Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative
history of Christianity
The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christian countries, and the Christians with their various denominations, from the 1st century to the present. Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teach ...
from the start of the
ministry of Jesus
The ministry of Jesus, in the canonical gospels, begins with his baptism in the countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the River Jordan by John the Baptist, and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples.''Chri ...
(–29 AD) to the death of the last of the
Twelve Apostles
In Christian theology and ecclesiology, the apostles, particularly the Twelve Apostles (also known as the Twelve Disciples or simply the Twelve), were the primary disciples of Jesus according to the New Testament. During the life and minist ...
() and is thus also known as the Apostolic Age.
Early Christianity
Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish ...
developed out of the
eschatological
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...
ministry of
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
Second Temple period
The Second Temple period in Jewish history lasted approximately 600 years (516 BCE - 70 CE), during which the Second Temple existed. It started with the return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple, while it ended with the First Jewis ...
of the 1st century. Initially believing that
Jesus' resurrection
The resurrection of Jesus ( grc-x-biblical, ἀνάστασις τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) is the Christian belief that God raised Jesus on the third day after his crucifixion, starting – or restoring – his exalted life as Christ and Lord. ...
was the start of the end time, their beliefs soon changed in the expected
Second Coming
The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messi ...
of Jesus and the start of
God's Kingdom
The concept of the kingship of God appears in all Abrahamic religions, where in some cases the terms Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven are also used. The notion of God's kingship goes back to the Hebrew Bible, which refers to "his kingdom" b ...
at a later point in time.
Paul the Apostle
Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
, a Pharisee Jew who had persecuted the
early Jewish Christians
Early may refer to:
History
* The beginning or oldest part of a defined historical period, as opposed to middle or late periods, e.g.:
** Early Christianity
** Early modern Europe
Places in the United States
* Early, Iowa
* Early, Texas
* Early ...
, converted –36 and started to proselytize among the
Gentiles
Gentile () is a word that usually means "someone who is not a Jew". Other groups that claim Israelite heritage, notably Mormons, sometimes use the term ''gentile'' to describe outsiders. More rarely, the term is generally used as a synonym for ...
. According to Paul, Gentile converts could be allowed exemption from Jewish commandments, arguing that all are justified by their faith in Jesus. This was part of a gradual
split of early Christianity and Judaism
Jewish Christians ( he, יהודים נוצרים, yehudim notzrim) were the followers of a Jewish religious sect that emerged in Judea during the late Second Temple period (first century AD). The Nazarene Jews integrated the belief of Jesus a ...
, as Christianity became a distinct religion including predominantly Gentile adherence.
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
had an early Christian community, which was led by
James the Just
James the Just, or a variation of James, brother of the Lord ( la, Iacobus from he, יעקב, and grc-gre, Ἰάκωβος, , can also be Anglicized as "Jacob"), was "a brother of Jesus", according to the New Testament. He was an early lead ...
,
Peter
Peter may refer to:
People
* List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
* Peter (given name)
** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church
* Peter (surname), a sur ...
, and
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
. According to Acts 11:26,
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
was where the followers were first called Christians. Peter was later
martyr
A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an externa ...
ed in Rome, the capital of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
Gospel
Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words an ...
around the classical world and founded
apostolic see
An apostolic see is an episcopal see whose foundation is attributed to one or more of the apostles of Jesus or to one of their close associates. In Catholicism the phrase, preceded by the definite article and usually capitalized, refers to the S ...
s around the
early centers of Christianity
Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish ...
. The last apostle to die was John in .
Etymology
Early
Jewish Christians
Jewish Christians ( he, יהודים נוצרים, yehudim notzrim) were the followers of a Jewish religious sect that emerged in Judea during the late Second Temple period (first century AD). The Nazarene Jews integrated the belief of Jesus ...
referred to themselves as "The Way" (), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3, "prepare the way of the Lord."Larry Hurtado (August 17, 2017) ''"Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle"'' /ref>''Sect of “The Way”, “The Nazarenes” & “Christians” : Names given to the Early Church'' /ref> Since, the former was actually a quote of John the Baptizer about Yeshua, Jesus, more likely it connected to Yeshua's (Jesus') own words, declaring Himself the following, saying, "I am the WAY, the Truth, and the Life no one comes to the Father but by Me." (John 14:6) Other Jews also called them "the Nazarenes," while another Jewish-Christian sect called themselves "
Ebionites
Ebionites ( grc-gre, Ἐβιωναῖοι, ''Ebionaioi'', derived from Hebrew (or ) ''ebyonim'', ''ebionim'', meaning 'the poor' or 'poor ones') as a term refers to a Jewish Christian sect, which viewed poverty as a blessing, that existed during ...
" (lit. "the poor"). According to Acts 11:26, the term "Christian" () was first used in reference to Jesus's disciples in the city of
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
, meaning "followers of Christ," by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" () was by
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch (; Greek: Ἰγνάτιος Ἀντιοχείας, ''Ignátios Antiokheías''; died c. 108/140 AD), also known as Ignatius Theophorus (, ''Ignátios ho Theophóros'', lit. "the God-bearing"), was an early Christian writer ...
, in around 100 AD.
Origins
Jewish–Hellenistic background
The earliest followers of
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
Jewish Christians
Jewish Christians ( he, יהודים נוצרים, yehudim notzrim) were the followers of a Jewish religious sect that emerged in Judea during the late Second Temple period (first century AD). The Nazarene Jews integrated the belief of Jesus ...
within the realm of
Second Temple Judaism
Second Temple Judaism refers to the Jewish religion as it developed during the Second Temple period, which began with the construction of the Second Temple around 516 BCE and ended with the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.
The Second Temple pe ...
. The early Christian groups were strictly Jewish, such as the
Ebionites
Ebionites ( grc-gre, Ἐβιωναῖοι, ''Ebionaioi'', derived from Hebrew (or ) ''ebyonim'', ''ebionim'', meaning 'the poor' or 'poor ones') as a term refers to a Jewish Christian sect, which viewed poverty as a blessing, that existed during ...
, and the early Christian community in
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, led by James the Just, brother of Jesus. Christianity "emerged as a sect of Judaism in Roman Palestine" in the syncretistic Hellenistic world of the first century AD, which was dominated by Roman law and Greek culture.
Hellenistic culture
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
had a profound impact on the customs and practices of Jews everywhere. The inroads into Judaism gave rise to Hellenistic Judaism in the Jewish diaspora which sought to establish a Hebraic-Jewish religious tradition within the culture and language of Hellenism. Hellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic Egypt from the 3rd century BC, and became a notable ''
religio licita
''Religio licita'' ("permitted religion", also translated as "approved religion") is a phrase used in the '' Apologeticum'' of Tertullian to describe the special status of the Jews in the Roman Empire. It was not an official term in Roman law.
Alt ...
'' after the
Roman conquest of Greece
Greece in the Roman era describes the Roman conquest of Greece, as well as the period of Greek history when Greece was dominated first by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire.
The Roman era of Greek history began with the Corinthian ...
,
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
,
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
,
Judea
Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...
, and
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
.
During the early first century AD there were many competing Jewish sects in the
Holy Land
The Holy Land; Arabic: or is an area roughly located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River, traditionally synonymous both with the biblical Land of Israel and with the region of Palestine. The term "Holy ...
, and those that became
Rabbinic Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism ( he, יהדות רבנית, Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian ...
and
Proto-orthodox Christianity
The term proto-orthodox Christianity or proto-orthodoxy is often erroneously thought to have been coined by New Testament scholar Bart D. Ehrman, who borrowed it from Bentley Layton (a major scholar of Gnosticism and Coptologist at Yale), and des ...
were but two of these. Philosophical schools included
Pharisees
The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
,
Sadducees
The Sadducees (; he, צְדוּקִים, Ṣədūqīm) were a socio-religious sect of Jewish people who were active in Judea during the Second Temple period, from the second century BCE through the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Th ...
, and
Zealots
The Zealots were a political movement in 1st-century Second Temple Judaism which sought to incite the people of Judea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the Holy Land by force of arms, most notably during the First Jew ...
, but also other less influential sects, including the
Essenes
The Essenes (; Hebrew: , ''Isiyim''; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st c ...
. The first century BC and first century AD saw a growing number of charismatic religious leaders contributing to what would become the
Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Torah ...
of
Rabbinic Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism ( he, יהדות רבנית, Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian ...
; and the
ministry of Jesus
The ministry of Jesus, in the canonical gospels, begins with his baptism in the countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the River Jordan by John the Baptist, and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples.''Chri ...
Jews as the chosen people
In Judaism, the concept of the Jews as the chosen people ( he, הָעָם הַנִבְחַר ''ha-ʿam ha-nivḥar , IPA: haʕam hanivħar'') is the belief that the Jews, via descent from the ancient Israelites, are the chosen people, i.e. select ...
of God. Many Jews believed that this covenant would be renewed with the coming of the Messiah. Jews believed the Law was given by God to guide them in their worship of the Lord and in their interactions with each other, "the greatest gift God had given his people."
The
Jewish messiah
The Messiah in Judaism () is a savior and liberator figure in Jewish eschatology, who is believed to be the future redeemer of the Jewish people. The concept of messianism originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible a messiah is a king or Hig ...
concept has its root in the
apocalyptic literature
Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post- Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. '' Apocalypse'' ( grc, , }) is a Greek word meaning "revelation", "an unveiling or unf ...
of the 2nd century BC to 1st century BC, promising a future leader or
king
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
from the
Davidic line
The Davidic line or House of David () refers to the lineage of the Israelite king David through texts in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and through the succeeding centuries.
According to the Bible, David, of the Tribe of Judah, was the t ...
who is expected to be anointed with
holy anointing oil
The holy anointing oil ( he, שמן המשחה, , "oil of anointing") formed an integral part of the ordination of the priesthood and the High Priest as well as in the consecration of the articles of the Tabernacle (Exodus 30:26) and subsequent ...
and rule the Jewish people during the
Messianic Age
In Abrahamic religions, the Messianic Age is the future period of time on Earth in which the messiah will reign and bring universal peace and brotherhood, without any evil. Many believe that there will be such an age; some refer to it as the consu ...
and
world to come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or par ...
. The Messiah is often referred to as "King Messiah" ( he, מלך משיח, translit=melekh mashiach) or ''malka meshiḥa'' in Aramaic.
Life and ministry of Jesus
Sources
Christian sources, such as the four
canonical gospels
Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words an ...
, the
Pauline epistles
The Pauline epistles, also known as Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extan ...
, and the
New Testament apocrypha
The New Testament apocrypha (singular apocryphon) are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. Some of these writings were cit ...
, include detailed stories about Jesus, but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the Biblical accounts of Jesus. The only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of J ...
. States that baptism and crucifixion are "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent". The Gospels are theological documents, which "provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked." They consist of short passages, ''
pericope
A pericope (; Greek , "a cutting-out") in rhetoric is a set of verses that forms one coherent unit or thought, suitable for public reading from a text, now usually of sacred scripture. Also can be used as a way to identify certain themes in a cha ...
s'', which the Gospel-authors arranged in various ways as suited their aims.
Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as
Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for ''The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly d ...
, and Roman sources such as
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline epistles and the
Synoptic Gospels
The gospels of Gospel of Matthew, Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Mark, and Gospel of Luke, Luke are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes identical ...
. These sources are usually independent of each other (e.g. Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process.
Historical person
There is widespread disagreement among scholars on the details of the life of Jesus mentioned in the gospel narratives, and on the meaning of his teachings. Scholars often draw a distinction between the Jesus of history and the
Christ of faith
In Christianity, Christology (from the Greek grc, Χριστός, Khristós, label=none and grc, -λογία, -logia, label=none), translated literally from Greek as "the study of Christ", is a branch of theology that concerns Jesus. Diffe ...
, and two different accounts can be found in this regard.
Critical scholarship has discounted most of the narratives about Jesus as
legend
A legend is a Folklore genre, genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived, both by teller and listeners, to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human valu ...
ary, and the mainstream historical view is that while the gospels include many legendary elements, these are religious elaborations added to the accounts of a historical Jesus who was crucified under the Roman prefect
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of J ...
in the 1st-century Roman province of
Judea
Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...
. His remaining disciples later believed that he was resurrected.Ehrman, ''The Triumph of Christianity: How a Forbidden religion swept the World''
Academic scholars have constructed a variety of portraits and profiles for Jesus. Contemporary scholarship places Jesus firmly in the Jewish tradition,Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition) and the most prominent understanding of Jesus is as a Jewish apocalyptic prophet or eschatological teacher. Other portraits are the charismatic healer, the Cynic philosopher, the Jewish Messiah, and the prophet of social change.
Ministry and eschatological expectations
In the
canonical gospels
Gospel originally meant the Christian message ("the gospel"), but in the 2nd century it came to be used also for the books in which the message was set out. In this sense a gospel can be defined as a loose-knit, episodic narrative of the words an ...
, the ministry of Jesus begins with his baptism in the countryside of
Roman Judea
Judaea ( la, Iudaea ; grc, Ἰουδαία, translit=Ioudaíā ) was a Roman province which incorporated the regions of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea from 6 CE, extending over parts of the former regions of the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms of ...
and
Transjordan Transjordan may refer to:
* Transjordan (region), an area to the east of the Jordan River
* Oultrejordain, a Crusader lordship (1118–1187), also called Transjordan
* Emirate of Transjordan, British protectorate (1921–1946)
* Hashemite Kingdom of ...
, near the
Jordan River
The Jordan River or River Jordan ( ar, نَهْر الْأُرْدُنّ, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn'', he, נְהַר הַיַּרְדֵּן, ''Nəhar hayYardēn''; syc, ܢܗܪܐ ܕܝܘܪܕܢܢ ''Nahrāʾ Yurdnan''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Shariea ...
, and ends in
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, following the
Last Supper
Image:The Last Supper - Leonardo Da Vinci - High Resolution 32x16.jpg, 400px, alt=''The Last Supper'' by Leonardo da Vinci - Clickable Image, Depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art have been undertaken by artistic masters for centuries, ...
Gospel of Luke
The Gospel of Luke), or simply Luke (which is also its most common form of abbreviation). tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ. Together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volu ...
() states that
Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his
ministry
Ministry may refer to:
Government
* Ministry (collective executive), the complete body of government ministers under the leadership of a prime minister
* Ministry (government department), a department of a government
Religion
* Christian ...
Andreas J. Köstenberger
Andreas Johannes Köstenberger (born November 2, 1957), usually cited as Andreas J. Köstenberger, is Research Professor at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Until 2018 he was Senior Research Professor of New Testament and Biblical Theolog ...
, L. Scott Kellum 2009 p. 140.
Paul L. Maier
Paul L. Maier (born May 31, 1930) is a historian and novelist. He has written several works of scholarly and popular non-fiction about Christianity and novels about Christian historians. He is the former Russell H. Seibert Professor of Ancient H ...
"The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 pp. 113–29 A
chronology of Jesus
A chronology of Jesus aims to establish a timeline for the events of the life of Jesus. Scholars have correlated Jewish and Greco-Roman documents and astronomical calendars with the New Testament accounts to estimate dates for the major events i ...
typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at around AD 27–29 and the end in the range AD 30–36.
In the
Synoptic Gospels
The gospels of Gospel of Matthew, Matthew, Gospel of Mark, Mark, and Gospel of Luke, Luke are referred to as the synoptic Gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in a similar sequence and in similar or sometimes identical ...
(Matthew, Mark and Luke),
Jewish eschatology
Jewish eschatology is the area of Jewish theology concerned with events that will happen in the end of days and related concepts. This includes the ingathering of the exiled diaspora, the coming of a Jewish Messiah, afterlife, and the rev ...
stands central. After being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus teaches extensively for a year, or maybe just a few months, about the coming
Kingdom of God
The concept of the kingship of God appears in all Abrahamic religions, where in some cases the terms Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven are also used. The notion of God's kingship goes back to the Hebrew Bible, which refers to "his kingdom" b ...
(or, in Matthew, the
Kingdom of Heaven
Kingdom of Heaven may refer to:
Religious
* Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew)
**Kingship and kingdom of God, or simply Kingdom of God, the phrase used in the other gospels
* Kingdom of Heaven (Daviesite), a schismatic sect, founded by Will ...
), in
aphorism
An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...
s and
parable
A parable is a succinct, didactic story, in prose or verse, that illustrates one or more instructive lessons or principles. It differs from a fable in that fables employ animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature as characters, w ...
s, using
simile
A simile () is a figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes differ from other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison words such as "like", "as", "so", or "than", while other metaphors cr ...
s and
figures of speech
A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from ordinary language use in order to produce a rhetorical effect. Figures of speech are traditionally classified into '' schemes,'' which vary the ordinary ...
.
In the Gospel of John, Jesus himself is the main subject.
The Synoptics present different views on the Kingdom of God. While the Kingdom is essentially described as
eschatological
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...
(relating to the end of the world), becoming reality in the near future, some texts present the Kingdom as already being present, while other texts depict the Kingdom as a place in heaven that one enters after death, or as the presence of God on earth.. Jesus talks as expecting the coming of the " Son of Man" from heaven, an apocalyptic figure who would initiate "the coming judgment and the redemption of Israel." According to Davies, the
Sermon on the Mount
The Sermon on the Mount (anglicized from the Matthean Vulgate Latin section title: ) is a collection of sayings attributed to Jesus of Nazareth found in the Gospel of Matthew (chapters 5, 6, and 7). that emphasizes his moral teachings. It is ...
presents Jesus as the new Moses who brings a New Law (a reference to the
Law of Moses
The Law of Moses ( he, תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה ), also called the Mosaic Law, primarily refers to the Torah or the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The law revealed to Moses by God.
Terminology
The Law of Moses or Torah of Moses (Hebrew ...
, the Messianic Torah.
Death and resurrection
Jesus' life was ended by his execution by crucifixion. His early followers believed that three days after his death, Jesus rose bodily from the dead. Paul's letters and the Gospels contain reports of a number of post-resurrection appearances. Progressively, Jewish scriptures were reexamined in light of Jesus's teachings to explain the crucifixion and visionary post-mortem experiences of Jesus, and the resurrection of Jesus "signalled for earliest believers that the days of eschatological fulfilment were at hand."Larry Hurtado (December 4, 2018) {{"'When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation{{'" /ref> Some New Testament accounts were understood not as mere visionary experiences, but rather as real appearances in which those present are told to touch and see.
The resurrection of Jesus gave the impetus in certain Christian sects to the
exaltation of Jesus
The resurrection of Jesus ( grc-x-biblical, ἀνάστασις τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) is the Christian belief that God raised Jesus on the third day after his crucifixion, starting – or restoring – his exalted life as Christ and Lord ...
to the status of divine Son and Lord of
God's Kingdom
The concept of the kingship of God appears in all Abrahamic religions, where in some cases the terms Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven are also used. The notion of God's kingship goes back to the Hebrew Bible, which refers to "his kingdom" b ...
{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, pp=109–10 and the resumption of their missionary activity. His followers expected Jesus to return within a generation and begin the Kingdom of God.{{r, group=web, "EB.Sanders.Pelikan.Jesus"
Apostolic Age
{{Main, Acts of the Apostles, Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
Traditionally, the period from the death of Jesus until the death of the last of the
Twelve Apostles
In Christian theology and ecclesiology, the apostles, particularly the Twelve Apostles (also known as the Twelve Disciples or simply the Twelve), were the primary disciples of Jesus according to the New Testament. During the life and minist ...
is called the Apostolic Age, after the missionary activities of the apostles.{{sfn, Franzen, 1988, p=20 According to the
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
Pentecost
Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 50th day (the seventh Sunday) after Easter Sunday. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles in the Ne ...
with some 120 believers, in an "upper room," believed by some to be the
Cenacle
The Cenacle (from the Latin , "dining room"), also known as the Upper Room (from the Koine Greek and , both meaning "upper room"), is a room in Mount Zion in Jerusalem, just outside the Old City walls, traditionally held to be the site of th ...
, where the apostles received the
Holy Spirit
In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is the divine force, quality, and influence of God over the Universe or over his creatures. In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as ...
and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.{{sfn, Vidmar, 2005, pp=19–20Schreck, ''The Essential Catholic Catechism'' (1999), p. 130
The New Testament writings depict what orthodox Christian churches call the
Great Commission
In Christianity, the Great Commission is the instruction of the resurrected Jesus Christ to his disciples to spread the gospel to all the nations of the world. The Great Commission is outlined in Matthew 28:16– 20, where on a mountain i ...
nation
A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collective identity of a group of people understood as defined by those ...
s of the world. The most famous version of the Great Commission is in
Matthew 28
Matthew 28 is the twenty-eighth and final chapter of the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament. This chapter records that Jesus is risen, describes the actions of the first witnesses to this event, and ends with the Great Commission.
Text
The ...
({{bibleref2, Matthew, 28:16–20), where on a mountain in
Galilee
Galilee (; he, הַגָּלִיל, hagGālīl; ar, الجليل, al-jalīl) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon. Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Galil ...
Jesus calls on his followers to make disciples of and
baptize
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christians, Christian sacrament of initiation and Adoption ...
all nations in the name of the
Father
A father is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. An adoptive fathe ...
, the
Son
A son is a male offspring; a boy or a man in relation to his parents. The female counterpart is a daughter. From a biological perspective, a son constitutes a first degree relative.
Social issues
In pre-industrial societies and some current c ...
, and the
Holy Spirit
In Judaism, the Holy Spirit is the divine force, quality, and influence of God over the Universe or over his creatures. In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as ...
Acts 9
Acts 9 is the ninth chapter of the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It records Saul's conversion and the works of Saint Peter.Halley, Henry H. ''Halley's Bible Handbook'': an abbreviated Bible commentary. 23rd edit ...
({{bibleverse, , Acts, 9:13–16). Peter
baptize
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christians, Christian sacrament of initiation and Adoption ...
d the Roman
centurion Cornelius
Cornelius ( el, Κορνήλιος, translit=Kornélios; la, Cornelius) was a Roman centurion who is considered by Christians to be the first Gentile to convert to the faith, as related in Acts of the Apostles (see Ethiopian eunuch for the comp ...
, traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity, in {{bibleverse, Acts, , 10. Based on this, the Antioch church was founded. It is also believed that it was Antioch where the name
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
was first used.
Jewish Christianity
{{Main, Jewish Christian
{{See also, Early Christianity, Biblical law in Christianity
After the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in the Roman province of Judea.{{sfn, Burkett, 2002, p=3 The first Christians were all
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
, who constituted a
Second Temple
The Second Temple (, , ), later known as Herod's Temple, was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem between and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple, which had been built at the same location in the United Kingdom of Israel before being inherited ...
eschatology
Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...
. Among other schools of thought, some Jews regarded Jesus as
Lord
Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the peerage in the United Kingdom, or ar ...
messiah
In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; ,
; ,
; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of ''mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach'' ...
, and the eternally existing Son of God,{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, p=174{{sfn, Cohen, 1987, pp=167–68{{refn, group=note, According to
Shaye J.D. Cohen
Shaye J. D. Cohen (born October 21, 1948) is a modern scholar of Hebrew Bible. Currently he is the Littauer Professor of Hebrew Literature and Philosophy in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations of Harvard University.
Backgro ...
, Jesus's failure to establish an independent Israel, and his death at the hands of the Romans, caused many Jews to reject him as the Messiah.{{sfn, Cohen, 1987, p=168 Jews at that time were expecting a military leader as a Messiah, such as Bar Kohhba. expecting the
second coming
The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messi ...
of Jesus and the start of
God's Kingdom
The concept of the kingship of God appears in all Abrahamic religions, where in some cases the terms Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven are also used. The notion of God's kingship goes back to the Hebrew Bible, which refers to "his kingdom" b ...
. They pressed fellow Jews to prepare for these events and to follow "the way" of the Lord. They believed
Yahweh
Yahweh *''Yahwe'', was the national god of ancient Israel and Judah. The origins of his worship reach at least to the early Iron Age, and likely to the Late Bronze Age if not somewhat earlier, and in the oldest biblical literature he posse ...
to be the only true God, the god of Israel, and considered Jesus to be the
messiah
In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; ,
; ,
; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of ''mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach'' ...
(
Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, names and titles), was ...
Jewish law
''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Judaism, Jewish religious laws which is derived from the Torah, written and Oral Tora ...
which was being formalized at the same time including acceptance of Gentile converts based on a version of the Noachide laws.{{refn, group=note, {{bibleverse, , Acts, 15 and {{bibleverse, , Acts, 21
The Jerusalem ''ekklēsia''
{{Main, Jerusalem in Christianity
{{See also, Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
The
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
's
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
and
Epistle to the Galatians
The Epistle to the Galatians is the ninth book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul the Apostle to a number of Early Christian communities in Galatia. Scholars have suggested that this is either the Roman province of Galatia in sou ...
record that an early Jewish Christian community{{refn, group=note, Hurtado: "She refrains from referring to this earliest stage of the "Jesus-community" as early "Christianity" and {{sic, comprised , hide=y, of "churches," as the terms carry baggage of later developments of "organized institutions, and of a religion separate from, different from, and hostile to Judaism" (185). So, instead, she renders ekklēsia as "assembly" (quite appropriately in my view, reflecting the quasi-official connotation of the term, often both in the LXX and in wider usage)."centered on Jerusalem, and that its leaders reportedly included
Peter
Peter may refer to:
People
* List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
* Peter (given name)
** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church
* Peter (surname), a sur ...
John the Apostle
John the Apostle ( grc, Ἰωάννης; la, Ioannes ; Ge'ez: ዮሐንስ;) or Saint John the Beloved was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New Testament. Generally listed as the youngest apostle, he was the son of Zebedee a ...
.
The Jerusalem community "held a central place among all the churches," as witnessed by Paul's writings.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, p=160
Reportedly legitimised by Jesus' appearance, Peter was the first leader of the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia''.{{sfn, Pagels, 2005, p=45{{sfn, Lüdemann, Özen, 1996, p=116
Peter was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord,"{{sfn, Pagels, 2005, pp=45–46{{sfn, Lüdemann, Özen, 1996, pp=116–17 which may explain why the early texts contain scant information about Peter.{{sfn, Lüdemann, Özen, 1996, pp=116–17 According to Lüdemann, in the discussions about the strictness of adherence to the Jewish Law, the more conservative faction of James the Just gained the upper hand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost influence.{{sfn, Lüdemann, Özen, 1996, pp=116–17 According to Dunn, this was not an "usurpation of power," but a consequence of Peter's involvement in missionary activities. The
relatives of Jesus Relatives can refer to:
* Kinship
* ''Relatives'' (1985 film), a 1985 Australian movie
* ''Relatives'' (2006 film), a 2006 Hungarian movie
* "Relatives", a song by Irving Berlin
Irving Berlin (born Israel Beilin; yi, ישראל ביילין; ...
were generally accorded a special position within this community,{{sfn, Taylor, 1993, p=224 which also contributed to the ascendancy of James the Just in Jerusalem.{{sfn, Taylor, 1993, p=224
According to a tradition recorded by
Eusebius
Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilus (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμφίλου), was a Greek historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian ...
and
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis ( grc-gre, Ἐπιφάνιος; c. 310–320 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gai ...
, the Jerusalem church fled to Pella at the outbreak of the
First Jewish–Roman War
The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt ( he, המרד הגדול '), or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire, fought in Roman-controlled ...
(AD 66–73).
The Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews," Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists," Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, pp=246–47 According to Dunn, Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=277 Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their
Tabernacle
According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle ( he, מִשְׁכַּן, mīškān, residence, dwelling place), also known as the Tent of the Congregation ( he, link=no, אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד, ’ōhel mō‘ēḏ, also Tent of Meeting, etc.), ...
observance.{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=277
Beliefs and practices
Creeds and salvation
{{Main, Salvation in Christianity
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include
oral traditions
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985) ...
(which included sayings attributed to Jesus, parables and teachings),{{sfn, Burkett, 2002 the Gospels, the New Testament
epistles
An epistle (; el, ἐπιστολή, ''epistolē,'' "letter") is a writing directed or sent to a person or group of people, usually an elegant and formal didactic letter. The epistle genre of letter-writing was common in ancient Egypt as part ...
and possibly lost texts such as the
Q source
The Q source (also called Q document(s), Q Gospel, or Q; from german: Quelle, meaning "source") is a hypothetical written collection of primarily Jesus' sayings (λόγια : ). Q is part of the common material found in the Gospels of Matthew ...
and the writings of Papias.
The texts contain the earliest Christian creeds{{sfn, Cullmann, 1949, p={{pn, date=February 2022 expressing belief in the resurrected Jesus, such as {{bibleverse, 1, Corinthians, 15:3–41:{{sfn, Neufeld, 1964, p=47
{{Blockquote, For I handed on to you as of first importance what I in turn had received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures, and that he was buried, and that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the scriptures,{{refn, group=note, name="third day", Se ''Why was Resurrection on “the Third Day”? Two Insights'' for explanations on the phrase "third day." According to Pinchas Lapide, "third day" may refer to {{bibleref2, Hosea, 6:1–2:
"Come, let us return to the Lord; for he has torn us, that he may heal us; he has struck us down, and he will bind us up. After two days he will revive us; on the third day he will raise us up, that we may live before him."
See also {{bibleref2, 2 Kings, 20:8:
"Hezekiah said to Isaiah, 'What shall be the sign that the Lord will heal me, and that I shall go up to the house of the Lord on the third day?'" and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.{{cite web , website=oremus Bible Browser , url=http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Corinthians+15:3%E2%80%9315:41&version=nrsv , title=1 Corinthians ''15:3–15:41''
The creed has been dated by some scholars as originating within the Jerusalem apostolic community no later than the 40s,{{sfn, O'Collins, 1978, p=112{{sfn, Hunter, 1973, p=100 and by some to less than a decade after Jesus' death,{{sfn, Pannenberg, 1968, p=90{{sfn, Cullmann, 1966, p=66 while others date it to about 56. Other early creeds include
1 John 4
The First Epistle of John is the first of the Johannine epistles of the New Testament, and the fourth of the catholic epistles. There is no scholarly consensus as to the authorship of the Johannine works. The author of the First Epistle is term ...
({{bibleverse, 1, John, 4:2),
2 Timothy 2
2 Timothy 2 is the second chapter of the Second Epistle to Timothy in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The letter has been traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle, the last one written in Rome before his death (c. 64 or 67), address ...
({{bibleverse, 2, Timothy, 2:8)
Romans 1
Romans 1 is the first chapter of the Epistle to the Romans in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It is authored by Paul the Apostle, while he was in Corinth in the mid-50s AD, with the help of an amanuensis (secretary), Tertius, who ...
({{bibleverse, , Romans, 1:3–4){{sfn, Pannenberg, 1968, pp=118, 283, 367 and
1 Timothy 3
1 Timothy 3 is the third chapter of the First Epistle to Timothy in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The author was traditionally identified as Paul the Apostle since as early as AD 180,Holman Illustrated Bible Handbook. Holman Bible Pu ...
({{bibleverse, 1, Timothy, 3:16).
Christology
{{Main, Christology
Two fundamentally different Christologies developed in the early Church, namely a "low" or
adoptionist
Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, is an early Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine, which holds that Jesus was adopted as the Son of God at his baptism, his resurrection, or his ascension. How common adoptionist views ...
Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology."{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, p=125 The chronology of the development of these early Christologies is a matter of debate within contemporary scholarship.{{sfn, Loke, 2017{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014{{sfn, Talbert, 2011, pp=3–6Larry Hurtado ''The Origin of “Divine Christology”?'' /ref>
The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead,"{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, pp=120, 122 thereby raising him to "divine status."{{cite web, last1=Ehrman, first1=Bart D., author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman, title=Incarnation Christology, Angels, and Paul , url=https://ehrmanblog.org/incarnation-christology-angels-and-paul-for-members/, website=The Bart Ehrman Blog, access-date=May 2, 2018, date=February 14, 2013 According to the "evolutionary model"{{sfn, Netland, 2001, p=175 c.q. "evolutionary theories,"{{sfn, Loke, 2017, p=3 the Christological understanding of Christ developed over time,{{sfn, Mack, 1995, p={{pn, date=February 2022 {{sfn, Ehrman, 2003Bart Ehrman, ''How Jesus became God'', Course Guide as witnessed in the Gospels,{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014 with the earliest Christians believing that Jesus was a human who was exalted, c.q.
adopted
Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from ...
as God's Son,{{sfn, Loke, 2017, pp=3–4{{sfn, Talbert, 2011, p=3 when he was resurrected. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. This evolutionary model was very influential, and the "low Christology" has long been regarded as the oldest Christology.{{sfn, Bird, 2017, pp=ix, xi{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, p=132{{refn, group=note, Ehrman: * "The earliest Christians held exaltation Christologies in which the human being Jesus was made the Son of God—for example, at his resurrection or at his baptism—as we examined in the previous chapter."{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, p=132 * Here I’ll say something about the oldest Christology, as I understand it. This was what I earlier called a “low” Christology. I may end up in the book describing it as a “Christology from below” or possibly an “exaltation” Christology. Or maybe I’ll call it all three things ..Along with lots of other scholars, I think this was indeed the earliest Christology.Bart Ehrman (6 Feb. 2013) ''The Earliest Christology'' /ref>
The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father’s will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come,"{{sfn, Ehrman, 2014, p=122 and from where he appeared on earth. According to Hurtado, a proponent of an Early High Christology, the devotion to Jesus as divine originated in early Jewish Christianity, and not later or under the influence of pagan religions and Gentile converts.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, p=650 The Pauline letters, which are the earliest Christian writings, already show "a well-developed pattern of Christian devotion ..already conventionalized and apparently uncontroversial."{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, p=155
Some Christians began to worship Jesus as a Lord.{{sfn, Dunn, 2005{{explain, date=February 2020
Eschatological expectations
{{Main, Jewish eschatology, Christian eschatology, Second coming
Ehrman and other scholars believe that Jesus' early followers expected the immediate installment of the Kingdom of God, but that as time went on without this occurring, it led to a change in beliefs.{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018Bart Ehrmann (June 4, 2016) ''Were Jesus’ Followers Crazy? Was He?'' /ref> In time, the belief that Jesus' resurrection signaled the imminent coming of the Kingdom of God changed into a belief that the resurrection confirmed the Messianic status of Jesus, and the belief that Jesus would return at some indeterminate time in the future, the
Second Coming
The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messi ...
, heralding the expected endtime.{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018 When the Kingdom of God did not arrive, Christians' beliefs gradually changed into the expectation of an immediate reward in heaven after death, rather than to a future divine kingdom on Earth, despite the churches' continuing to use the major creeds' statements of belief in a coming resurrection day and
world to come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or par ...
Coming from a Jewish background, early Christians believed in
angels
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles include ...
(derived from the Greek word for "messengers").{{Cite book , last=Hitchcock , first=James , url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/796754060 , title=History of the Catholic Church : from the Apostolic Age to the Third Millennium , date=2012 , publisher=Ignatius Press , isbn=978-1-58617-664-8 , pages=23 , oclc=796754060 Specifically, early Christians wrote in the
New Testament books
New is an adjective referring to something recently made, discovered, or created.
New or NEW may refer to:
Music
* New, singer of K-pop group The Boyz
Albums and EPs
* ''New'' (album), by Paul McCartney, 2013
* ''New'' (EP), by Regurgitator ...
that angels "heralded Jesus' birth, Resurrection, and Ascension; ministered to Him while He was on Earth; and sing the praises of God through all eternity." Early Christians also believed that protecting angels—assigned to each nation and even to each individual—would herald the
Second Coming
The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messi ...
, lead the saints into
Paradise
In religion, paradise is a place of exceptional happiness and delight. Paradisiacal notions are often laden with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical or eschatological or both, often compared to the miseries of human civilization: in paradis ...
, and cast the damned into
Hell
In religion and folklore, hell is a location in the afterlife in which evil souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell ...
."
Satan
Satan,, ; grc, ὁ σατανᾶς or , ; ar, شيطانالخَنَّاس , also known as Devil in Christianity, the Devil, and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity, is an non-physical entity, entity in the Abrahamic religions ...
("the adversary"), similar to descriptions in the Old Testament, appears in the New Testament "to accuse men of sin and to test their fidelity, even to the point of tempting Jesus."
Practices
The Book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily
Temple
A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
liturgical
Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by a religious group. ''Liturgy'' can also be used to refer specifically to public worship by Christians. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and partic ...
, a set of scriptural readings adapted from
synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
practice, and use of
sacred music
Religious music (also sacred music) is a type of music that is performed or composed for religious use or through religious influence. It may overlap with ritual music, which is music, sacred or not, performed or composed for or as ritual. Relig ...
in hymns and prayer. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as
baptism
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost inv ...
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
, reverence for the
Torah
The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the s ...
, and observance of
Jewish holy days
Jewish holidays, also known as Jewish festivals or ''Yamim Tovim'' ( he, ימים טובים, , Good Days, Grammatical number, or singular , in Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated Hebrew language, Hebrew []), are holidays observed in Juda ...
{{main, Baptism in early Christianity
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism probably predate the New Testament writings. It seems certain that numerous Jewish sects and certainly Jesus's disciples practised baptism.
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
had baptized many people, before baptisms took place in the name of Jesus Christ. Paul likened baptism to being buried with Christ in his death.{{refn, group=note, Romans 6:3–4; Colossians 2:12
Communal meals and Eucharist
{{Main, Agape feast, Eucharist
Early Christian rituals included communal meals.{{cite book, last=Coveney, first=John, title=Food, Morals and Meaning: The Pleasure and Anxiety of Eating, date=2006, publisher=Routledge, language=en, isbn=978-1134184484, page=74, quote=For the early Christians, the ''agape'' signified the importance of fellowship. It was a ritual to celebrate the joy of eating, pleasure and company.{{cite book, last=Burns , first=Jim, title=Uncommon Youth Parties, date=2012, publisher=Gospel Light Publications, language=en, isbn=978-0830762132, page=37, quote=During the days of the Early Church, the believers would all gather together to share what was known as an agape feast, or "love feast." Those who could afford to bring food brought it to the feast and shared it with the other believers. The
Eucharist
The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was instit ...
was often a part of the Lovefeast, but between the latter part of the 1st century AD and 250 AD the two became separate rituals.{{cite book, last1=Walls, first1=Jerry L., last2=Collins, first2=Kenneth J., title=Roman but Not Catholic: What Remains at Stake 500 Years after the Reformation, date=2010, publisher=
Baker Academic
Baker Publishing Group is a Christian book publisher that discusses historic Christian happenings for its evangelical readers. It is based in Ada, Michigan and has six subdivisions: namely Bethany House, Revell, Baker Books, Baker Academic, Chos ...
, language=en, isbn=978-1493411740, page=169, quote=So strong were the overtones of the Eucharist as a meal of fellowship that in its earliest practice it often took place in concert with the Agape feast. By the latter part of the first century, however, as Andrew McGowan points out, this conjoined communal banquet was separated into "a morning sacramental ritual nd aprosaic communal supper."{{cite book, last=Davies, first=Horton, title=Bread of Life and Cup of Joy: Newer Ecumenical Perspectives on the Eucharist, date=1999, publisher= Wipf & Stock Publishers, isbn=978-1579102098, page=18 , quote=Agape (love feast), which ultimately became separate from the Eucharist...{{cite book, last=Daughrity, first=Dyron, title=Roots: Uncovering Why We Do What We Do in Church , date=2016 , publisher=ACU Press, language=en, isbn=978-0891126010, page=77, quote=Around AD 250 the lovefeast and Eucharist seem to separate, leaving the Eucharist to develop outside the context of a shared meal. Thus, in modern times the Lovefeast refers to a Christian ritual meal distinct from the Lord's Supper.{{cite dictionary , place=Oxford , title=Dictionary of the Christian Church , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=2005 , isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 , entry=agape
Liturgy
During the first three centuries of Christianity, the
Liturgical
Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by a religious group. ''Liturgy'' can also be used to refer specifically to public worship by Christians. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and partic ...
ritual was rooted in the Jewish
Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that celebrates the The Exodus, Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Ancient Egypt, Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew calendar, He ...
,
Siddur
A siddur ( he, סִדּוּר ; plural siddurim ) is a Jewish prayer book containing a set order of daily prayers. The word comes from the Hebrew root , meaning 'order.'
Other terms for prayer books are ''tefillot'' () among Sephardi Jews, ' ...
,
Seder
The Passover Seder (; he, סדר פסח , 'Passover order/arrangement'; yi, סדר ) is a ritual feast at the beginning of the Jewish holiday of Passover. It is conducted throughout the world on the eve of the 15th day of [isan in the Hebrew c ...
, and
synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
services, including the singing of hymns (especially the Psalms) and reading from the scriptures.{{cite web, url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=475&letter=L&search=Liturgy#1418, title=Liturgy , website=jewishencyclopedia.com Most early Christians did not own a copy of the works (some of which were still being written) that later became the
Christian Bible
The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
or other church works accepted by some but not canonized, such as the writings of the
Apostolic Fathers
The Apostolic Fathers, also known as the Ante-Nicene Fathers, were core Christian theologians among the Church Fathers who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD who are believed to have personally known some of the Twelve Apostles or to have be ...
, or other works today called
New Testament apocrypha
The New Testament apocrypha (singular apocryphon) are a number of writings by early Christians that give accounts of Jesus and his teachings, the nature of God, or the teachings of his apostles and of their lives. Some of these writings were cit ...
. Similar to Judaism, much of the original church
liturgical
Liturgy is the customary public ritual of worship performed by a religious group. ''Liturgy'' can also be used to refer specifically to public worship by Christians. As a religious phenomenon, liturgy represents a communal response to and partic ...
services functioned as a means of learning these scriptures, which initially centered around the
Septuagint
The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (, ; from the la, septuaginta, lit=seventy; often abbreviated ''70''; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond th ...
and the
Targums
A targum ( arc, תרגום 'interpretation, translation, version') was an originally spoken translation of the Hebrew Bible (also called the ''Tanakh'') that a professional translator ( ''mǝturgǝmān'') would give in the common language of the ...
.{{cite book , editor1-last=Salvesen , editor1-first=Alison G , editor2-last=Law , editor2-first=Timothy Michael , title=The Oxford Handbook of the Septuagint , date=2021 , publisher=Oxford University Press , location=Oxford , isbn=978-0199665716 , page=22
At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the
Lord's Day
The Lord's Day in Christianity is generally Sunday, the principal day of communal worship. It is observed by most Christians as the weekly memorial of the resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is said in the canonical Gospels to have been witnessed al ...
{{See also, Proto-orthodox Christianity
With the start of their missionary activity, early Jewish Christians also started to attract
proselyte
The biblical term "proselyte" is an anglicization of the Koine Greek term προσήλυτος (''proselytos''), as used in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) for "stranger", i.e. a "newcomer to Israel"; a "sojourner in the land", and in the G ...
s, Gentiles who were fully or partly
converted to Judaism
Conversion to Judaism ( he, גיור, ''giyur'') is the process by which non-Jews adopt the Jewish religion and become members of the Jewish ethnoreligious community. It thus resembles both conversion to other religions and naturalization. " ...
.{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=297{{refn, group=note, name="proselyte Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion ({{bibleverse, , Matthew, 23:15, NAB; {{bibleverse, , Acts, 2:11, NAB; {{bibleverse-nb, , Acts, 6:5, NAB; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the
Septuagint
The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (, ; from the la, septuaginta, lit=seventy; often abbreviated ''70''; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond th ...
to designate a foreigner living in
Judea
Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...
. The term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the New Testament epoch."
Growth of early Christianity
{{See also, Great Commission, Early centers of Christianity
Christian mission
A Christian mission is an organized effort for the propagation of the Christian faith. Missions involve sending individuals and groups across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such ...
ary activity spread "the Way" and slowly created
early centers of Christianity
Early Christianity (up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325) spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and beyond. Originally, this progression was closely connected to already established Jewish centers in the Holy Land and the Jewish ...
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
Hellenistic
In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
world and even beyond the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
Henry Hart Milman
Henry Hart Milman (10 February 1791 – 24 September 1868) was an English historian and ecclesiastic.
Life
He was born in London, the third son of Sir Francis Milman, 1st Baronet, physician to King George III (see Milman Baronets). Educat ...
writes that in much of the first three centuries, even in the Latin-dominated western empire: "the Church of Rome, and most, if not all the Churches of the West, were, if we may so speak, Greek religious colonies ee_Greek_colonies_for_the_background.html" ;"title="Greek_colonies.html" ;"title="ee Greek colonies">ee Greek colonies for the background">Greek_colonies.html" ;"title="ee Greek colonies">ee Greek colonies for the background Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual, their Liturgy, was Greek."{{cite web, url=http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-orthodox-history.asp, title=Greek Orthodoxy – From Apostolic Times to the Present Day, work=ellopos.net Early Christian beliefs were proclaimed in ''kerygma'' (preaching), some of which are preserved in
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
scripture. The early Gospel message spread orally, probably originally in
Aramaic
The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...
,{{sfn, Ehrman, 2012, pp=87–90 but almost immediately also in
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
. A process of
cognitive dissonance
In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information, and the mental toll of it. Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment. ...
reduction may have contributed to intensive missionary activity, convincing others of the developing beliefs, reducing the cognitive dissonance created by the delay of the coming of the endtime. Due to this missionary zeal, the early group of followers grew larger despite the failing expectations.Bart Ehrmann (June 4, 2016) ''Were Jesus’ Followers Crazy? Was He?'' /ref>
The scope of the Jewish-Christian mission expanded over time. While Jesus limited his message to a Jewish audience in Galilee and Judea, after his death his followers extended their outreach to all of Israel, and eventually the whole Jewish diaspora, believing that the Second Coming would only happen when all Jews had received the Gospel.{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018 Apostles and preachers traveled to
Jewish communities
Jewish ethnic divisions refer to many distinctive communities within the world's ethnically Jewish population. Although considered a self-identifying ethnicity, there are distinct ethnic subdivisions among Jews, most of which are primarily the ...
around the
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the ea ...
, and initially attracted Jewish converts.{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, p=18 Within 10 years of the death of Jesus, apostles had attracted enthusiasts for "the Way" from
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
to
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
,
Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
,
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part o ...
,
Thessalonica
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
,
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is geo ...
,
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
,
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
and Rome.{{sfn, Duffy, 2015, p=3{{sfn, Vidmar, 2005, pp=19–20{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, p=18 Over 40 churches were established by 100,Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'' (2004), p. 281{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, p=18 most in
Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, such as the
seven churches of Asia
The Seven Churches of Revelation, also known as the Seven Churches of the Apocalypse and the Seven Churches of Asia, are seven major Churches of Early Christianity, as mentioned in the New Testament Book of Revelation. All of them are located in ...
, and some in
Greece in the Roman era
Greece in the Roman era describes the Roman conquest of Greece, as well as the period of Greek history when Greece was dominated first by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire.
The Roman era of Greek history began with the Corinthian ...
and
Roman Italy
Roman Italy (called in both the Latin and Italian languages referring to the Italian Peninsula) was the homeland of the ancient Romans and of the Roman empire. According to Roman mythology, Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to A ...
.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
According to Fredriksen, when early Christians broadened their missionary efforts, they also came into contact with Gentiles attracted to the Jewish religion. Eventually, the Gentiles came to be included in the missionary effort of Hellenised Jews, bringing "all nations" into the house of God.{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018 The "Hellenists," Greek-speaking diaspora Jews belonging to the early Jerusalem Jesus-movement, played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=297 From Antioch, the mission to the Gentiles started, including Paul's, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=302 According to Dunn, within 10 years after Jesus' death, "the new messianic movement focused on Jesus began to modulate into something different ... it was at Antioch that we can begin to speak of the new movement as 'Christianity'."{{sfn, Dunn, 2009, p=308
Christian groups and congregations first organized themselves loosely. In
Paul
Paul may refer to:
*Paul (given name), a given name (includes a list of people with that name)
*Paul (surname), a list of people
People
Christianity
*Paul the Apostle (AD c.5–c.64/65), also known as Saul of Tarsus or Saint Paul, early Chris ...
bishops
A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.
In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...
, elders, and deacons.Stephen L Harris, Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.{{refn, group=note, Despite its mention of bishops, there is no clear evidence in the New Testament that supports the concepts of dioceses and monepiscopacy, i.e. the rule that all the churches in a geographic area should be ruled by a single bishop. According to Ronald Y. K. Fung, scholars point to evidence that Christian communities such as Rome had many bishops, and that the concept of monepiscopacy was still emerging when Ignatius was urging his tri-partite structure on other churches.
{{See also, Apostolic see, Seven deacons
Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles
{{Main, Paul the Apostle
Conversion
{{Main, Conversion of Paul
Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other authorship of the New Testament, New Testament author.{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, loc="Paul" According to the New Testament, Saul of Tarsus first persecuted the early Jewish Christians, but then Conversion of Paul the Apostle, converted. He adopted the name Paul and started Proselytism, proselytizing among the Gentiles, calling himself "Apostle to the Gentiles."
Paul was in contact with the early Christian community in
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, led by James the Just.{{sfn, Mack, 1997, p={{pn, date=February 2022 According to Mack, he may have been converted to another early strand of Christianity, with a High Christology.{{sfn, Mack, 1997, p=109 Fragments of their beliefs in an exalted and deified Jesus, what Mack called the "Christ cult," can be found in the writings of Paul.{{sfn, Mack, 1997, p={{pn, date=February 2022 {{refn, group=note, According to Mack, "Paul was converted to a Hellenized form of some Jesus movement that had already developed into a Christ cult. ..Thus his letters serve as documentation for the Christ cult as well." Yet, Hurtado notes that Paul valued the linkage with "Jewish Christian circles in Roman Judea," which makes it likely that his Christology was in line with, and indebted to, their views.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=156–157 Hurtado further notes that "[i]t is widely accepted that the tradition that Paul recites in 1 Corinthians 15:1-7 must go back to the Jerusalem Church."{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, p=168
Inclusion of Gentiles
{{Main, Paul the Apostle and Judaism, New Perspective on Paul, Pauline Christianity
{{See also, Circumcision in the Bible
Paul was responsible for bringing Christianity to
Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
,
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part o ...
, Philippi, and
Thessalonica
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
.{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, pp=1243–1245{{better source needed, date=February 2020 According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw Jesus' resurrection as ushering in the eschatological time foretold by biblical prophets in which the pagan 'Gentile' nations would turn from their idols and embrace the one true God of Israel (e.g., {{bibleref2, Zechariah, 8:20–23), and Paul saw himself as specially called by God to declare God's eschatological acceptance of the Gentiles and summon them to turn to God."
According to Krister Stendahl, the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role and salvation by faith is not the individual conscience of human sinners and their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the main concern is the problem of the inclusion of Gentile (Greek) Torah-observers into God's covenant.{{sfn, Stendahl, 1963{{sfn, Dunn, 1982, p=n.49{{sfn, Finlan, 2004, p=2Stephen Westerholm (2015) ''The New Perspective on Paul in Review'' Direction, Spring 2015 · Vol. 44 No. 1 · pp. 4–15
The inclusion of Gentiles into early Christianity posed a problem for the Jewish identity of some of the early Christians:{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, pp=19–21{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=162–165{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, pp=174–175 the new Gentile converts were not required to be Religious male circumcision, circumcised nor to observe the Law of Moses, Mosaic Law.{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, p=19 Circumcision in particular was regarded as a token of the membership of the Abrahamic covenant, and the most traditionalist faction of Jewish Christians (i.e., converted
Pharisees
The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
) insisted that Gentile converts had to be circumcised as well.{{Bibleref2c, Acts, 15:1{{sfn, Bokenkotter, 2004, pp=19–21{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=162–165{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, pp=174–75{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, pp=1243–1245
By contrast, the rite of circumcision was considered execrable and repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean,{{cite journal , last=Hodges , first=Frederick M. , year=2001 , title=The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme , journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine , publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press , volume=75 , issue=Fall 2001 , pages=375–405 , url=http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/ , format=PDF , pmid=11568485 , doi=10.1353/bhm.2001.0119 , s2cid=29580193 , access-date=3 January 2020{{cite journal , last1=Rubin , first1=Jody P. , title=Celsus' Decircumcision Operation: Medical and Historical Implications , journal=Urology (journal), Urology , publisher=Elsevier , volume=16 , issue=1 , pages=121–24 , date=July 1980 , url=http://www.cirp.org/library/restoration/rubin/ , pmid=6994325 , doi=10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4 , access-date=3 January 2020{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018, pp=10–11{{cite web , url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4391-circumcision#anchor4 , title=Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature , last1=Kohler , first1=Kaufmann , last2=Hirsch , first2=Emil G. , last3=Jacobs , first3=Joseph , last4=Friedenwald , first4=Aaron , last5=Broydé , first5=Isaac , author1-link=Kaufmann Kohler , author2-link=Emil G. Hirsch , author3-link=Joseph Jacobs , author5-link=Isaac Broydé , publisher=Kopelman Foundation , website=Jewish Encyclopedia , access-date=3 January 2020 , quote=Contact with Grecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or antinationalists; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18; Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb. 72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons.
and was especially adversed in Classical civilization both from Ancient Greece, ancient Greeks and Ancient Rome, Romans, which instead valued the foreskin positively.{{sfn, Fredriksen, 2018, pp=10–11
Paul objected strongly to the insistence on keeping all of the Jewish commandments,{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, pp=1243–1245 considering it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith in Christ.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=162–165{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, pp=174–76 According to Paula Fredriksen, Circumcision controversy in early Christianity, Paul's opposition to male circumcison for Gentiles is in line with the Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., {{bibleverse, Zechariah, 8:20–23, niv), not as proselytes to Israel." For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions. According to Larry Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right", who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations ({{bibleverse, Romans, 11:25, niv)."
For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of Gentiles from God's covenant,{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, pp=1244–1245{{sfn, Mack, 1997, pp=91–92 since the faithful are redeemed by Participation in Christ, participation in Jesus' death and rising. In the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia'', from which Paul received the creed of {{bibleverse, 1 Corinthians, 15:1–7, NRSV, the phrase "died for our sins" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the Scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing "a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah."{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, p=131 According to E. P. Sanders, Paul argued that "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin ..he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."E.P. Sanders ''Saint Paul, the Apostle'' Encyclopedia Britannica By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit." Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with
Second Temple Judaism
Second Temple Judaism refers to the Jewish religion as it developed during the Second Temple period, which began with the construction of the Second Temple around 516 BCE and ended with the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.
The Second Temple pe ...
of c. 200 BC until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.Jordan Cooper ''E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul'' /ref>
These divergent interpretations have a prominent place in both Paul's writings and in Acts. According to {{bibleverse, Galatians, 2:1–10, niv and Acts 15, Acts chapter 15, fourteen years after his conversion Paul visited the "Pillars of Jerusalem", the leaders of the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia''. His purpose was to compare his Gospel{{clarify, date=February 2020 with theirs, an event known as the Council of Jerusalem. According to Paul, in his letter to the Galatians,{{refn, group=note, Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. There was a burgeoning movement of Judaizers in the area that advocated adherence to the Mosaic Law, including circumcision. According to McGrath, Paul identified
James the Just
James the Just, or a variation of James, brother of the Lord ( la, Iacobus from he, יעקב, and grc-gre, Ἰάκωβος, , can also be Anglicized as "Jacob"), was "a brother of Jesus", according to the New Testament. He was an early lead ...
as the motivating force behind the Judaizing movement. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in {{bibleref, Galatians, 3, NRSV.{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, pp=174–75 they agreed that his mission was to be among the Gentiles. According to Acts, Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by Peter.{{sfn, McGrath, 2006, p=174McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'' (2002), p. 37{{refn, group=note, According to 19th-century German theologian F. C. Baur early Christianity was dominated by the conflict between
Peter
Peter may refer to:
People
* List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
* Peter (given name)
** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church
* Peter (surname), a sur ...
who was Biblical law in Christianity#The Torah Submissive view, law-observant, and
Paul
Paul may refer to:
*Paul (given name), a given name (includes a list of people with that name)
*Paul (surname), a list of people
People
Christianity
*Paul the Apostle (AD c.5–c.64/65), also known as Saul of Tarsus or Saint Paul, early Chris ...
who advocated partial or even complete Antinomianism, freedom from the Law.{{citation needed, date=March 2019 Scholar James D. G. Dunn has proposed that Peter was the "bridge-man" between the two other prominent leaders: Paul and James the Just. Paul and James were both heavily identified with their own "brands" of Christianity. Peter showed a desire to hold on to his Jewish identity, in contrast with Paul. He simultaneously showed a flexibility towards the desires of the broader Christian community, in contrast to James. Marcion and his followers stated that the polemic against false apostles in Epistle to the Galatians, Galatians was aimed at Peter, James, brother of Jesus, James and John the Evangelist, John, the "Pillars of the Church", as well as the "false" gospels circulating through the churches at the time. Irenaeus and Tertullian argued against Marcionism's elevation of Paul and stated that Peter and Paul were equals among the apostles. Passages from Galatians were used to show that Paul respected Peter's office and acknowledged a shared faith.{{sfn, Keck, 1988, p={{pn, date=February 2022 {{sfn, Pelikan, 1975, p=113
While the Council of Jerusalem was described as resulting in an agreement to allow Gentile converts exemption from most Mitzvot, Jewish commandments, in reality a stark opposition from "Hebrew" Jewish Christians remained,{{sfn, Cross, Livingstone, 2005, p=1244 as exemplified by the
Ebionites
Ebionites ( grc-gre, Ἐβιωναῖοι, ''Ebionaioi'', derived from Hebrew (or ) ''ebyonim'', ''ebionim'', meaning 'the poor' or 'poor ones') as a term refers to a Jewish Christian sect, which viewed poverty as a blessing, that existed during ...
. The relaxing of requirements in Pauline Christianity opened the way for a much larger Christian Church, extending far beyond the Jewish community. The inclusion of Gentiles is reflected in Luke-Acts, which is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Rejection of Jesus, Jews rejected it.{{sfn, Burkett, 2002, p=263
Persecutions
{{See also, Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
, Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred sporadically over a period of over two centuries. For most of the first three hundred years of Christian history, Christians were able to live in peace, practice their professions, and rise to positions of responsibility.{{cite book, last=Moss, first=Candida, author-link=Candida Moss, title=The Myth of Persecution: How Early Christians Invented a Story of Martyrdom, date=2013, publisher=HarperCollins, isbn=978-0-06-210452-6, page=129 Sporadic persecution took place as the result of local pagan populations putting pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against the Christians in their midst, who were thought to bring misfortune by their refusal to honour the gods.{{sfn, Croix, 2006, pp=105–52
Only for approximately ten out of the first three hundred years of the church's history were Christians executed due to orders from a Roman emperor. The first persecution of Christians organised by the Roman government took place under the emperor Nero in 64 AD after the Great Fire of Rome.{{sfn, Croix, 2006, pp=105–52 There was no empire-wide persecution of Christians until the reign of Decius in the third century.Martin, D. 2010 "The 'Afterlife' of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation" {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608093412/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90 , date=2016-06-08 lecture transcript {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812141627/https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/ , date=2016-08-12 ). Yale University. The Edict of Serdica was issued in 311 by the Roman emperor Galerius, officially ending the Diocletianic persecution of Christianity in the East. With the passage in 313 AD of the Edict of Milan, in which the Roman Emperors Constantine the Great and Licinius legalised the Christianity, Christian religion, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.{{cite web , title=Persecution in the Early Church , url=http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm , publisher=Religion Facts , access-date=2014-03-26 , archive-date=2014-03-25 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325154903/http://religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm , url-status=dead
Development of the Biblical canon
{{Main, Development of the Christian biblical canon
In an ancient culture before the printing press and the majority of the population illiterate, most early Christians likely did not own any Christian texts. Much of the original church liturgical services functioned as a means of learning Christian theology. A final uniformity of liturgical services may have become solidified after the church established a Biblical canon, possibly based on the Apostolic Constitutions and Clementine literature. Pope Clement I, Clement (d. 99) writes that liturgy, liturgies are "to be celebrated, and not carelessly nor in disorder" but the final uniformity of liturgical services only came later, though the ''Liturgy of St James'' is traditionally associated with James the Just.
Books not accepted by Pauline Christianity are termed biblical apocrypha, though the exact list varies from denomination to denomination.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
Old Testament
{{Main, Development of the Old Testament canon
The Biblical canon began with the Jewish Scriptures. The Koine Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, later known as the ''
Septuagint
The Greek Old Testament, or Septuagint (, ; from the la, septuaginta, lit=seventy; often abbreviated ''70''; in Roman numerals, LXX), is the earliest extant Greek translation of books from the Hebrew Bible. It includes several books beyond th ...
''{{sfn, McDonald, Sanders, 2002, p=72 and often written as "LXX," was the dominant translation from very early on.{{cite web, url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/swete/greekot/Page_112.html , title=Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, p. 112 , publisher=Ccel.org , access-date=2019-05-20
Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the ''Bryennios List'', dated to around 100, which was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. The list is written in Koine Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew language, Hebrew. In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called the Jewish scriptures the "Old Testament" and also specified an early Melito's canon, canon.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
Jerome (347–420) expressed his preference for adhering strictly to the Hebrew text and canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day.
New Testament
{{Books of the New Testament
{{Main, Development of the New Testament canon
The
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christ ...
(often compared to the New Covenant) is the second major division of the Christian Bible. The books of the canon of the New Testament include the Canonical Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Acts, letters of the Apostles in the New Testament, Apostles, and Book of Revelation, Revelation. The original texts were written by various authors, most likely sometime between c. AD 45 and 120 AD,{{cite book , author=Bart D. Ehrman , title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings , url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ , year=1997 , publisher=Oxford University Press , isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 , page=8 , quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples. in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, though there is also a minority argument for Aramaic primacy. They were not defined as "canon" until the 4th century. Some were disputed, known as the Antilegomena.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
Writings attributed to the Apostles in the New Testament, Apostles circulated among the Early centers of Christianity, earliest Christian communities. The
Pauline epistles
The Pauline epistles, also known as Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extan ...
were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD.{{refn, group=note, Three forms are postulated, from {{Citation , title = The Canon Debate , chapter = 18 , page = 300, note 21 , first = Harry Y , last = Gamble , quote = (1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last.
Early orthodox writings – Apostolic Fathers
The Church Fathers are the early and influential Christian theology, Christian theologians and writers, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The earliest Church Fathers, within two generations of the Twelve Apostles of Christ, are usually called
Apostolic Fathers
The Apostolic Fathers, also known as the Ante-Nicene Fathers, were core Christian theologians among the Church Fathers who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD who are believed to have personally known some of the Twelve Apostles or to have be ...
for reportedly knowing and studying under the apostles personally. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome (d. AD 99),Will Durant, Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch (; Greek: Ἰγνάτιος Ἀντιοχείας, ''Ignátios Antiokheías''; died c. 108/140 AD), also known as Ignatius Theophorus (, ''Ignátios ho Theophóros'', lit. "the God-bearing"), was an early Christian writer ...
(d. AD 98 to 117) and Polycarp of Smyrna (AD 69–155). The earliest Christian writings, other than those collected in the New Testament, are a group of letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. Their writings include the Epistle of Barnabas and the Epistles of Clement. The Didache and Shepherd of Hermas are usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, although their authors are unknown.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. They contain early thoughts on the organisation of the Christian ''ekklēsia'', and are historical sources for the development of an early Church structure.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
In his letter 1 Clement, Clement of Rome calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order. Some see his epistle as an assertion of Rome's authority over the church in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of papal supremacy.{{cite web, url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04012c.htm, title=Pope St. Clement I, website=newadvent.org Clement refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops and presbyters interchangeably, and likewise states that the bishops are to lead God's flock by virtue of the chief shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
Ignatius of Antioch
Ignatius of Antioch (; Greek: Ἰγνάτιος Ἀντιοχείας, ''Ignátios Antiokheías''; died c. 108/140 AD), also known as Ignatius Theophorus (, ''Ignátios ho Theophóros'', lit. "the God-bearing"), was an early Christian writer ...
advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).
The Didache (late 1st century){{sfn, Draper, 2006, p=178 is an anonymous Jewish-Christian work. It is a pastoral manual dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization, parts of which may have constituted the first written catechism, "that reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures."{{sfn, Milavec, 2003, p=vii
Split of early Christianity and Judaism
Split with Judaism
{{Main, Split of early Christianity and Judaism
{{See also, Schisms among the Jews, List of events in early Christianity
There was a slowly growing chasm between Gentile Christians, and Jews and Jewish Christians, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took a century for a complete break to manifest. Growing tensions led to a starker separation that was virtually complete by the time Jewish Christians refused to join in the Bar Kokhba revolt, Bar Kokhba Jewish revolt of 132.{{sfn, Davidson, 2005, p=146 Certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism.{{Citation needed, date=August 2020, reason=Unsourced
The Siege of Jerusalem (70), destruction of Jerusalem and the consequent dispersion of Jews and Jewish Christians from the city (after the Bar Kokhba revolt) ended any pre-eminence of the Jewish-Christian leadership in Jerusalem. Early Christianity grew further apart from Judaism to establish itself as a predominantly Gentile religion, and
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
became the first Gentile Christian community with stature.{{sfn, Franzen, 1988, p=25
The hypothetical Council of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular, excluding them from attending synagogue.{{sfn, Wylen, 1995, p=190{{sfn, Berard, 2006, pp=112–113{{sfn, W1992, pp=164–165{{quote needed, date=January 2020 However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations.
There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against
synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.{{sfn, Wylen, 1995, p=190{{sfn, W1992, pp=164–165
During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of Roman law, worked out in compromise with the Roman state over two centuries (see Anti-Judaism#Pre-Christian Roman Empire, Anti-Judaism in the Roman Empire for details). In contrast, Christianity was not legalized until the 313 Edict of Milan. Observant Jews had special rights, including the privilege of abstaining from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Around the year 98, the emperor Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the Fiscus Iudaicus, annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as distinct from
Rabbinic Judaism
Rabbinic Judaism ( he, יהדות רבנית, Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian ...
. This opened the way to Christians being persecuted for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the Imperial cult (ancient Rome), state pantheon.{{sfn, Wylen, 1995, pp=190–192{{sfn, Dunn, 1999, pp=33–34{{sfn, BoatwGargola, Talbert, 2004, p=426
From c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.{{sfn, Wylen, 1995, pp=190–192{{sfn, Dunn, 1999, pp=33–34
Later rejection of Jewish Christianity
Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the Pauline Christianity, Pauline Christians but maintained a similar faith. In Christian circles, ''Nazarene (sect), Nazarene'' later came to be used as a label for those faithful to Jewish Law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, generally holding the same beliefs except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance of orthodoxy in the Christianity in the 4th century, 4th century.{{sfn, Dauphin, 1993, pp=235, 240–242 The
Ebionites
Ebionites ( grc-gre, Ἐβιωναῖοι, ''Ebionaioi'', derived from Hebrew (or ) ''ebyonim'', ''ebionim'', meaning 'the poor' or 'poor ones') as a term refers to a Jewish Christian sect, which viewed poverty as a blessing, that existed during ...
may have been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. They were considered by Gentile Christians to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of Christ and Gentile converts. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, ''Ebionite'' was often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies".{{sfn, Tabor, 1998{{sfn, Esler, 2004, pp=157–159
There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. The true end of ancient Jewish Christianity occurred only in the 5th century. Gentile Christianity became the dominant strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century.{{sfn, Dauphin, 1993, pp=235, 240–242{{refn, group=note, Jewish Virtual Library: "A major difficulty in tracing the growth of Christianity from its beginnings as a Jewish messianism, Jewish messianic sect, and its relations to the various other normative-Jewish, sectarian-Jewish, and Christian-Jewish groups is presented by the fact that what ultimately became normative Christianity was originally but one among various contending Christian trends. Once the "gentile Christian" trend won out, and the Pauline theology, teaching of Paul of Tarsus, Paul became accepted as expressing the doctrine of the Church, the Jewish Christian groups were pushed to the margin and ultimately excluded as heretical. Being rejected both by normative Judaism and the Church, they ultimately disappeared. Nevertheless, several Jewish Christian sects (such as the Nazarenes,
Ebionites
Ebionites ( grc-gre, Ἐβιωναῖοι, ''Ebionaioi'', derived from Hebrew (or ) ''ebyonim'', ''ebionim'', meaning 'the poor' or 'poor ones') as a term refers to a Jewish Christian sect, which viewed poverty as a blessing, that existed during ...
, Elchasaites, and others) existed for some time, and a few of them seem to have endured for several centuries. Some sects saw in Jesus mainly a Prophet#Judaism, prophet and not the "Christ," others seem to have believed in him as the Messiah, but did not draw the Christology, christological and other conclusions that subsequently became fundamental in the teaching of the Church (the divinity of the Christ, Trinity, trinitarian conception of the Godhead, Abrogation of Old Covenant laws, abrogation of the Law). After the disappearance of the early Jewish Christian sects and the triumph of gentile Christianity, to become a Christian meant, for a Jew, to Apostasy in Judaism, apostatize and to leave the Jewish community.{{r, group=web, "JVL"
Timeline
{{hidden, 1st century timeline,
{{disputed, talkpage=Talk:Christianity in the 1st century#Bethlehem, date=March 2019
''Earliest dates must all be considered approximate''
*6 BC Judean King Herod Archelaus deposed by the Roman Emperor Augustus; Samaria,
Judea
Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...
, and Idumea annexed as Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration, capital at Caesarea Maritima, Caesarea, Quirinius became Legatus, Legate (Governor) of
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, conducted Census of Quirinius, opposed by the Zealots JA18 {{bibleverse, , Luke, 2:1–3, {{bibleverse, , Acts, 5:37).
*c. 4 BC Nativity of Jesus, Jesus is born in Bethlehem, Judaea (Roman province), Judea (according to the Gospels of Gospel of Luke, Luke and Gospel of Matthew, Matthew)
*7–26 AD Brief period of peace, relatively free of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea and
Galilee
Galilee (; he, הַגָּלִיל, hagGālīl; ar, الجليل, al-jalīl) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon. Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Galil ...
*9 Pharisee leader Hillel the Elder dies, temporary rise of Shammai
*14–37 Rule of the Roman Emperor Tiberius
*18–36 Caiaphas, appointed List of High Priests of Israel, High Priest of Herod's Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate Lucius Vitellius
*19
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate (; grc-gre, Πόντιος Πιλᾶτος, ) was the fifth governor of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official who presided over the trial of J ...
, Prefect (governor) of Iudaea, recalled to Rome by Syrian Legate Vitellius on complaints of excess violence (JA18.4.2)
*28 or 29
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
began his Religious ministry (Christian), ministry in the "15th year of Tiberius" ({{bibleverse, Luke, , 3:1–2) ({{bibleverse, , Matt, 3:1–2)
*30 –
Great Commission
In Christianity, the Great Commission is the instruction of the resurrected Jesus Christ to his disciples to spread the gospel to all the nations of the world. The Great Commission is outlined in Matthew 28:16– 20, where on a mountain i ...
of Jesus to go and make disciples of all nations;{{sfn, Barnett, 2002, p=23
*30–36 Crucifixion of Jesus, Jesus is crucified on order of Pontius Pilate. Christians believe he Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead 3 days later.
Pentecost
Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 50th day (the seventh Sunday) after Easter Sunday. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles in the Ne ...
, a day in which 3000 Jews from a variety of Mediterranean-basin nations are converted to faith in Jesus Christ.
*34 – Philip the Evangelist, Philip baptizes a convert in History of Gaza#Roman empire, Gaza, an Ethiopian eunuch who was already a God-fearer.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=15, 38-39, 41-42
*39 – St. Peter, Peter preaches to a Gentile audience in the house of the Roman soldier Cornelius the Centurion, Cornelius, who was already a God-fearer.{{sfn, Hurtado, 2005, pp=15, 38-39, 41-42
*37–41 Crisis under Caligula
*42 – Mark the Evangelist, Mark goes to
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
{{sfn, Kane, 1982, p=10
*44? James the Great: According to ancient local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, the Virgin Mary appeared to James on a Our Lady of the Pillar, Pilar on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Hispania (modern-day Spain). Following that apparition, James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44 during a
Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that celebrates the The Exodus, Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Ancient Egypt, Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew calendar, He ...
(Nisan 15) ({{bibleverse, Acts, , 12:1–3).
*44 Death of Herod Agrippa I JA19 8.2, {{bibleverse, , Acts, 12:20–23)
*44–46? Theudas beheaded by Procurator (Roman), Procurator Cuspius Fadus for saying he would part the Jordan river (like Moses and the Red Sea or Joshua and the Jordan) JA20 5.1, {{bibleverse, , Acts, 5:36–37 places it before the Census of Quirinius)
*45–49? Mission of Barnabas and Paul ({{bibleverse, , Acts, 13:1–14:28) to the island of Cyprus, Antioch, Pisidia, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (there they were called "gods ... in human form"), then return to Syrian
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
Map1 *47? Saint Thomas Christians, St. Thomas Christianity, now in several forms, is begun in Christianity in India, India by Thomas the Apostle, Thomas.
* 47 – Paul of Tarsus, Paul (formerly known as Saul of Tarsus in Cilicia, Tarsus) begins his first missionary journey to Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey).{{sfn, Walker, 1959, p=26
*48–100 Agrippa II, Herod Agrippa II appointed Hasmonean, King of the Jews by Claudius, seventh and last of the Herodians
*50
Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that celebrates the The Exodus, Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Ancient Egypt, Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew calendar, He ...
riot in Jerusalem, 20–30,000 killed (JA20.5.3 JW2 12.1)
*50 – Council of Jerusalem on admitting Gentiles into the Church{{sfn, Walker, 1959, p=26
*50? Council of Jerusalem and the "Apostolic Decree", {{bibleverse, Acts, , 15:1–35, same as {{bibleverse, , Galatians, 2:1–10?, which is followed by the "Incident at Antioch", at which Paul publicly accused Peter of "Judaizers, Judaizing" towards the Gentiles ({{bibleverse-nb, , Galatians, 2:11–21){{cite journal , last=Dunn , first=James D. G. , author-link=James Dunn (theologian) , date=Autumn 1993 , title=Echoes of Intra-Jewish Polemic in Paul's Letter to the Galatians , editor-last=Reinhartz , editor-first=Adele , editor-link=Adele Reinhartz , journal=Journal of Biblical Literature , publisher=Society of Biblical Literature , volume=112 , issue=3 , pages=459–477 , doi=10.2307/3267745 , issn=0021-9231 , jstor=3267745
*51 – Paul begins his second missionary journey, a trip that takes him through Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) and on into Greece{{sfn, Walker, 1959, p=27
*50–53? Paul's second mission ({{bibleverse, , Acts, 15:36–18:22), split with Barnabas, preaches the Gospel in Galatia, Phrygia, Macedonia (Roman province), Macedonia, Philippi,
Thessalonica
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
, Beroea, Berea, Athens,
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part o ...
, "he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken", then returns to Antioch; First Epistle to the Thessalonians, 1 Thessalonians, Epistle to Galatians, Galatians written Map2 *51–52 or 52–53 proconsulship of Lucius Iunius Gallio Annaeanus, Gallio according to an inscription, only fixed date in chronology of Paul
*52 – Apostle Thomas, Thomas arrives in India and Saint Thomas Christians, founds an early Christian church that subsequently split into the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and the Malankara Church (and its various descendants){{sfn, Neill, 1986, pp=44–45
*54 – Paul begins his third missionary journey{{cite web, title=Apostle Paul's Third Missionary Journey Map, website=biblestudy.org, url=http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/pauls-third-journey-map.html
*53–57? Paul's third mission ({{bibleverse, , Acts, 18:23–22:30) to Galatia, Phrygia, Macedonia, Corinth,
Ephesus
Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἔφεσος, Éphesos; tr, Efes; may ultimately derive from hit, 𒀀𒉺𒊭, Apaša) was a city in ancient Greece on the coast of Ionia, southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in t ...
, Greece, and Jerusalem, where
James the Just
James the Just, or a variation of James, brother of the Lord ( la, Iacobus from he, יעקב, and grc-gre, Ἰάκωβος, , can also be Anglicized as "Jacob"), was "a brother of Jesus", according to the New Testament. He was an early lead ...
challenged him about rumor of teaching antinomianism ({{bibleverse-nb, Acts, , 21:21), he addressed a crowd in their language (most likely Aramaic of Jesus, Aramaic); Epistle to the Romans, Romans, First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1 Corinthians, Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Epistle to the Philippians, Philippians written Map3 *55? "Egyptian (prophet), Egyptian prophet" (allusion to Moses) and 30,000 unarmed Jews doing the Exodus reenactment massacred by Procurator (Roman), Procurator Antonius Felix (JW2.13.5, JA20.8.6, {{bibleverse, Acts, , 21:38)
*58? Paul arrested, accused of being a Zealot, revolutionary, "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarene (title), Nazarenes", teaching resurrection of the dead, imprisoned in Caesarea Maritima, Caesarea ({{bibleverse, Acts, , 23–26)
*59? Paul shipwrecked on the Malta (island), island of Malta, there he was called a god ({{bibleverse, Acts, , 28:6)
* 60 – Paul sent to Rome under Roman guard, evangelizes on Malta after shipwreck{{sfn, Walker, 1959, p=27
*60? Paul in Rome: greeted by many "brothers" (NRSV: "believers"), three days later called together the Jewish leaders, who hadn't received any word from Judea about him, but were curious about "this sect", which everywhere is spoken against; he tried to convince them from the "Torah, Law and Neviim, Prophets", with partial success, said the Gentiles would listen and spent two years proclaiming the
Kingdom of God
The concept of the kingship of God appears in all Abrahamic religions, where in some cases the terms Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven are also used. The notion of God's kingship goes back to the Hebrew Bible, which refers to "his kingdom" b ...
and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ" ({{bibleverse, Acts, , 28:15–31); Epistle to Philemon written?
*62 James the Just stoned to death for law transgression by List of High Priests of Israel, High Priest Ananus ben Artanus, popular opinion against act results in Ananus being deposed by new procurator Lucceius Albinus (JA20.9.1)
*63–107? Simeon of Jerusalem, Simeon, 2nd Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem#Bishops of Jerusalem, Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified under Trajan
*64–68 after July 18 Great Fire of Rome, Nero blamed and Persecution of Christians, persecuted the ''Christians''
*64/67(?)–76/79(?) Pope Linus succeeds Peter as ''Episcopus Romanus'' ("Bishop of Rome")
*65? Q document, a hypothetical Greek text thought by many critical scholars to have been used in writing of Gospel of Matthew, Matthew and Gospel of Luke, Luke
* 66 – Thaddeus establishes the Christian church of ArmeniaWood, Roger, Jan Morris and Denis Wright. ''Persia''. Universe Books, 1970, p. 35.
*66–73
First Jewish–Roman War
The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called the Great Jewish Revolt ( he, המרד הגדול '), or The Jewish War, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews against the Roman Empire, fought in Roman-controlled ...
: destruction of Herod's Temple, Qumran community destroyed, site of Dead Sea Scrolls found in 1947
*68–107? Ignatius of Antioch, Ignatius, third Bishop of Antioch, fed to the lions in the Roman Colosseum, advocated the Bishop (Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1, 6:1, 7:1, 13:2, Tr 3:1, Smy 8:1, 9:1), rejected Sabbath in Christianity, Sabbath on Saturday in favor of The Lord's Day (Sunday). (Mag 9.1), rejected Judaizers, Judaizing (Mag 10.3), first recorded use of the term "catholic" (Smy 8:2).
*69 – Saint Andrew, Andrew is crucified in Patras on the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece{{sfn, Herbermann, 1913, p=737
*70(+/−10)? Gospel of Mark, written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), original ending apparently lost, endings added c. 400, see Mark 16
*70? Signs Gospel written, hypothetical Greek text used in Gospel of John to prove that Jesus is the Messiah
*70–100? additional
Pauline epistles
The Pauline epistles, also known as Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extan ...
*70–200? Didache; Other Gospels: Gospel of the Saviour, Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, Oxyrhynchus Gospels, Egerton Gospel, Fayyum Fragment, Dialogue of the Saviour; Jewish Christian Gospels: Gospel of the Ebionites, Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Nazarenes
*76/79(?)–88 Pope Anacletus first Greek Pope, who succeeds Linus as ''Episcopus Romanus'' ("Bishop of Rome")
* 80 – First Christians reported in History of Roman-era Tunisia, Tunisia and Roman Gaul, Gaul (modern-day France){{sfn, Barnett, 2002, p=23
*80(+/−20)? Gospel of Matthew, theoretically based on Mark and Q, most popular in early Christianity
*80(+/−20)?
Gospel of Luke
The Gospel of Luke), or simply Luke (which is also its most common form of abbreviation). tells of the origins, birth, ministry, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ. Together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volu ...
, theoretically based on Mark and Q, also
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its messag ...
by same author
*88–101? Pope Clement I, Clement, fourth ''Episcopus Romanus'' ("Bishop of Rome"), wrote First Epistle of Clement, Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (Apostolic Fathers)
*90? Council of Jamnia of Judaism (disputed), Domitian applied the Fiscus Iudaicus tax even to those who merely "lived like Jews"{{cite web, url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=183&letter=F&search=Fiscus%20Iudaicus, title=Fiscus Judaicus , website=jewishencyclopedia.com
*90(+/−10)? 1 Peter
*94 "Testimonium Flavianum", disputed section of the ''Jewish Antiquities'' by
Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for ''The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly d ...
in
Aramaic
The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...
, translated to Koine Greek
*95(+/−30)? Gospel of John and Epistles of John
*95(+/−10)? Book of Revelation written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his
*100(+/−30)? Epistle of Barnabas (Apostolic Fathers)
*100(+/−25)? Epistle of James
*100(+/−10)? Epistle of Jude written, probably by doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6:3), rejected by some early Christians due to its reference to apocryphal Book of Enoch (v14), Epistle to the Hebrews written
*100 – First Christians are reported in History of Monaco#Roman rule, Monaco, Mauretania Caesariensis (modern-day Algeria), and the Anuradhapura Kingdom (modern-day Sri Lanka);{{sfn, Barnett, 2002, p=23 a missionary goes to Arbil, Arbela, old sacred city of the Assyrians.{{sfn, Latourette, 1941, loc=vol. I, p. 103
, titlestyle=background-color:lavender;
See also
{{Portal, Christianity, History, Ancient Rome, Bible
{{div col, colwidth=22em
* Christian martyrs
* Christianity and Judaism
* Christianization
* Christian symbolism#Early Christian symbols
* Chronological list of saints in the 1st century
* Council of Jerusalem
* Classical antiquity
* Early centers of Christianity
* Early Christian art and architecture
* Hellenistic Judaism
* History of Christian theology
* History of Christianity
* History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
* History of the Catholic Church
* Historiography of early Christianity
* Jesuism
* Mandaeism
* Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
* Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire
* {{section link, Spread of Christianity, Apostolic Age
* Timeline of Christian missions
* Timeline of Christianity
* Timeline of the Catholic Church
{{div col end
Notes
{{Reflist, group=note, 2
References
{{Reflist, 30em
Sources
Printed sources
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*Ludemann, Gerd, ''What Really Happened to Jesus?'' trans. J. Bowden, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995
* {{Citation , last1 =Lüdemann , first1 =Gerd , last2 =Özen , first2 =Alf , year=1996, title =De opstanding van Jezus. Een historische benadering (Was mit Jesus wirklich geschah. Die Auferstehung historisch betrachtet) , publisher =The Have/Averbode
* {{Citation , editor1-last = McDonald , editor1-first = L. M. , editor2-first = J. A. , editor2-last = Sanders , year = 2002 , title = The Canon Debate , publisher = Hendrickson
* {{Citation , last =Mack , first =Burton L. , year =1995 , author-link =Burton L. Mack , title =Who wrote the New Testament? The making of the Christian myth , publisher =HarperSan Francisco , isbn =978-0-06-065517-4 , url =https://archive.org/details/whowrotenewtesta00mack_0
* {{Citation , last =Mack , first =Burton L. , year =1997 , orig-year =1995 , title =Wie schreven het Nieuwe Testament werkelijk? Feiten, mythen en motieven. (Who Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth) , publisher =Uitgeverij Ankh-Hermes bv
* {{Citation , last =Maier , first =P. L. , year =1975 , title =The Empty Tomb as History , journal =Christianity Today
* {{Citation , last =McGrath , first =Alister E. , author-link =Alister McGrath , year =2006 , title =Christianity: An Introduction , publisher = Wiley-Blackwell , isbn =1-4051-0899-1 , url = https://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC
* {{cite book , last=Milavec , first=Aaron , year=2003 , title=The Didache: Faith, Hope, & Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50-70 C.E. , publisher=Newman Press , isbn=978-0-8091-0537-3 , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=17v6sT1l-aYC
* {{cite journal , last =Moss , first =Candida , year =2012 , author-link =Candida Moss , title=Current Trends in the Study of Early Christian Martyrdom , journal =Bulletin for the Study of Religion , volume =41 , issue=3 , pages =22–29 , url =http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/BSOR/article/viewArticle/15719 , doi =10.1558/bsor.v41i3.22
*{{cite book , last=Neill , first=Stephen , title=A History of Christian Missions , publisher=Penguin Books , date=1986 Comprehensive survey
* {{Citation , last =Netland , first =Harold , year =2001 , title =Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission , publisher =InterVarsity Press
* {{Citation , last=Neufeld , title=The Earliest Christian Confessions , place=Grand Rapids , publisher=Eerdmans , year=1964
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* {{Citation , last=Pagels , first=Elaine , author-link=Elaine Pagels , year=2005 , title=De Gnostische Evangelien (The Gnostic Gospels) , publisher=Servire
* {{Citation , last=Pannenberg , first=Wolfhart , title=Jesus{{sndGod and Man , translator1=Lewis Wilkins , translator2=Duane Pribe , place=Philadelphia , publisher=Westminster , year=1968
* {{Citation , last =Pao , first =David W. , year =2016 , title =Acts and the Isaianic New Exodus , publisher =Wipf and Stock Publishers
* {{Citation , last=Pelikan , first=Jaroslav Jan , title=The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600) , publisher=University of Chicago Press , year=1975 , isbn=0-226-65371-4
* {{Citation , last=Redford , first=Douglas , year=2007 , title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels , isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8
* {{Citation , last=Rowland , first=Christopher , author-link=Christopher Rowland (theologian) , title=Christian Origins: An Account of the Setting and Character of the Most Important Messianic Sect of Judaism , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZfYAAAAMAAJ , year=1985 , publisher=SPCK , isbn=9780281041107
* {{cite journal , last=Smith , first=J. L. , date=September 1969 , title=Resurrection Faith Today , journal=Theological Studies , volume=30 , issue=3 , pages=393–419 , doi=10.1177/004056396903000301 , s2cid=59022803 , url=http://cdn.theologicalstudies.net/30/30.3/30.3.1.pdf , access-date=2022-02-10
* {{cite journal , last=Stendahl , first=Krister , author-link=Krister Stendahl , date=July 1963 , title=The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West , url=http://www.scotthahn.com/s/01Stendahl.pdf , url-status=live , journal=Harvard Theological Review , location=Cambridge , publisher=Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Harvard Divinity School , volume=56 , issue=3 , pages=199–215 , doi=10.1017/S0017816000024779 , issn=1475-4517 , jstor=1508631 , lccn=09003793 , s2cid=170331485 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224045859/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/569543b4bfe87360795306d6/t/5a4d41fa085229a032376713/1515012617149/01Stendahl.pdf , archive-date=24 December 2021 , access-date=12 February 2022
* {{Citation , last=Tabor , first=James D. , author-link=James Tabor , chapter-url=http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/ebionites.html , chapter=Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites , title=The Jewish Roman World of Jesus , publisher=Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte , year=1998
* {{Citation , last =Talbert , first =Charles H. , year =2011 , title =The Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years: and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140. , location = Leiden , publisher = Brill Publishers
* {{Citation , last =Taylor , first =Joan E. , year =1993 , title =Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins , publisher =Oxford University Press , isbn =0198147856
* {{cite journal , author-last=Thiessen , author-first=Matthew , date=September 2014 , title=Paul's Argument against Gentile Circumcision in Romans 2:17-29 , editor1-last=Breytenbach , editor1-first=Cilliers , editor2-last=Thom , editor2-first=Johan , journal=Novum Testamentum , location=Leiden , publisher=Brill Publishers , volume=56 , issue=4 , pages=373–391 , doi=10.1163/15685365-12341488 , eissn=1568-5365 , issn=0048-1009 , jstor=24735868
* {{Citation , last=Van Daalen , first=D. H. , title=The Real Resurrection , place=London , publisher=Collins , year=1972
* {{Citation , last =Vidmar , year =2005 , title =The Catholic Church Through the Ages
* {{Citation , last=Walker , first=Williston , year=1959 , title=A History of the Christian Church{{fcn, date=February 2022
* {{Citation , last=Weiss , first=Johannes , title=Der erste Korintherbrief , edition=9th , place=Göttingen , publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht , year=1910
* {{Citation , last=White , first=L. Michael , title=From Jesus to Christianity , publisher=HarperCollins , year=2004 , isbn=0-06-052655-6
* {{cite book , last=Wilken , first=Robert Louis , year=2013a , chapter=Beginning in Jerusalem , title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA6 , location=New Haven, Connecticut, New Haven and London , publisher=Yale University Press , pages=6–16 , isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 , jstor=j.ctt32bd7m , lccn=2012021755 , s2cid=160590164
* {{cite book , last=Wilken , first=Robert Louis , year=2013b , chapter=Divisions Within , title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA37 , location=New Haven, Connecticut, New Haven and London , publisher=Yale University Press , pages=37–46 , isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 , jstor=j.ctt32bd7m , lccn=2012021755 , s2cid=160590164
* {{Citation , last=Wilckens , first=Ulrich , title=Auferstehung , place=Stuttgart and Berlin , publisher=Kreuz Verlag , year=1970
* {{Citation , last=Wright , first=N.T. , title=The New Testament and the People of God , publisher=Fortress Press , year=1992 , isbn=0-8006-2681-8
* {{Citation , last=Wylen , first=Stephen M. , title=The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction , publisher=Paulist Press , year=1995 , isbn=0-8091-3610-4
{{Refend
Web-sources
{{Reflist, group=web, refs=
E.P. Sanders, Jaroslav Jan Pelikan ''Jesus'' Encyclopedia Britannica{{cite web, last=Schochet, first=Jacob Immanuel , title=Moshiach ben Yossef, work=Tutorial, publisher=moshiach.com , url=http://www.moshiach.com/discover/tutorials/moshiach_ben_yossef.php, access-date=2 December 2012, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021220182918/http://www.moshiach.com/discover/tutorials/moshiach_ben_yossef.php, archive-date=20 December 2002, url-status=dead{{cite web , date =2008 , title=Christianity: Severance from Judaism , website =Jewish Virtual Library , publisher =American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise, AICE , url =https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/christianity-2 , access-date=17 December 2018{{cite encyclopedia, last=Blidstein, first=Gerald J., year=2008 , title=Messiah , url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0014_0_13744.html , via=Jewish Virtual Library and , encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Judaica , publisher=The Gale Group, access-date=2 December 2012{{cite web, last=Flusser, first=David, title=Second Temple Period, url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0014_0_13744.html, work=Messiah, publisher=Encyclopaedia Judaica 2008 The Gale Group, access-date=2 December 2012{{cite web, last=Telushkin, first=Joseph, title=The Messiah, url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/messiah.html, publisher=The Jewish Virtual Library Jewish Literacy. NY: William Morrow and Co., 1991. Reprinted by permission of the author., access-date=2 December 2012{{cite web , last =Shiffman , first =Lawrence H. , date =2018 , title =How Jewish Christians Became Christians , website =My Jewish Learning , url =https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/how-jewish-christians-became-christians/
Further reading
Books
* Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. (ed.) ''The Cambridge Companion to Jesus''. Cambridge University Press (2001). {{ISBN, 0-521-79678-4.
* Bourgel, Jonathan, ''From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66–135/6 EC)''. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French). {{ISBN, 978-2-204-10068-7
* Raymond E. Brown, Brown, Raymond E.: ''An Introduction to the New Testament'' ({{ISBN, 0-385-24767-2)
* Conzelmann, H. and Lindemann A., ''Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis'', translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988.
* Dormeyer, Detlev. ''The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity'' (English translation), Sheffield 1998
* Dunn, James D.G. (ed.) ''The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul''. Cambridge University Press (2003). {{ISBN, 0-521-78694-0.
* Dunn, James D.G. ''Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity''. SCM Press (2006). {{ISBN, 0-334-02998-8.
* {{Cite book, last=Edwards, first=Mark, year=2009, title=Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church , publisher=Ashgate , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC , isbn=978-0754662914 , ref=none
* {{Citation , last =Fredriksen , first =Paula , year =2018 , title =When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation , publisher =Yale University Press , ref=none
* Freedman, David Noel (Ed). ''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000). {{ISBN, 0-8028-2400-5
* {{Citation , last =Hurtado , first =Larry , author-link =Larry Hurtado , year = 2005 , title = Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity , publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing , isbn =978-0-8028-3167-5 , url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k32wZRMxltUC , ref=none
* Burton L. Mack, Mack, Burton L.: ''Who Wrote the New Testament?'', Harper, 1996
* Mills, Watson E. ''Acts and Pauline Writings''. Mercer University Press (1997). {{ISBN, 0-86554-512-X.
* Malina, Bruce J.: ''Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient Judea.'' Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993
* Malina, Bruce J.: ''The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology''. 3rd edition, Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001
* Malina, Bruce J.: ''Social Science Commentary on the Gospel of John'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1998
* Malina, Bruce J.: ''Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 2003
* McKechnie, Paul. ''The First Christian Centuries: Perspectives on the Early Church''. Apollos (2001). {{ISBN, 0-85111-479-2
* Stegemann, Ekkehard and Stegemann, Wolfgang: ''The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century.'' Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1999
* Stegemann, Wolfgang, ''The Gospel and the Poor.'' Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 {{ISBN, 0-8006-1783-5
*Thiessen, Henry C. ''Introduction to the New Testament'', Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976
* Wilson, Barrie A. "How Jesus Became Christian". St. Martin's Press (2008). {{ISBN, 978-0-679-31493-6.
* Wright, N.T., "The New Unimproved Jesus", in ''Christianity Today'', 1993-09-13
* Theodor Zahn, Zahn, Theodor, ''Introduction to the New Testament, English translation'', Edinburgh, 1910.
Book series
* {{Citation , last =Dunn , first =James D.G. , year =2005 , title =Christianity in the Making Volume 1: Jesus Remembered , publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing , ref=none
* {{Citation , last =Dunn , first =James D.G. , year =2009 , title =Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem , publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing , ref=none
* {{Citation , last =Dunn , first =James D.G. , year =2009 , title =Christianity in the Making Volume 3: Neither Jew nor Greek , publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing , ref=none
External links
{{Wikiquote, First Century Christianity New Testament Reading Room Extensive online NT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary Scholarly articles on the New Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library
{{Christianity by century
, period = History of Christianity#Early Christianity, Early Christianity
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, years = 1st century, First century
, followed =Christianity in the ante-Nicene period, Christianity in the ante-Nicene period
{{Christian History, collapsed
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Christianity in the 1st century
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