Applied behavior analysis (ABA), also called
behavioral engineering,
[ is a ]psychological intervention
In applied psychology, interventions are actions performed to bring about change in people. A wide range of intervention strategies exist and they are directed towards various types of issues. Most generally, it means any activities used to modif ...
that applies empirical approaches based upon the principles of respondent and operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are c ...
to change behavior of social significance.[See also footnote number "(1)" of nd the whole "What is ABA?" section of Where the same definition is given, (or quoted), and it credits (or mentions) both the source "Baer, Wolf & Risley, 1968" (Drs. Donald Baer, PhD, Montrose Wolf, PHD and Todd R. Risley, PhD, (Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Alaska) were psychologists who developed science of applied behavior analysis) and ianother source, called "Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991". Beth Sulzer-Azaroff is a psychologist at University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Psychology]
It is the applied form of behavior analysis
Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual' ...
; the other two forms are radical behaviorism
Radical behaviorism is a "philosophy of the science of behavior" developed by B. F. Skinner. It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on ...
(or the philosophy of the science) and the experimental analysis of behavior The experimental analysis of behavior is school of thought in psychology founded on B. F. Skinner's philosophy of radical behaviorism and defines the basic principles used in applied behavior analysis. A central principle was the inductive reasoning ...
(or basic experimental research).
The name ''applied behavior analysis'' has replaced behavior modification
Behavior modification is an early approach that used respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior was modified with consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement conti ...
because the latter approach suggested attempting to change behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In contrast, ABA changes behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment. Further, the approach often seeks to develop socially acceptable alternatives for aberrant behaviors.[
Although service delivery providers overwhelmingly specialize in autism treatment,] ABA has also been utilized in a range of other areas,[ including applied animal behavior, schoolwide ]positive behavior support
Positive behavior support (PBS) uses a combination of tools from Applied behaviour Analysis and combines it with the values from the 'normalisation and social role valorisation theory' to focus on improving Quality of life. PBS uses functional an ...
, classroom instruction, structured
Structuring, also known as smurfing in banking jargon, is the practice of executing financial transactions such as making bank deposits in a specific pattern, calculated to avoid triggering financial institutions to file reports required by law ...
and naturalistic early behavioral interventions for autism, pediatric feeding therapy, rehabilitation of brain injury, dementia
Dementia is a disorder which manifests as a set of related symptoms, which usually surfaces when the brain is damaged by injury or disease. The symptoms involve progressive impairments in memory, thinking, and behavior, which negatively affe ...
, fitness training, counseling, substance abuse, phobias
A phobia is an anxiety disorder defined by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias typically result in a rapid onset of fear and are usually present for more than six months. Those affected go to great lengths to avoi ...
, tics
A tic is a sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups.American Psychiatric Association (2000)DSM-IV-TR: Tourette's Disorder.''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', 4th ed., ...
, and organizational behavior management
Organizational behavior management (OBM) is a subdiscipline of applied behavior analysis (ABA), which is the application of behavior analytic principles and contingency management techniques to change behavior in organizational settings. Through ...
.
ABA is controversial, especially within the autism rights movement, partly due to a perception that it emphasizes normality instead of acceptance, and a history of the use of aversives, such as electric shocks.
Definition
ABA is an applied science devoted to developing procedures which will produce observable changes in behavior.[ It is to be distinguished from the ]experimental analysis of behavior The experimental analysis of behavior is school of thought in psychology founded on B. F. Skinner's philosophy of radical behaviorism and defines the basic principles used in applied behavior analysis. A central principle was the inductive reasoning ...
, which focuses on basic experimental research, but it uses principles developed by such research, in particular operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are c ...
and classical conditioning
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a triangle). It also refers to the learni ...
. Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behaviorism
Radical behaviorism is a "philosophy of the science of behavior" developed by B. F. Skinner. It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on ...
, treating thoughts, emotions, and other covert activity as behavior that is subject to the same rules as overt responses. This represents a shift away from methodological behaviorism
Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent (behavioral psychology), antecedent stimuli in the environment, o ...
, which restricts behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior modification
Behavior modification is an early approach that used respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior was modified with consequences, including positive and negative reinforcement conti ...
.
Behavior analysts also emphasize that the science of behavior must be a ''natural'' science as opposed to a ''social'' science. As such, behavior analysts focus on the observable relationship of behavior with the environment, including antecedents and consequences, without resort to "hypothetical constructs".
History
The beginnings of ABA can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and Jack Michael
Jack Michael (January 16, 1926 – November 12, 2020) was an American psychologist and professor at Western Michigan University. He developed one of the first token economies, the concept of motivating operations (MOs), and is a pioneer of what i ...
's study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) that they published in the ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
A journal, from the Old French ''journal'' (meaning "daily"), may refer to:
*Bullet journal, a method of personal organization
*Diary, a record of what happened over the course of a day or other period
*Daybook, also known as a general journal, a ...
'' (JEAB). Ayllon and Michael were training the staff at a psychiatric hospital
Psychiatric hospitals, also known as mental health hospitals, behavioral health hospitals, are hospitals or wards specializing in the treatment of severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, dissociat ...
how to use a token economy
A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers. A token economy is based on the principles of o ...
based on the principles of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are c ...
for patients with schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social wit ...
and intellectual disability
Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability in the United Kingdom and formerly mental retardation, Rosa's Law, Pub. L. 111-256124 Stat. 2643(2010). is a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by signif ...
,[
] which led to researchers at the University of Kansas
The University of Kansas (KU) is a public research university with its main campus in Lawrence, Kansas, United States, and several satellite campuses, research and educational centers, medical centers, and classes across the state of Kansas. T ...
to start the ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
The ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'' (JABA) is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal which publishes empirical research related to applied behavior analysis. It was established in 1968 and is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of t ...
'' (JABA) in 1968.[
][
A group of researchers at the ]University of Washington
The University of Washington (UW, simply Washington, or informally U-Dub) is a public research university in Seattle, Washington.
Founded in 1861, Washington is one of the oldest universities on the West Coast; it was established in Seattle a ...
, including Donald Baer, Sidney W. Bijou, Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, Todd Risley, and Montrose Wolf, applied the principles of behavior analysis to manage the behavior of children and adolescents in juvenile detention centers and organize employees who required proper structure and management in businesses. In 1968, Baer, Bijou, Risley, Birnbrauer, Wolf, and James Sherman joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas
The University of Kansas (KU) is a public research university with its main campus in Lawrence, Kansas, United States, and several satellite campuses, research and educational centers, medical centers, and classes across the state of Kansas. T ...
, where they founded the ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis''.
Notable graduate students from the University of Washington include Robert Wahler, James Sherman, and Ivar Lovaas
Ole Ivar Løvaas (8 May 1927 – 2 August 2010) was a Norwegian-American clinical psychologist and professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is most well known for his research on what is now called applied behavior analysis (A ...
.[ Lovaas established the UCLA Young Autism Project while teaching at the ]University of California, Los Angeles
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California. UCLA's academic roots were established in 1881 as a teachers college then known as the southern branch of the California S ...
. In 1965, Lovaas published a series of articles that described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, and relied on the methods of errorless learning
Errorless learning was an instructional design introduced by psychologist Charles Ferster in the 1950s as part of his studies on what would make the most effective learning environment. B. F. Skinner was also influential in developing the techniqu ...
which was initially used by Charles Ferster
Charles Bohris Ferster (1 November 1922 – 3 February 1981) was an American behavioral psychologist. A pioneer of applied behavior analysis, he developed errorless learning and was a colleague of B.F. Skinner's at Harvard University, co-autho ...
to teach nonverbal children to speak. Lovaas also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life-threatening self-injury.
In 1987, Lovaas published the study, "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children".[ The experimental group in this study received an average of 40 hours per week in a 1:1 teaching setting at a table using errorless discrete trial training (DTT). The treatment is done at home with parents involved, and the curriculum is highly individualized with a heavy emphasis on teaching eye contact, fine and gross motor imitation, and language. The use of aversives and reinforcement were used to motivate learning and reduce non-desired behaviors.][ Early development of the therapy in the 1960s involved use of shocks and the withholding of food.] By the time children were enrolled in this study, such aversives were abandoned, and a loud "no" or a slap to the thigh were used only as a last resort to reduce aggressive and self-stimulatory behaviors. The outcome of this study indicated 47% of the experimental group (9/19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis and were described as indistinguishable from their typical adolescent peers. This included passing education without assistance and making and maintaining friends. These gains were maintained as reported in the 1993 study, "Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment". Lovaas' work went on to be recognized by the US Surgeon General in 1999, and his research were replicated in university and private settings. The "Lovaas Method" went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI).
Over the years, "behavior analysis" gradually superseded "behavior modification"; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand the function of that behavior, what reinforcement histories (i.e., attention seeking, escape, sensory stimulation, etc.) promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior.[ This analysis is based on careful initial assessment of a behavior's function and a testing of methods that produce changes in behavior.
While ABA seems to be intrinsically linked to autism intervention, it is also used in a broad range of other situations. Recent notable areas of research in JABA include autism, classroom instruction with typically developing students, pediatric feeding therapy, and substance-use disorders. Other applications of ABA include applied animal behavior, consumer behavior analysis, ]behavioral medicine Behavioral medicine is concerned with the integration of knowledge in the biological, behavioral, psychological, and social sciences relevant to health and illness. These sciences include epidemiology, anthropology, sociology, psychology, ph ...
, behavioral neuroscience, clinical behavior analysis Clinical Behavior Analysis is one of several ABA subspecialty fact sheets produced by the BACB in partnership with subject matter experts (SMEs).
Clinical behavior analysis (CBA; also called clinical behaviour analysis or third-generation behavior ...
, forensic behavior analysis, increasing job safety and performance, schoolwide positive behavior support
Positive behavior support (PBS) uses a combination of tools from Applied behaviour Analysis and combines it with the values from the 'normalisation and social role valorisation theory' to focus on improving Quality of life. PBS uses functional an ...
, and contact desensitization for phobias.
Characteristics
Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article[ is still used as the standard description of ABA.] It lists the following seven characteristics of ABA.
* Applied: ABA focuses on the social significance of the behavior studied. For example, a non-applied researcher may study eating behavior because this research helps to clarify metabolic processes, whereas the applied researcher may study eating behavior in individuals who eat too little or too much, trying to change such behavior so that it is more acceptable to the persons involved.
* Behavioral: ABA is pragmatic; it asks how it is possible to get an individual to do something effectively. To answer this question, the behavior itself must be objectively measured. Verbal descriptions are treated as behavior in themselves, and not as substitutes for the behavior described.
* Analytic: Behavior analysis is successful when the analyst understands and can manipulate the events that control a target behavior. This may be relatively easy to do in the lab, where a researcher is able to arrange the relevant events, but it is not always easy, or ethical, in an applied situation. Baer et al. outline two methods that may be used in applied settings to demonstrate control while maintaining ethical standards. These are the reversal design and the multiple baseline design. In the reversal design, the experimenter first measures the behavior of choice, introduces an intervention, and then measures the behavior again. Then, the intervention is removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured yet again. The intervention is effective to the extent that the behavior changes and then changes back in response to these manipulations. The multiple baseline method may be used for behaviors that seem irreversible. Here, several behaviors are measured and then the intervention is applied to each in turn. The effectiveness of the intervention is revealed by changes in just the behavior to which the intervention is being applied.
* Technological: The description of analytic research must be clear and detailed, so that any competent researcher can repeat it accurately.[ Cooper et al. describe a good way to check this: Have a person trained in applied behavior analysis read the description and then act out the procedure in detail. If the person makes any mistakes or has to ask any questions then the description needs improvement.][
* Conceptually Systematic: Behavior analysis should not simply produce a list of effective interventions. Rather, to the extent possible, these methods should be grounded in behavioral principles. This is aided by the use of theoretically meaningful terms, such as "secondary reinforcement" or "errorless discrimination" where appropriate.
* Effective: Though analytic methods should be theoretically grounded, they must be effective. If an intervention does not produce a large enough effect for practical use, then the analysis has failed
* Generality: Behavior analysts should aim for interventions that are generally applicable; the methods should work in different environments, apply to more than one specific behavior, and have long-lasting effects.
]
Other proposed characteristics
In 2005, Heward et al. suggested that the following five characteristics should be added:
* Accountable: To be accountable means that ABA must be able to demonstrate that its methods are effective. This requires the repeatedly measuring the effect of interventions (success, failure or no effect at all), and, if necessary, making changes that improve their effectiveness.
* Public: The methods, results, and theoretical analyses of ABA must be published and open to scrutiny. There are no hidden treatments or mystical, metaphysical explanations.
* Doable: To be generally useful, interventions should be available to a variety of individuals, who might be teachers, parents, therapists, or even those who wish to modify their own behavior. With proper planning and training, many interventions can be applied by almost anyone willing to invest the effort.[Heward, 205 p. 322]
* Empowering: ABA provides tools that give the practitioner feedback on the results of interventions. These allow clinicians to assess their skill level and build confidence in their effectiveness.
* Optimistic: According to several leading authors , behavior analysts have cause to be optimistic that their efforts are socially worthwhile, for the following reasons:
** The behaviors impacted by behavior analysis are largely determined by learning and controlled by manipulable aspects of the environment.
** Practitioners can improve performance by direct and continuous measurements.
** As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques with positive outcomes, they become more confident of future success.
** The literature provides many examples of success in teaching individuals considered previously unteachable.
Use in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders
A large majority of ABA practitioners specialise in autism, although BCBA certification does not require any autism training. ABA-based techniques are often used to teach adaptive behaviors or to diminish behaviors associated with autism, so much that ABA itself is often mistakenly considered to be synonymous with therapy for autism.[ According to a paper from 2007, it was considered to be an effective "intervention for challenging behaviors" by the ]American Academy of Pediatrics
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an American professional association of pediatricians, headquartered in Itasca, Illinois. It maintains its Department of Federal Affairs office in Washington, D.C.
Background
The Academy was founded ...
. A 2018 Cochrane review of five studies that compared treatment vs. control showed that ABA may be effective for some autistic children. The effectiveness of ABA treatments for autism may be overall limited by diagnostic severity, age of intervention, and IQ.
Efficacy
2020 onward reviews
Justin B. Leaf and others examined and responded to criticisms of ABA in a 2021 paper.
The results of two studies surveying autistic adults who went through ABA as a child found that a majority perceived ABA to have a detrimental impact on their lives, although in common with most ABA research, the studies had methodological concerns and a risk of bias. Two 2020 reviews found that very few studies directly reported on or investigated possible harms; although a significant number of studies mentioned adverse events in their analysis of why people withdrew from them, there was no effort to monitor or collect data on adverse outcomes.
2010-2019 reviews
In 2011, investigators from Vanderbilt University
Vanderbilt University (informally Vandy or VU) is a private research university in Nashville, Tennessee. Founded in 1873, it was named in honor of shipping and rail magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt, who provided the school its initial $1-million ...
under contract with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ; pronounced "ark" by initiates and often "A-H-R-Q" by the public) is one of twelve agencies within the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The agency is headquartered i ...
performed a comprehensive review of the scientific literature on ABA-based and other therapies for autism spectrum disorders; the ABA-based therapies included the UCLA
The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California. UCLA's academic roots were established in 1881 as a teachers college then known as the southern branch of the California ...
/Lovaas method and the Early Start Denver Model (the latter developed by Sally Rogers and Geraldine Dawson
Geraldine Dawson is an American child clinical psychologist, specializing in autism. She has conducted research on early detection, brain development, and treatment of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and collaborated on studies of genetic risk fa ...
). They concluded that "both approaches were associated with ... improvements in cognitive performance, language skills, and adaptive behavior skills". However, they also concluded that "the strength of evidence ... is low", "many children continue to display prominent areas of impairment", "subgroups may account for a majority of the change", there is "little evidence of practical effectiveness or feasibility beyond research studies", and the published studies "used small samples, different treatment approaches and duration, and different outcome measurements".
A preliminary 2014 study indicated that there might be a publication bias against single-subject research studies that show that ABA is ineffective. Publication bias could lead to exaggerated estimates of intervention effects observed by single-subject studies.
2007-2009 reviews
A 2007 clinical report of the American Academy of Pediatrics
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) is an American professional association of pediatricians, headquartered in Itasca, Illinois. It maintains its Department of Federal Affairs office in Washington, D.C.
Background
The Academy was founded ...
concluded that the benefit of ABA-based interventions in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) "has been well documented" and that "children who receive early intensive behavioral treatment have been shown to make substantial, sustained gains in IQ, language, academic performance, and adaptive behavior
Adaptive behavior is behavior that enables a person (usually used in the context of children) to cope in their environment with greatest success and least conflict with others. This is a term used in the areas of psychology and special education. ...
as well as some measures of social behavior". In 2008, Researchers from the MIND Institute published an evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches. On the basis of "the strength of the findings from the four best-designed, controlled studies", they were of the opinion that one ABA-based approach (the Lovaas technique
Discrete trial training (DTT) is a technique used by practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) that was developed by Ivar Lovaas at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). DTT uses direct instruction and reinforcers to create clea ...
created by Ole Ivar Løvaas) is "well-established" for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD.
A 2009 review of psycho-educational interventions for children with autism whose mean age was six years or less at intake found that five high-quality ("Level 1" or "Level 2") studies assessed ABA-based treatments. On the basis of these and other studies, the author concluded that ABA is "well-established" and is "demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children with autism when treatment is intensive and carried out by trained therapists". However, the review committee also concluded that "there is a great need for more knowledge about which interventions are most effective". A 2009 paper included a descriptive analysis, an effect size analysis, and a meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analyses can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting me ...
of 13 reports published from 1987 to 2007 of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI, a form of ABA-based treatment with origins in the Lovaas technique) for autism. It determined that EIBI's effect sizes were "generally positive" for IQ, adaptive behavior, expressive language, and receptive language. The paper did note limitations of its findings including the lack of published comparisons between EIBI and other "empirically validated treatment programs". In a 2009 systematic review of 11 studies published from 1987 to 2007, the researchers wrote "there is strong evidence that EIBI is effective for some, but not all, children with autism spectrum disorders, and there is wide variability in response to treatment". Furthermore, any improvements are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention.
A 2009 meta-analysis of nine studies published from 1987 to 2007 concluded that EIBI has a "large" effect on full-scale intelligence and a "moderate" effect on adaptive behavior in autistic children. A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis by Spreckley and Boyd of four small-n 2000–2007 studies (involving a total of 76 children) came to different conclusions than the aforementioned reviews. Spreckley and Boyd reported that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior. In a letter to the editor, however, authors of the four studies meta-analyzed claimed that Spreckley and Boyd had misinterpreted one study comparing two forms of ABI with each other as a comparison of ABI with standard care, which erroneously decreased the observed efficacy of ABI. Furthermore, the four studies' authors raised the possibility that Spreckley and Boyd had excluded some other studies unnecessarily, and that including such studies could have led to a more favorable evaluation of ABI. Spreckley, Boyd, and the four studies' authors did agree that large multi-site randomized trial
In science, randomized experiments are the experiments that allow the greatest reliability and validity of statistical estimates of treatment effects. Randomization-based inference is especially important in experimental design and in survey sampl ...
s are needed to improve the understanding of ABA's efficacy in autism.
Criticism
One area of critique has been the "ideological warfare" surrounding ABA and TEACCH
The University of North Carolina TEACCH Autism Program creates and disseminates community-based services, training programs, and research for individuals of all ages and skill levels with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), to enhance the quality of l ...
, despite the philosophies and practices of the two approaches not necessarily being in opposition. The rhetoric surrounding ABA was criticized by The British Institute of Learning Disabilities, including parents and professionals that claim that ABA "cured" their child's autism, like one parent who "claims that ABA had saved her children's lives, likening it to chemotherapy
Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs ( chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemothe ...
as a treatment for cancer."
Researchers have critiqued the leniency of the ABA ethical code, discussing how it does not restrict or clarify the "appropriate use of aversives", does not require competency as ABA therapists are "not required to take even a single class on autism, brain function or child development", and its view of the client as the parent meaning that requiring "client consent" only requires parental consent, not the person receiving services. Similarly, because the parent is seen as the client, the goals that are set under the ethical code are according to the client's needs, which often means that focusing on changing autistic behaviors for the benefit of the parent and not the child is considered ethical. Another criticism of the Lovaas Method is Lovaas's connection with gay conversion therapy
Conversion therapy is the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression to align with heterosexual and cisgender norms. In contrast to evidence-based medicine and clin ...
, using his own behavior modification techniques seen in ABA in ''The Feminine Boy'' project. Similarities in gay conversion therapy to making boys indistinguishable from their heterosexual peers have been drawn with Lovaas' belief that ABA makes "autistic children indistinguishable from their normal friends."
One study revealed extensive undisclosed conflict of interest
A conflict of interest (COI) is a situation in which a person or organization is involved in multiple interests, financial or otherwise, and serving one interest could involve working against another. Typically, this relates to situations i ...
(COI) in published ABA studies. 84% of studies published in top behavioral journals over a period of one year had at least one author with a conflict of interest involving their employment, either as an ABA clinical provider or a training consultant to ABA clinical providers. However, only 2% of these studies disclosed the COI.
Some bioethicists
Bioethics is both a field of study and professional practice, interested in ethical issues related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes animal ethics), including those emerging from advances in biology, med ...
argue that employing ABA violates the principles of justice and nonmaleficence and infringes on the autonomy of autistic children, and their parents as well.
Another concern is that ABA research only measures behavior as a means of success, which has led to a lack of qualitative research about autistic experiences of ABA, a lack of research examining the internal effects of ABA and a lack of research for autistic children who are non-speaking or have comorbid intellectual disabilities (which is concerning considering this is one of the major populations that intensive ABA focuses on). Research is also lacking about whether ABA is effective long-term and very little longitudinal outcomes have been studied.
Views of Autistic community
The value of eliminating autistic behaviors is disputed by proponents of neurodiversity
Neurodiversity refers to diversity in the human brain and cognition, for instance in sociability, learning, attention, mood and other mental functions.
It was coined in 1998 by sociologist Judy Singer, who helped popularize the concept ...
, who claim that it forces autistic people to mask
A mask is an object normally worn on the face, typically for protection, disguise, performance, or entertainment and often they have been employed for rituals and rights. Masks have been used since antiquity for both ceremonial and pra ...
their true personalities on behalf of a narrow conception of normality. Masking is associated with suicidality and poor long-term mental health. Autism advocates contend that it is cruel to try to make autistic people "normal" without consideration for how this may affect their well-being. Instead, these critics advocate for increased social acceptance of harmless autistic traits and therapies focused on improving quality of life.
A 2020 study examined perspectives of autistic adults that received ABA as children and found that the overwhelming majority reported that "behaviorist methods create painful lived experiences", that ABA led to the "erosion of the true actualizing self", and that they felt they had a "lack of self-agency within interpersonal experiences."
Use of aversives
Some embodiments of applied behavior analysis as devised by Ole Ivar Lovaas
Ole Ivar Løvaas (8 May 1927 – 2 August 2010) was a Norwegian-American clinical psychologist and professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is most well known for his research on what is now called applied behavior analysi ...
used aversives such as electric shocks to modify undesirable behavior in their initial use in the 1970s, as well as slapping and shouting in a 1987 study. Over time the use of aversives lessened and in 2012 their use was described as being inconsistent with contemporary practice.[ ] However, aversives have continued to be used in some ABA programs. In comments made in 2014 to the US Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respon ...
(FDA), a clinician who previously worked at the Judge Rotenberg Educational Center
The Judge Rotenberg Center (founded in 1971 as the Behavior Research Institute) is an institution in Canton, Massachusetts, United States, for people with developmental disabilities, emotional disorders, and autistic-like behaviors. The center ...
claimed that "all textbooks used for thorough training of applied behavior analysts include an overview of the principles of punishment, including the use of electrical stimulation."
In 2010, the UN's Special Rapporteur on Torture described the Judge Rotenberg Center's use of electrical shocks on children as torture. In 2020, the FDA banned the use of electrical stimulation devices used for self-injurious or aggressive behavior and asserted that "Evidence indicates a number of significant psychological and physical risks are associated with the use of these devices, including worsening of underlying symptoms, depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, pain, burns and tissue damage." In the same year, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit overturned the ban, ruling that the FDA "has no authority to choose what medical devices a practitioner should prescribe or administer or for which conditions" and the school announced that it would resume the use of electrical shocks.
Concepts
Behavior
''Behavior'' refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. Often, the term ''behavior'' refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a ''response'' is a single instance of that behavior.[ If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called a response class. ''Repertoire'' refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do.
]
Operant conditioning
Operant behavior is the so-called "voluntary" behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, ''operant conditioning'' refers to the three-term contingency
The three-term contingency (also known as the ABC contingency) in operant conditioning—or contingency management—describes the relationship between a behavior, its consequence, and the environmental context. The three-term contingency was first ...
that uses stimulus control, in particular an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stimulus (SD) that influences the strengthening or weakening of behavior through such consequences as reinforcement
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher freq ...
or punishment. The term is used quite generally, from reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to escape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good grades.
Respondent (classical) conditioning
Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on innate stimulus-response relationships called reflexes. In his famous experiments with dogs, Pavlov usually used the salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the dog to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response does not ''produce'' a reinforcer or punisher (e.g. the dog does not get food ''because'' it salivates).
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and in most behavior change programs. It is the process by which behavior is strengthened. If a behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior, then the stimulus is a positive reinforcer. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement. There are multiple schedules of reinforcement
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement is a consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus. This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher fr ...
that affect the future probability of behavior.
Punishment
Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the ''be ...
) or removed (negative punishment
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the ''b ...
). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g. pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out'). Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it.
Extinction
''Extinction'' is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability—the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures.
Discriminated operant and three-term contingency
In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S–R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. This antecedent–behavior–consequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (SD). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control. More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event", "Establishing Operations", and "Motivating Operations" by various researchers in their publications.
Verbal behavior
B. F. Skinner's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner's system includes:
* Tact
Tact or TACT may refer to:
* The sense of touch – see somatosensory system
* Tact (psychology), a term used by B. F. Skinner for a type of verbal operant
* The Actors Company Theatre (TACT)
* Actors Orphanage, formerly The Actors' Charitable Tru ...
– a verbal response evoked by a non-verbal antecedent and maintained by generalized conditioned reinforcement.
* Mand – behavior under control of motivating operations maintained by a characteristic reinforcer.
* Intraverbals – verbal behavior for which the relevant antecedent stimulus was other verbal behavior, but which does not share the response topography of that prior verbal stimulus (e.g., responding to another speaker's question).
* Autoclitic – secondary verbal behavior which alters the effect of primary verbal behavior on the listener. Examples involve quantification, grammar, and qualifying statements (e.g., the differential effects of "I think..." vs. "I know...")
Skinner's use of behavioral techniques was famously critiqued by the linguist Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American public intellectual: a linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is ...
through an extensive breakdown of how Skinner's view of language as behavioral simply can't explain the complexity of human language. This suggests that while behaviorist techniques can teach language, it is a very poor measure to explain language fundamentals. Considering Chomsky's critiques, it may be more appropriate to teach language through a Speech language pathologist
Speech is a human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are th ...
instead of a behaviorist.
For an assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner's system, see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills.
Measuring behavior
When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus.
Repeatability
Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs.
* Count is the number of occurrences in behavior.
* Rate/frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time.
* Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time.
Temporal extent
This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior occupies some amount of time—i.e., how long the behavior occurs.
* Duration is the period of time over which the behavior occurs.
Temporal locus
Each instance of behavior occurs at a specific point in time—i.e., when the behavior occurs.
* Response latency is the measure of elapsed time between the onset of a stimulus and the initiation of the response.
* Interresponse time is the amount of time that occurs between two consecutive instances of a response class.
Derivative measures
Derivative measures are unrelated to specific dimensions:
* Percentage is the ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities.
* Trials-to-criterion are the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance.
Applied behavior analysis is a goal discipline and spotlights on the dependable measurement and objective assessment of noticeable way of behaving. Without measuring behavior and assessing the information, behavior analysts wouldn't know whether to change the program we are chipping away at, when to switch or add new targets or when to change strategies to gain more noteworthy progress.
Behavior Analysts utilize a few distinct techniques to gather information. A portion of the ways of collect data information include:
Frequency
This technique refers to the times that an objective way of behaving was noticed and counted.
Rate
Same as frequency, yet inside a predefined time limit.
Duration
This estimation alludes to how much time that somebody participated in a way of behaving.
Fluency
This estimation refers to how rapidly a student can give reactions inside a timeframe.
Response latency
Latency refers to how much time after a particular boost has been given before the objective way of behaving happens.
Analyzing behavior change
Experimental control
In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following:
* At least one participant
* At least one behavior (dependent variable)
* At least one setting
* A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data
* At least one treatment or intervention condition
* Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable may be quantitatively or qualitatively analyzed
* An intervention that will benefit the participant in some way
Methodologies developed through ABA research
Task analysis
Task analysis
Task analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished, including a detailed description of both manual and mental activities, task and element durations, task frequency, task allocation, task complexity, environmental conditions, necessary cl ...
is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught through the use of chaining: forward chaining
Forward chaining (or forward reasoning) is one of the two main methods of reasoning when using an inference engine and can be described logically as repeated application of ''modus ponens''. Forward chaining is a popular implementation strategy ...
, backward chaining and total task presentation. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals). Behavioral scripts often emerge from a task analysis. Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills. A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. Ivey would later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the Direct Instruction curriculum.
Chaining
The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc.
For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as dialectical behavior therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis, but is not philosophically behavior analytic.
There are two types of chain in the ABA world: forward chain and backward chain. Forward chain is when you start with the first step and continue until you get to the final step. While backward chain is when you start with the last step and move backward until you reach the first step.
Prompting
A prompt
Prompt may refer to:
Computing
* Command prompt, characters indicating the computer is ready to accept input
* Command Prompt, also known as cmd.exe or cmd, the command-line interpreter in some operating systems
* Prompt (natural language), instr ...
is a cue that is used to encourage a desired response from an individual. Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). In order to minimize errors and ensure a high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically. During this process, prompts are faded as quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting.
Types of prompts
Prompters might use any or all of the following to suggest the desired response:
* Vocal prompts: Words or other vocalizations
* Visual prompts: A visual cue or picture
* Gestural prompts: A physical gesture
* Positional prompt: e.g., the target item is placed close to the individual.
* Modeling: Modeling the desired response. This type of prompt is best suited for individuals who learn through imitation and can attend to a model.
* Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the individual to produce the desired response. There are many degrees of physical prompts, from quite intrusive (e.g. the teacher places a hand on the learner's hand) to minimally intrusive (e.g. a slight tap).
This is not an exhaustive list of prompts; the nature, number, and order of prompts are chosen to be the most effective for a particular individual.
Fading
The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill.
One of the primary choices that was made while showing another way of behaving is the manner by which to fade the prompts or prompts. An arrangement should be set up to fade the prompts in an organized style. For instance, blurring the actual brief of directing a kid's hands might follow this succession: (a) supporting wrists, (b) contacting hands softly, (c) contacting lower arm or elbow, and (d) pulling out actual contact through and through. Fading guarantees that the kid doesn't turn out to be excessively subject to a specific brief while mastering another expertise.
Thinning a reinforcement schedule
Thinning is often confused with fading. ''Fading'' refers to a prompt being removed, where ''thinning'' refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. Periodic thinning that produces a 30% decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management
Contingency management (CM) is the application of the three-term contingency (or operant conditioning), which uses stimulus control and consequences to change behavior. CM originally derived from the science of applied behavior analysis (ABA), bu ...
and token economy
A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers. A token economy is based on the principles of o ...
systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis
The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interven ...
).
Generalization
Generalization is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or school and ''generalize'' the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization.
Shaping
Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then they could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which they touch the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning, also called instrumental conditioning, is a learning process where behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment. In it, operants—behaviors that affect one's environment—are c ...
principles and extinction
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
. Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks.
One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.
Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power g ...
responses, in some cases for long chains
A chain is a serial assembly of connected pieces, called links, typically made of metal, with an overall character similar to that of a rope in that it is flexible and curved in compression but linear, rigid, and load-bearing in tension. A c ...
of behavior.
Another example of shaping is when a toddler learns to walk. The child is reinforced by crawling, standing, taking a few steps, and then eventually walking. When a child is learning to walk, they are praised by a lot of claps and excitements.
Interventions based on an FBA
Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is an individualized critical thinking process for tending to address problem behavior. An evaluation is led to distinguish the reason or capability of a problem behavior. This evaluation interaction includes gathering data about the ecological circumstances that go before the issue conduct and the resulting rewards that reinforce the way of behaving. The data that is collected is then used to recognize and execute individualized interventions pointed toward lessening issue ways of behaving and expanding positive ways of behaving.
Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core. This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of change
Theory of Change (ToC) is a methodology or a criteria for planning, participation, adaptive management, and evaluation that is used in companies, philanthropy, not-for-profit, international development, research, and government sectors to promo ...
(see Behavioral change theories
Behavioural change theories are attempts to explain why human behaviours change. These theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural characteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been increas ...
). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain) and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule-governed behavior. Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies.
Major journals
Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals. Some examples of "core" behavior analytic journals are:
# ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
The ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'' (JABA) is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal which publishes empirical research related to applied behavior analysis. It was established in 1968 and is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of t ...
''
# ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
A journal, from the Old French ''journal'' (meaning "daily"), may refer to:
*Bullet journal, a method of personal organization
*Diary, a record of what happened over the course of a day or other period
*Daybook, also known as a general journal, a ...
''
# ''Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice''
# ''The Behavior Analyst Today''
# ''Perspectives on Behavior Science
''Perspectives on Behavior Science'' is a semiannual peer-reviewed scientific journal covering behavior analysis. It was established in 1978 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of the Association for Behavior Analysis Int ...
'' (formerly ''The Behavior Analyst
''Perspectives on Behavior Science'' is a semiannual peer-reviewed scientific journal covering behavior analysis. It was established in 1978 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media on behalf of the Association for Behavior Analysis Inte ...
'' until 2018)
# '' The Psychological Record''
# ''The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis''
# ''Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Interventions''
# ''The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy''
# ''The Journal of Behavioral Assessment and Intervention in Children''
# ''The Behavioral Development Bulletin''
# ''Behavior and Social Issues''
# ''Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports, Health, Fitness, and Behavioral Medicine''
# ''Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim: Treatment and Prevention''
# ''Behavioral Health and Medicine''
# ''Applied Animal Behaviour Science''
# ''Behavior Therapy''
# ''Behavior and Philosophy''
See also
* Association for Behavior Analysis International
The Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting behavior analysis. The organization has over 9,000 members. The group organizes conferences and publishes journals on the topic of appl ...
* Autism rights movement
* Behavior analysis of child development The behavioral analysis of child development originates from John B. Watson's behaviorism.
History
In 1948, Sidney Bijou took a position as associate professor of psychology at the University of Washington and served as director of the university ...
* Behavior therapy
Behaviour therapy or behavioural psychotherapy is a broad term referring to clinical psychotherapy that uses techniques derived from behaviourism and/or cognitive psychology. It looks at specific, learned behaviours and how the environment, or ...
* Behavioral activation
Behavioral activation (BA) is a third generation behavior therapy for treating depression. It is one form of functional analytic psychotherapy, which is based on a Skinnerian psychological model of behavior change, generally referred to as app ...
* Conversion therapy
Conversion therapy is the pseudoscientific practice of attempting to change an individual's sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression to align with heterosexual and cisgender norms. In contrast to evidence-based medicine and cl ...
* Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences i ...
* Parent management training
Parent management training (PMT), also known as behavioral parent training (BPT) or simply parent training, is a family of treatment programs that aims to change parenting behaviors, teaching parents positive reinforcement methods for improving pre ...
* Professional practice of behavior analysis
The professional practice of behavior analysis is a domain of behavior analysis, the others being radical behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. The practice of behavior analysis is the delivery of interven ...
References
Sources
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Further reading
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*
External links
Applied Behavior Analysis: Overview and Summary of Scientific Support
Functional Behavioral Assessment, The IRIS Center - U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs Grant and Vanderbilt University
{{authority control
Behavior analysis
Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and animals. It assumes that behavior is either a reflex evoked by the pairing of certain antecedent stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual' ...
Behavior
Behavior modification
Behavioral concepts
Behaviorism
Life coaching
Industrial and organizational psychology
Personal development