong to the family Cupressaceae. The word ''cypress'' is derived from Old French ''cipres'', which was imported from Latin ''cypressus'', the la ...
and also stands of ''Casuarina cunninghamiana
''Casuarina cunninghamiana'', commonly known as river oak or river she-oak, is a she-oak species of the genus ''Casuarina''. The native range in Australia extends from Daly River in the Northern Territory, north and east in Queensland and easter ...
''.[Sharp, A., Norton, M., & Marks, A. (2001). ''Breeding activity, nest site selection and nest spacing of wedge-tailed eagles, Aquila audax, in western New South Wales''. Emu, 101(4), 323–328.][Collins, L.., & Croft, D. B. (2007). ''Factors influencing chick survival in the Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax''. Corella, 31, 32–40.][Silva, L. M., & Croft, D. B. (2007). ''Nest-site selection, diet and parental care of the wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax in western New South Wales''. Corella, 31(2), 23–31.] A strong preference was detected for ''C. cunninghamiana'' alternatively with several ''Eucalyptus'' species was detected in the Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (commonly abbreviated as ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a landlocked federal territory of Australia containing the national capital Canberra and some surrounding townships. ...
, sloping ground allowing good access and access to tall, mature trees being paramount to the eagles in the study.[Hatton, F., Mickan, P. H., Gruber, B., & Olsen, J. (2014). ''Modelling the nesting habitat requirements of the wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax in the Australian Capital Territory using nest site characteristics''. Corella, 38, 63–70.] Quite often they will be seen soaring over hill
A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a distinct Summit (topography), summit.
Terminology
The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is universally con ...
s, mountain
A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited Summit (topography), summit area, and ...
s or escarpment
An escarpment is a steep slope or long cliff that forms as a result of faulting or erosion and separates two relatively level areas having different elevations.
The terms ''scarp'' and ''scarp face'' are often used interchangeably with ''escar ...
s as well as over flat plains, especially spinex grassland.[ Dense forest is typically avoided with glades and ]edge
Edge or EDGE may refer to:
Technology Computing
* Edge computing, a network load-balancing system
* Edge device, an entry point to a computer network
* Adobe Edge, a graphical development application
* Microsoft Edge, a web browser developed by ...
often sought out in forested areas. While they do occur in rich riparian woodland
A riparian forest or riparian woodland is a forested or wooded area of land adjacent to a body of water such as a river, stream, pond, lake, marshland, estuary, canal, sink or reservoir.
Etymology
The term riparian comes from the Latin word ' ...
s, it is with relative scarcity despite this being where many other raptors of the nation concentrate.[Aumann, T. (2001). ''An intraspecific and interspecific comparison of raptor diets in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia''. Wildlife Research, 28(4), 379–393.] In the deserts of the Lake Eyre basin
The Lake Eyre basin ( ) is a drainage basin that covers just under one-sixth of all Australia. It is the largest endorheic basin in Australia and amongst the largest in the world, covering about , including much of inland Queensland, large porti ...
, they are often seen in gibber plains along treed watercourse
A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams are ...
s and drainage basin
A drainage basin is an area of land where all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, t ...
s, here often concentrated around ''Eucalyptus'' in stony creek beds.[ In the ]sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of s ...
y desert areas of Western Australia
Western Australia (commonly abbreviated as WA) is a state of Australia occupying the western percent of the land area of Australia excluding external territories. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to th ...
, wedge-tailed eagles were once reasonably common but have largely vacated the region after the macropod prey they live off of there were all but hunted to extinction.[Johnstone, R. E., & Storr, G. M. (1998). ''Handbook of Western Australian Birds (Vol. 2)''. Western Australian Museum.] Wedge-tailed eagles commonly occur from sea level up to about with seemingly no preference based on altitudinal level.[ A fairly pronounced liking for mountainous localities such as ]plateau
In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ha ...
s has been detected in a few studies of wedge-tailed eagle.[ One of the few habitat types considered to be strongly avoided by wedge-tailed eagles are areas intensively ]settled
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area.
A settler who migrates to an area previously uninhabited or sparsely inhabited may be described as a pioneer.
Settle ...
or cultivated areas.[ A slightly fading tendency to avoid human areas has been detected, perhaps as persecution rates have gone far down, and the wedge-tailed eagle may be seen near ]town
A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world.
Origin and use
The word "town" shares an ori ...
s and village
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to ...
s in exurb
An exurb (or alternately: exurban area) is an area outside the typically denser inner suburban area, at the edge of a metropolitan area, which has some economic and commuting connection to the metro area, low housing density, and growth. It s ...
an and even suburb
A suburb (more broadly suburban area) is an area within a metropolitan area, which may include commercial and mixed-use, that is primarily a residential area. A suburb can exist either as part of a larger city/urban area or as a separate ...
an areas largely within bushland
In Australia, bushland is a blanket term for land which supports remnant vegetation or land which is disturbed but still retains a predominance of the original floristics and structure.
Human survival in bushland has a whole mythology evolving ...
. However, the species is seldom seen other than as a flyover in more developed towns and cities.[ Additionally, it is not uncommon in manmade spots such as ]pasture
Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine ...
areas, forestry clearings, and rolling farmland
Agricultural land is typically land ''devoted to'' agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of lifeparticularly the rearing of livestock and production of cropsto produce food for humans. It is generally synonymous with bot ...
areas.[
]
Behaviour
This impressive bird of prey spends much of the day perching in trees, on rocks as well as similar exposed lookout sites such as cliffs from which it has a good view of its surroundings. Alternatively, they may sit on the ground for long periods of time or watch from a lower point, such as or termite mounds or anthills.[ Now and then, it takes off from its perch to fly low over its territory.][ Especially whilst not breeding, wedge-tailed eagles spends a considerable amount of the day on the wing.][ Wedge-tailed eagles are highly aerial, soaring for hours on end without wingbeat and seemingly without effort, regularly reaching and sometimes considerably higher. The purpose of soaring has received little specific study in wedge-tailed eagles, but it is likely, as in other accipitrids, in large part for surveying the territory and advertising their presence to other eagles.][ During the intense heat of the middle part of the day, it often soars high in the air, circling up on the thermal currents that rise from the ground below.][ Often when on the wing, it is scarcely visible to the human's naked eye.][ Their keen eyesight extends into ]ultraviolet
Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nanometer, nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 Hertz, PHz) to 400 nm (750 Hertz, THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than ...
bands. With a visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflecte ...
some three times more acute than those of humans, one of the largest pecten oculi
The pecten or pecten oculi is a comb-like structure of blood vessels belonging to the choroid in the eye of a bird. It is a non- sensory, pigmented structure that projects into the vitreous humor from the point where the optic nerve enters the ...
of any bird and an eye roughly as big as a small human's, they may be one of the most sharp-eyed birds in the world.[ The wedge-tailed eagle is a largely sedentary as expected of a raptor dwelling in the ]subtropics
The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north and ...
, although they also dwell in the tropics
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
(far northern Australia and New Guinea) as well as in the temperate zone
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
(Tasmania).[ However, juveniles of the species can be quite dispersive. In some cases, they have moved to a recorded distance of some . These extreme movements have been completed within 7 to 8 months after dispersal.][ More typically they move no farther than or so.][ The adult eagles can also be nomadic, though only in circumstances such as ]drought
A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
conditions. In turn this explains the species presence in places they don't breed, even adults.[ In addition to moving for drought in arid zone, also moves in highest part of ]New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
, e.g. the Snowy Mountains
The Snowy Mountains, known informally as "The Snowies", is an IBRA subregion in southern New South Wales, Australia, and is the tallest mountain range in mainland Australia, being part of the continent's Great Dividing Range cordillera system ...
, the species often apparently vacates snow-covered alpine zone in winter. The small New Guinea population is apparently indistinguishable from the mainland race and so possibly result of recent colonization, although no records exist of migrating wedge-tailed eagles islands past the Torres Straits.[ However, it can be projected from its presence in various offshore islands its capacity for crossing straits ranging up to as far as apart.][ One post dispersal young eagle was observed to distribute from ]Kangaroo Island
Kangaroo Island, also known as Karta Pintingga (literally 'Island of the Dead' in the language of the Kaurna people), is Australia's third-largest island, after Tasmania and Melville Island. It lies in the state of South Australia, southwest ...
to the mainland, possibly a regular occurrence.[Debus, S. J. (2015). ''Assessment of band recoveries for three Australian eagle species''. Corella.] Due to their tendency for wandering, some authors class the wedge-tailed eagles as a “ partial or irruptive migrant”. However, while they are arguably irruptive, it does not fit the mold of a true migrant well since under normal circumstances adults are rather sedentary unless environmental changes force them to move.[
The wedge-tailed eagle is the only bird that has a reputation for not infrequently attacking ]hang glider
Hang gliding is an air sport or recreational activity in which a pilot flies a light, non-motorised foot-launched heavier-than-air aircraft called a hang glider. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminium alloy or composite frame covered ...
s and paragliders
Paragliding is the recreational and competitive adventure sport of flying paragliders: lightweight, free-flying, foot-launched Glider (aircraft), glider aircraft with no rigid primary structure. The pilot sits in a :wikt:harness, harness o ...
, although other eagles including the golden eagle have also been recorded to behave thusly. Based on the response the eagles show to the gliders, they presumably are defending their territory and treating the perceived intruder like another eagle. Cases are recorded of the birds damaging the fabric of these gliders with their talons as well as some other parts of the gliding apparatus, but not the humans themselves, has been reported.[Meredith, P. (1990). ''Encounters between Wedge-tailed Eagles and Hang-gliders''. Australian Bird Watcher, 13(5), 153–155.] They have also been reported to attack and destroy unmanned aerial vehicle
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any human pilot, crew, or passengers on board. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS), which includes adding a ground-based controller ...
s used for mining survey operations in Australia. The presence of a wedge-tailed eagle often causes panic among smaller birds, and as a result, aggressive species such as magpies
Magpies are birds of the Corvidae family. Like other members of their family, they are widely considered to be intelligent creatures. The Eurasian magpie, for instance, is thought to rank among the world's most intelligent creatures, and is one ...
(one of the most vulnerable types of passerine
A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by t ...
to eagle attacks), butcherbird
Butcherbirds are songbirds closely related to the Australian magpie. Most are found in the genus '' Cracticus'', but the black butcherbird is placed in the monotypic genus '' Melloria''. They are native to Australasia.
Taxonomy
Together with th ...
s, wagtails
Wagtails are a group of passerine birds that form the genus ''Motacilla'' in the family Motacillidae. The forest wagtail belongs to the monotypic genus ''Dendronanthus'' which is closely related to ''Motacilla'' and sometimes included therein. ...
, monarch flycatchers, lapwing
Lapwings (subfamily Vanellinae) are any of various ground-nesting birds (family Charadriidae) akin to plovers and dotterels. They range from in length, and are noted for their slow, irregular wingbeats in flight and a shrill, wailing cry. A gro ...
s, and miner
A miner is a person who extracts ore, coal, chalk, clay, or other minerals from the earth through mining. There are two senses in which the term is used. In its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face; cutting, blasting, ...
s as well as smaller birds of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predators ...
, including both accipitrids and falcon
Falcons () are birds of prey in the genus ''Falco'', which includes about 40 species. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene.
Adult falcons ...
s, any of which may aggressively mob
Mob or MOB may refer to:
Behavioral phenomena
* Crowd
* Smart mob, a temporary self-structuring social organization, coordinated through telecommunication
Crime and law enforcement
* American Mafia, also known as the Mob
* Irish Mob, a US crimin ...
eagles (see video). Multiple species may join the kerfuffle and mob them, especially while the eagles perched, often engaging in noisy calling, presumably meant to disorient the predator, and occasionally in physical attacks against the eagle, typically focused where the big, relatively lumbering eagles could not grasp the attacking birds. The wedge-tailed eagle usually does not engage its tormentors but sometimes rolls in the air to present talons whether perched or not.[ Sometimes wedge-tailed eagles appear to fight but this and other behaviours, especially between young eagles, may be interpreted as playful.][ Some such behaviours have included fetching sticks tossed by others, athletic flipping between juvenile eagles and even playing games with ]dog
The dog (''Canis familiaris'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris'') is a domesticated descendant of the wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is derived from the extinct Pleistocene wolf, and the modern wolf is the dog's nearest living relative. Do ...
s, via floating above them until the dogs bark or leap then floating up until the dog settles and then repeating the “game”.[
Flocking behaviour has been noted, similar to that of vultures (]Cathartidae
The New World vulture or condor family, Cathartidae, contains seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas. The "New World" vultures were widespread ...
and Accipitridae
The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-s ...
) in other countries, when carrion
Carrion () is the decaying flesh of dead animals, including human flesh.
Overview
Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters (or scavengers) include crows, vultures, c ...
is available.[Bird watcher's Tasmanian wedge-tailed eagle photo shows group's vulture-like behaviour](_blank)
Georgie Burgess, ABC News Online
ABC News, or ABC News and Current Affairs, is a public news service produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Broadcasting within Australia and the rest of the world, the service covers both local and world affairs.
The division of ...
, 27 April 2022
File:Wedge-tailed Eagle dayboro.ogv, In flight, 'mobbed' by Australian magpie, Dayboro
Dayboro is a rural town and locality in the Moreton Bay Region, Queensland, Australia. In the , the locality of Dayboro had a population of 2,119 people.
Geography
The wedge-tailed eagle is one of the world's most powerful avian predators.[ Due to its formidable and dominating nature, it is sometimes nicknamed “King of Birds”, along with golden eagles. Prey is usually grabbed via a pounce or snatch during a gliding flight or a tail-chase from low quartering or transect flights.][Cowell, G. (2006). ''Wedge-tailed Eagle takes juvenile Kangaroo''. Boobook 24, 46.] Prey is not infrequently spotted from a soaring flight and they may undertake a long, slanting stoop towards it.[ They may be able to spot prey from farther than a kilometer given their keen vision.][ Its typical hunting style is not all-together dissimilar from that of golden or Verreaux's eagles.][ Occasionally, a wedge-tailed eagle still hunts from a perch.][ Unsuccessful hunts typically exceed in number successful ones.][ Hunting habitat can be highly variably and can manage to capture prey in both open country and quite thick woodland or forest, though typically require an open understory in the latter.][ Almost all its prey is taken on the ground but to a lesser extent it may be taken from the tree ]canopy
Canopy may refer to:
Plants
* Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests)
* Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes
Religion and ceremonies
* Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an a ...
.[ They've been known to take birds such as ]currawong
Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus ''Strepera'' in the family Artamidae native to Australia. These are the grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor''), pied currawong (''S. graculina''), and black cu ...
s and cockatoo
A cockatoo is any of the 21 parrot species belonging to the family Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea. Along with the Psittacoidea (true parrots) and the Strigopoidea (large New Zealand parrots), they make up the ord ...
s by coming around them by surprise around a tree or by darting out in flight at close range for a brief tail-chase.[Whelan, D. (2009) Eagle takes cockatoo. Boobook 27, 16.] Sometimes, an eagle may pull brushtail possum
The brushtail possums are the members of the genus ''Trichosurus'' in the Phalangeridae, a family of marsupials. They are native to Australia (including Tasmania) and some small nearby islands. Unique among marsupials, they have shifted the hypax ...
s and other mammals from tree cavities, as well as young birds from a nest
A nest is a structure built for certain animals to hold eggs or young. Although nests are most closely associated with birds, members of all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates construct nests. They may be composed of organic materia ...
.[Olsen, J., Fuentes, E., Rose, A. B., & Trost, S. (2006). ''Food and hunting of eight breeding raptors near Canberra, 1990–1994''. Australian Field Ornithology, 23(2), 77–95.] They've been known to follow wildfire
A wildfire, forest fire, bushfire, wildland fire or rural fire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of Combustibility and flammability, combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire ...
s to search for fleeing animals or alternately tractor
A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery such as that used in agriculture, mining or construction. Most common ...
s and other farm equipment for the same purpose.[ Wedge-tailed eagles occasionally ]pirate
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
food from other predators.[ An eagle of the species can carry prey of at least .][
Large animals may be attacked by pairs or, occasionally by groups, acting ]cooperatively
Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit. Many animal a ...
. One record shows 15 wedge-tailed eagles hunting kangaroos
Kangaroos are four marsupials from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, the red kangaroo, as well as the antilopine kangaroo, eastern gre ...
, two at a time actively chasing then repeatedly being replaced by two more from the circling group overhead.[McGregor, B. (2007). ''Wedge-tailed Eagle hunting behaviour''. Boobook 25, 14.][Aumann, T. (2001). ''Habitat use, temporal activity patterns and foraging behaviour of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia''. Wildlife Research, 28(4), 365–378.] Regardless of prey size and season, tandem hunts, mainly by breeding adult pairs or sometimes loosely associated young eagles, are not uncommon.[ Of 89 observed hunts in ]Central Australia
Central Australia, also sometimes referred to as the Red Centre, is an inexactly defined region associated with the geographic centre of Australia. In its narrowest sense it describes a region that is limited to the town of Alice Springs and i ...
around one-third were cooperative ones.[ As in other tandem hunting raptors, one eagle typically lies in wait generally unseen while the other eagle distracts and drives the prey towards it.][ When hunting domesticated prey, they've been seen to land near ]livestock
Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals ...
mothers to intimidate them and separate their young, so they can attack the latter.[ Sometimes, wedge-tailed eagles may use ]fence
A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors, and is usually constructed from posts that are connected by boards, wire, rails or netting. A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length.
...
s to limit a prey's escape routes.[ In some cases, these eagles will attempt to force large prey such as kangaroos and dingos to fall off steep hillsides and injure themselves.][ At times, wedge-tailed eagles appear to hunt at earliest light or late twilight in order to come upon ]nocturnal
Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.
Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed sens ...
prey such as hare-wallaby
''Lagorchestes'' is a genus of small, rabbit-like mammals commonly known as hare-wallabies. It includes four species native to Australia and New Guinea, two of which are extinct. Hare-wallabies belong to the macropod family (Macropodidae) which i ...
and bettong
Bettongs, species of the genus ''Bettongia'', are potoroine marsupials once common in Australia. They are important ecosystem engineers displaced during the colonisation of the continent, and are vulnerable to threatening factors such as altere ...
s.[ These eagles have been seen removing rabbits from traps and eating carrion in bright moonlight as well.][ At times, remarkably, wedge-tailed eagles have been covering large prey with vegetation, apparently to ]cache
Cache, caching, or caché may refer to:
Places United States
* Cache, Idaho, an unincorporated community
* Cache, Illinois, an unincorporated community
* Cache, Oklahoma, a city in Comanche County
* Cache, Utah, Cache County, Utah
* Cache Count ...
food too heavy to carry. Carrion is a major diet item, also; wedge-tails can spot the activity of raven
A raven is any of several larger-bodied bird species of the genus ''Corvus''. These species do not form a single taxonomic group within the genus. There is no consistent distinction between "crows" and "ravens", common names which are assigned t ...
s around a carcass from a great distance, and glide down to appropriate it. Carrion consumption is recorded in all season and contexts, although generally non-breeding birds are more likely to scavenge
Scavengers are animals that consume Corpse decomposition, dead organisms that have died from causes other than predation or have been killed by other predators. While scavenging generally refers to carnivores feeding on carrion, it is also a h ...
and young wedge-tailed eagles, even more so shortly post-dispersal, are thought to be far more likely to scavenge on carrion than adults generally. Wedge-tailed eagles are often seen by the roadside in rural Australia, feeding on animals that have been killed in collisions with vehicles. The importance of carrion relative to live prey has not been greatly studied but away from human development, especially roads, carrion is less likely to be encountered and eagles of all ages must presumably hunt to survive. In general, Australian accipitrids of many species not infrequently come to carrion and they along with large passerine
A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by t ...
s like ''Corvus
''Corvus'' is a widely distributed genus of medium-sized to large birds in the family Corvidae. It includes species commonly known as crows, ravens and Rook (bird), rooks. The species commonly encountered in Europe are the carrion crow, the hoo ...
'' species and currawong
Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus ''Strepera'' in the family Artamidae native to Australia. These are the grey currawong (''Strepera versicolor''), pied currawong (''S. graculina''), and black cu ...
s probably fulfill the niche
Niche may refer to:
Science
*Developmental niche, a concept for understanding the cultural context of child development
*Ecological niche, a term describing the relational position of an organism's species
*Niche differentiation, in ecology, the ...
that vultures
A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including Condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and So ...
do in other continents to some extent, albeit with considerably less specialization.[ Aggregations of wedge-tailed eagles may occur not infrequently at large carcasses, with up to 5–12 eagles or sometimes 20 gathering.][ A wedge-tailed eagle can gorge up to at a sitting and, when fulfilled, can lasts for an unusual amount of time, for up to weeks or even a month, before needing to hunt again, apparently due to the warmth of the environment.][ After feeding they may disgorge a relatively small pellet, long by wide and weighing some .][ Usually the diet is determined from a combination of reviewing these pellets along with loose prey remains.
]
Prey spectrum
Pogona vitticeps (32494027291).jpg, Regular wedge-tailed eagle prey can vary in size down to small lizard
Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...
s such as bearded dragons
''Pogona'' is a genus of reptiles containing six lizard species which are often known by the common name bearded dragons. The name "bearded dragon" refers to the underside of the throat (or "beard") of the lizard, which can turn black and gain we ...
, their favourite variety of reptilian prey.
CSIRO ScienceImage 1147 European rabbit.jpg, The introduction of rabbits to Australia has been greatly harmful to the Australian environs but a boon to opportunistic wedge-tailed eagles, which often take them in great numbers.
Large Eastern Grey male kangaroo (9645655070).jpg, Regular prey can range up to the size of large adult kangaroo
Kangaroos are four marsupials from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, the red kangaroo, as well as the antilopine kangaroo, eastern gre ...
s such as eastern grey kangaroos, usually attacked in hunting pairs.
Galahs.jpg, A diversity of birds may be taken with medium-sized, common birds such as galah
The galah (; ''Eolophus roseicapilla''), also known as the pink and grey cockatoo or rose-breasted cockatoo, is the only species within genus ''Eolophus'' of the cockatoo family. Found throughout Australia, it is among the most common of the co ...
s taken relatively frequently due to the conspicuousness.
The wedge-tailed eagle is a dietary generalist, opportunistically capturing a wide range of prey species.[ Its prey spectrum is quite broad, with well over 200 prey species documented to be taken and even this includes very few prey only from secondary accounts from Tasmania and New Guinea.][Olsen, J., Judge, D., Fuentes, E., Rose, A. B., & Debus, S. J. (2010). ''Diets of wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax) and little eagles (Hieraaetus morphnoides) breeding near Canberra, Australia''. Journal of Raptor Research, 44(1), 50–61.] The wedge-tailed eagles tends to prefer smallish to fairly large mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
s as prey.[ However, they not infrequently take ample numbers of both ]bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
s and reptile
Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalians ( ...
s, along with scarcely other prey taxon.[ Out of 21 accrued dietary studies, 61.3% of prey items by number in the foods during nesting efforts were mammals, 21.6% were birds, 13.2% were reptiles, 2.1% by ]invertebrate
Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...
s, principally insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...
s, 1.5% by fish
Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of li ...
, and almost no amphibian
Amphibians are tetrapod, four-limbed and ectothermic vertebrates of the Class (biology), class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terres ...
s by number.[ Meanwhile, out of the 21, 13 studies calculated estimated ]biomass
Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...
, and found that just shy of 90% of prey biomass was made of by mammals, 6.2% by birds and 3.4% by reptiles.[ Out of the ''Aquila'' genus, it is one of a few generalist species, however the wedge-tailed eagle is the ''Aquila'' most likely to typically attack the largest prey.][ Generally, this species prefers to attack birds and reptiles weighing over and mammals weighing over , although prey taken at times has varied from a few grams to more than sixteen times the weight of an individual eagle.][ A comparison estimate posited that around 2% of wedge-tailed eagle prey weighs less than , 4% of their prey weighs , 7% of their prey weighs , 10% weighs , 20% weighs , 25% weighs , 18% weighs and 14% weighs over .][ Projected from this comparison, the mean prey size for wedge-tailed eagles is estimated at , similar but just slightly ahead of the Verreaux's eagle and some 14% ahead of the golden eagle global mean prey size.][ Further studies estimated mean prey weight, showing the mean prey weigh in the ]Canberra
Canberra ( )
is the capital city of Australia. Founded following the federation of the colonies of Australia as the seat of government for the new nation, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The ci ...
-Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (commonly abbreviated as ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a landlocked federal territory of Australia containing the national capital Canberra and some surrounding townships. ...
region in three different studies was estimated to be , and , changing likely due to the shifting significances of leporids
Leporidae is the family of rabbits and hares, containing over 60 species of extant mammals in all. The Latin word ''Leporidae'' means "those that resemble ''lepus''" (hare). Together with the pikas, the Leporidae constitute the mammalian order ...
and larger macropods.[Olsen, J., Fuentes, E., & Rose, A. B. (2006). ''Trophic relationships between neighbouring White-bellied Sea-Eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) and Wedge-tailed Eagles (Aquila audax) breeding on rivers and dams near Canberra''. Emu-Austral Ornithology, 106(3), 193–201.][Debus, S. J. S., Olsen, J., Trost, S., & Fuentes, E. (2021). ''Breeding diets of the little eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides and wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax in the Australian capital territory in 2011–2019''. Australian Field Ornithology, 38, 19–28.] In a small study from Armidale, New South Wales
Armidale is a city in the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. Armidale had a population of 24,504 as of June 2018. Estimated resident population, 30 June 2018. It is the administrative centre for the Northern Tablelands region. It ...
, it was estimated that mean prey weight was .[Debus, S. J., Hatfield, T. S., Ley, A. J., & Rose, A. B. (2007). ''Breeding biology and diet of the Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax in the New England region of New South Wales''. Australian Field Ornithology, 24(3), 93–120.] It only ranks behind the crowned eagle and harpy eagle and rivals the martial eagle as the eagle likely to attack the largest prey on average.
Mammals
While the introduction of invasive species
An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
to Australia has been generally having a negative to devastating effect on native animals and ecosystems, the wedge-tailed eagle is one of a few native species to largely benefit from these introductions.[ This is especially due to the introduction of the ]European rabbit
The European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') or coney is a species of rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula (including Spain, Portugal, and southwestern France), western France, and the northern Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa. It has ...
, which were deliberately introduced repeatedly (abortively in 1859 and then via a concerted effect from 1937 to 1950), largely so the wealthy could hunt them.[Fenner, F. (2010). ''Deliberate introduction of the European rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, into Australia''. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 29(1), 103.] The wedge-tailed eagles quickly took to the rabbits as prey along with another introduced leporid, the European hare
The European hare (''Lepus europaeus''), also known as the brown hare, is a species of hare native to Europe and parts of Asia. It is among the largest hare species and is adapted to temperate, open country. Hares are herbivorous and feed mainly ...
(''Lepus europaeus'').[ In almost every part of Australia, these eagles take ]rabbits
Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also contains the hares) of the order Lagomorpha (which also contains the pikas). ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' includes the European rabbit specie ...
in some numbers and they usually constitute the bulk of the prey species in most, if not all, Australian food studies.[ In some dietary studies rabbits have accounted for up to 89.2% of the diet by number and 86% by biomass, as in ]Bacchus Marsh
Bacchus Marsh (Wathawurrung: ''Pullerbopulloke'') is an urban centre and suburban locality in Victoria, Australia located approximately north west of the state capital Melbourne and west of Melton, Victoria, Melton at a near equidistance to th ...
, however they more typically range from 16% to 49% of the diet by number in various studies.[Foster, A., & Wallis, R. (2010). ''Breeding diet of the wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax in southern Victoria''. Corella, 34, 45–48.][Hull, C. (1986). ''The diet of the Wedge-tailed Eagle, Aquila audax, breeding near Melbourne''. Corella, 10, 21 (4).] One Canberra study found that 98.5% of the rabbits taken were adults.[ In the largest study near Canberra, over 5.5 years, 19.3% of the diet of wedge-tailed eagles was rabbits (12.7% of prey biomass) among 1421 prey items, so the eagles took a total of some 275 rabbits in the 11 to 17 studied territories of the area.][ A study estimated that mean weight of wild rabbits in Australia was , lower than estimated in the past.][Sharp, A., Gibson, L., Norton, M., Ryan, B., Marks, A., & Semeraro, L. (2002). ''The breeding season diet of wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax) in western New South Wales and the influence of rabbit calicivirus disease''. Wildlife Research, 29(2), 175–184.] However, other studies estimated the mean weights of rabbits taken by wedge-tailed eagles as variously from or “usually over ”, infrequently reported to , size of the rabbits being perhaps limited the poorly-suited soil and environs of the Australian wildlands.