The Army of Free Lebanon – AFL ( ar, جيش لبنان الحر, ''Jayish Lubnan al-Horr'') or "Colonel Barakat's Army" ( ar, جيش بركات, ''Jayish Barakat''), also designated Armée du Liban Libre (ALL) and Armée du Colonel Barakat in
French, was a predominantly
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
splinter faction of the
Lebanese Army
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
that came to play a major role in the
1975–77 phase of the Lebanese Civil War.
Emblem
Upon its formation, the AFL adopted as logo a rectangular (or square) red and blue 'flash' with a stylized white
Lebanese cedar tree in the middle, which was hastily painted on their armoured and transport vehicles; sometimes the motto 'Free Lebanon' (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: لبنان الحر , ''Lubnan al-Horr'') written in
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
was painted alongside the flash on the hull and turret of the tanks. In alternative, a greenish-yellow stencil, bearing the
Lebanese Armed Forces
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
(LAF) coat-of-arms was also applied.
Origins
The AFL began to be established on January 23, 1976, in
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
by Lebanese
Colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
Antoine Barakat who declared loyalty to the then President of Lebanon
Suleiman Frangieh
Suleiman Kabalan Frangieh, last name also spelled ''Frangié,'' ''Franjieh,'' or ''Franjiyeh'' (, 15 June 1910 – 23 July 1992), was a Lebanese Maronite politician who was President of Lebanon from 1970 to 1976.
Early life and education
Sulei ...
. A
Maronite
The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant region of the Middle East, whose members traditionally belong to the Maronite Church, with the larges ...
from Frangieh's hometown
Zgharta
Zgharta ( ar, زغرتا, syc, ܙܓܪܬܐ), also spelled Zghorta, is a city in North Lebanon, with an estimated population of around 50,000. It is the second biggest city in Northern Lebanon after Tripoli.
Zgharta is about 150 metres above sea ...
, Barakat rose with the troops of the Beirut Command (about 700 soldiers) in response for
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Ahmed Al-Khatib's rebellion two days earlier at the head of the breakaway
Lebanese Arab Army
The Lebanese Arab Army – LAA (Arabic: جيش لبنان العربي transliteration ''Jayish Lubnan al-Arabi''), also known as the Arab Army of Lebanon (AAL), Arab Lebanese Army or Armée du Liban Arabe (ALA) in French, was a predominantly ...
(LAA). Another officer, the head of
Jounieh
Jounieh ( ar, جونيه, or ''Juniya'', ) is a coastal city in Keserwan District, about north of Beirut, Lebanon. Since 2017, it has been the capital of Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate. Jounieh is known for its seaside resorts and bustling nightlife ...
garrison
Major
Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
Fouad Malek Fouad may refer to:
People with the single name
*Fuad I of Egypt (1868-1936), also spelled Fouad, sultan and later king of Egypt
*Fuad II of Egypt (born 1952), deposed infant king of Egypt Fictional characters
*Fouad (Family Guy), character in Amer ...
, supported the Barakat-led faction, as did
Major
Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
Saad Haddad
Saad Haddad ( ar, سعد حداد; 1936 – 14 January 1984) was the founder and head of the South Lebanon Army (SLA) during the Lebanese Civil War. For years Haddad was closely collaborating and receiving arms and political support from Israe ...
the commander of the
Marjayoun
Marjayoun ( ar, مرج عيون: Lebanese pronunciation), also Marj 'Ayoun, Marjuyun or Marjeyoun (lit. "meadow of springs") and Jdeideh / Jdeida / Jdeidet Marjeyoun, is a Lebanese town and an administrative district, the Marjeyoun District, i ...
garrison in
southern Lebanon
Southern Lebanon () is the area of Lebanon comprising the South Governorate and the Nabatiye Governorate. The two entities were divided from the same province in the early 1990s. The Rashaya and Western Beqaa Districts, the southernmost distric ...
. These three formations where eventually integrated into the "Army of Free Lebanon", whose creation was formally announced on March 13, 1976, by Col. Barakat at the Shukri Ghanem Barracks in the
Fayadieh district of East Beirut.
Structure
Field organization
Headquartered at Shukri Ghanem Barracks, a major military facility situated at
Fayadieh in the vicinity of the
Ministry of Defense
{{unsourced, date=February 2021
A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is an often-used name for the part of a government responsible for matters of defence, found in states ...
complex at
Yarze
Yarze ( ar, يرزة) is a village in Baabda District southeast of Beirut in Lebanon.
The headquarters of the Lebanese Ministry of Defense is located in Yarze. This facility includes the Lebanese Military Museum.
In October 1990, following Gen ...
, the AFL numbered some 3,000 uniformed regulars by 1978, mostly Christian
Maronites
The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant region of the Middle East, whose members traditionally belong to the Maronite Church, with the largest ...
and
Greek-Catholic The term Greek Catholic Church can refer to a number of Eastern Catholic Churches following the Byzantine (Greek) liturgy, considered collectively or individually.
The terms Greek Catholic, Greek Catholic church or Byzantine Catholic, Byzantine Ca ...
s. Like the LAA, the AFL also maintained a flexible structure unlike the old regular
Lebanese Armed Forces
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
(LAF), with the bulk of the force comprising some 1,500-2,000 soldiers from different Army units assembled into eight independent mixed combat groups (
French: ''Groupements'') of roughly company or battalion size. There was no set hierarchy, and rank and seniority meant little; performance in the field and political motivation propelled young Army officers – mostly
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
s – into leadership positions within the AFL combat groups. By February 1978, they were structured as follows:
*Group No 11 (
French: ''Groupement numéro 11'') – led by
Captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
Mounir Bejjani;
*Group No 12 (
French: ''Groupement numéro 12'') – led by
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
s Michel Abou Ghanem and Louis Khoury;
*Group No 14 (
French: ''Groupement numéro 14'') – led by Lt. Makhoul Hakmeh;
*Group No 16 (
French: ''Groupement numéro 16'') – led by
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
s Abdallah Hadchiti and Ghazi Ghattas;
*Group No 18 (
French: ''Groupement numéro 18'') – led by Maj.
Fouad Malek Fouad may refer to:
People with the single name
*Fuad I of Egypt (1868-1936), also spelled Fouad, sultan and later king of Egypt
*Fuad II of Egypt (born 1952), deposed infant king of Egypt Fictional characters
*Fouad (Family Guy), character in Amer ...
, later replaced by Lt. Wehbeh Katicha;
*Galerie Semaan Battalion – a mechanized unit, also led by Lt. Ghazi Ghattas;
*A company-sized contingent (subsequently expanded to battalion strength) from the Army
Para-commando regiment (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: فوج المغاوير transliteration ''Fauj al-Maghaweer'') led by
Captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
Samir el-Achkar.
All these units were permantely allocated at Fayadieh, serving under Col. Barakat's direct orders. Outside Beirut, a 200-strong battalion designated the "Akkar Brigade" (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: لواء عكار , ''Liwa' el-Akkar''), led by Lt.
Khalil Nader was stationed in the
Akkar District
Akkar District ( ar, قضاء عكار) is the only district in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon. It is coextensive with the governorate and covers an area of . The UNHCR estimated the population of the district to be 389,899 in 2015, including 106,935 ...
of
northern Lebanon. A 500-strong battalion under the title "Army of Lebanon" (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: جيش لبنان , ''Jayish Lubnan'') was based at the Raymond el-Hayek Barracks in
Sarba, north of
Jounieh
Jounieh ( ar, جونيه, or ''Juniya'', ) is a coastal city in Keserwan District, about north of Beirut, Lebanon. Since 2017, it has been the capital of Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate. Jounieh is known for its seaside resorts and bustling nightlife ...
headed by Maj. Malek, whilst another battalion of 700 men led by Maj. Haddad and designated the "
Marjayoun
Marjayoun ( ar, مرج عيون: Lebanese pronunciation), also Marj 'Ayoun, Marjuyun or Marjeyoun (lit. "meadow of springs") and Jdeideh / Jdeida / Jdeidet Marjeyoun, is a Lebanese town and an administrative district, the Marjeyoun District, i ...
–
Qlaiaa
Qlaiaa ( ar, القليعة) is a village in the Marjeyoun District in southern Lebanon. The inhabitants are mainly Maronite Christians.
Name
According to E. H. Palmer, the name means "the little castle".
History
In 1838, Eli Smith noted Qlaia ...
Formation" (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: تكوين مرجعيون - قليعة , ''Takwin Marjayoun – Qlaiaa''), was stationed at Marjayoun Barracks.
List of AFL commanders
*
Colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
Antoine Barakat (AFL commander-in-chief)
*
Major
Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
Fouad Malek
*
Major
Major (commandant in certain jurisdictions) is a military rank of commissioned officer status, with corresponding ranks existing in many military forces throughout the world. When used unhyphenated and in conjunction with no other indicators ...
Saad Haddad
Saad Haddad ( ar, سعد حداد; 1936 – 14 January 1984) was the founder and head of the South Lebanon Army (SLA) during the Lebanese Civil War. For years Haddad was closely collaborating and receiving arms and political support from Israe ...
*
Captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
Samir el-Achkar
*
Captain
Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...
Mounir Bejjani
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Abdallah Hadchiti
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Ghazi Ghattas
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Khalil Nader
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Michel Abou Ghanem
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Louis Khoury
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Makhoul Hakmeh
*
Lieutenant
A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations.
The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...
Wehbeh Katicha
Other AFL personnel
*
Sergeant
Sergeant (abbreviated to Sgt. and capitalized when used as a named person's title) is a rank in many uniformed organizations, principally military and policing forces. The alternative spelling, ''serjeant'', is used in The Rifles and other uni ...
Aql Hashem
Aql Hashem ( ar, عقل هاشم; 1952 – January 30, 2000), also spelled Akel Hashem, was a Colonel in the South Lebanon Army (SLA) and served under Colonel Saad Haddad and later Lieutenant General Antoine Lahad. He was killed in a remote-contro ...
Weapons and equipment
The AFL was equipped largely from stocks drawn from
Lebanese Army
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
reserves, with weapons taken directly from Army barracks and depots or channeled via the Christian rightist militias of the
Lebanese Front
The Lebanese Front ( ar, الجبهة اللبنانية, ''al-Jabha al-Lubnaniyya'') or ''Front Libanais'' in French, was a coalition of mainly Lebanese Nationalist parties formed in 1976 by majority Christian intellectuals during the Lebane ...
.
Small-arms
AFL infantry units were issued
FN FAL
The FAL (a French acronym for (English: "Light Automatic Rifle")), is a battle rifle designed in Belgium by Dieudonné Saive and manufactured by FN Herstal (simply known as FN).
During the Cold War the FAL was adopted by many countries of th ...
and
M16A1 assault rifles;
FN MAG
The FN MAG is a Belgian 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun, designed in the early 1950s at Fabrique Nationale (FN) by Ernest Vervier. It has been used by more than 80 countries and it has been made under licence in several countries, inc ...
and
M60 light machine guns were used as squad weapons, with heavier
Browning M1919A4 .30 Cal and
Browning M2HB .50 Cal machine guns being employed as platoon and company weapons. Officers and NCOs received
FN P35 and
MAB PA-15 pistol
The MAB PA-15 (''Pistolet Automatique 15'', also known as the ''P-15'' or ''P.15 Standard'') was a French semi-automatic pistol, designed by the Manufacture d'armes de Bayonne. The model number, 15, refers to the magazine capacity. The PA-15 was ...
s.
Grenade launchers and portable anti-tank weapons consisted of Belgian
RL-83 Blindicide,
M72 LAW
The M72 LAW (light anti-tank weapon, also referred to as the light anti-armor weapon or LAW as well as LAWS: light anti-armor weapons system) is a portable one-shot unguided anti-tank weapon. The solid rocket propulsion unit was developed in th ...
and Soviet
RPG-7
The RPG-7 (russian: link=no, РПГ-7, Ручной Противотанковый Гранатомёт, Ruchnoy Protivotankoviy Granatomyot) is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank, rocket-propelled grenade launcher. ...
anti-tank rocket launchers, whilst crew-served and indirect fire weapons comprised
M2 60mm mortars,
M30 4.2 inch (106.7mm) mortars and
120-PM-38 (M-1938) 120mm heavy mortars, plus
B-10 82mm and
M40A1 106mm recoilless rifle
A recoilless rifle, recoilless launcher or recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated "RR" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass such as propel ...
s.
Armoured and transport vehicles
Each combat group or fraction fielded conventional armour, infantry and artillery sub-units, provided with
Panhard AML-90
The Panhard AML (''Auto Mitrailleuse Légère'', or "Light Machine Gun Car") is an armoured car with reconnaissance capability. Designed on a lightly armoured 4×4 chassis, it weighs an estimated 5.5 tonnes, and is thus suitable for airborne depl ...
and 33
Staghound Mk.III armoured cars,
AMX-13
The AMX-13 is a French light tank produced from 1952 to 1987. It served with the French Army, as the Char 13t-75 Modèle 51, and was exported to more than 26 other nations. Named after its initial weight of 13 tonnes, and featuring a tough and re ...
and
M41A3 Walker Bulldog light tanks, four
M42 Duster
The M42 40 mm Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun, or "Duster," is an American armored light air-defense gun built for the United States Army from 1952 until December 1960, in service until 1988. Production of this vehicle was performed by the ...
SPAAG
An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability.
Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, ...
s, plus tracked
M113 and wheeled
Panhard M3 VTT armored personnel carrier
An armoured personnel carrier (APC) is a broad type of armoured military vehicle designed to transport personnel and equipment in combat zones. Since World War I, APCs have become a very common piece of military equipment around the world.
Acc ...
s.
For logistical support, Col. Barakat's troops relied on US
Willys M38A1 MD jeeps (or its civilian version, the
Jeep CJ-5
The Jeep CJ models are a series and a range of small, open-bodied off-road vehicles and compact pickup trucks, built and sold by several successive incarnations of the Jeep automobile marque from 1945 to 1986. The 1945 Willys Jeep was the world' ...
), US
M151A2 jeeps, US
Kaiser M715 jeeps,
Jeep Gladiator J20 pickup trucks,
Chevrolet C-10/C-15 Cheyenne light pickup trucks, and British
Land-Rover Mk IIA-III light pickups, plus
Chevrolet C-50 medium-duty,
Dodge F600 medium-duty,
Saviem SM8 TRM4000 4x4,
Berliet GBC 8KT 6x6, British
Bedford RL
The Bedford RL was the British military's main medium lorry, built by Bedford from the mid-1950s until the late 1960s. The lorry was based on the civilian Bedford S type, first introduced in 1950. They superseded the Bedford QL, and were in tur ...
lorries, Soviet
KrAZ 255 6x6,
GMC C7500 heavy-duty trucks and US
M35A1 and M35A2 2½-ton 6x6 cargo trucks. These liaison and transport vehicles were also employed as
gun truck
A gun truck is an armored vehicle with
one or more crew-served weapons, typically based on a commercial vehicle. Gun trucks often have improvised vehicle armor, such as scrap metal, concrete, gravel, or sandbags, which is added to a heavy truc ...
s (a.k.a.
technicals
Technicals may refer to:
* Technical (vehicle), an improvised fighting vehicle often used in civil conflict
* TECHNICALS, a clothing brand owned by Blacks Leisure Group
See also
* Technical (disambiguation)
* Cambridge Technicals
Cambridge Tech ...
) in the direct fire support role on AFL ground operations, armed with
heavy machine guns
A heavy machine gun (HMG) is significantly larger than light, medium or general-purpose machine guns. HMGs are typically too heavy to be man-portable (carried by one person) and require mounting onto a weapons platform to be operably stable or t ...
(HMGs),
recoilless rifles
A recoilless rifle, recoilless launcher or recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated "RR" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass such as propel ...
and
anti-aircraft
Anti-aircraft warfare, counter-air or air defence forces is the battlespace response to aerial warfare, defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It includes surface based, ...
autocannons
An autocannon, automatic cannon or machine cannon is a fully automatic gun that is capable of rapid-firing large-caliber ( or more) armour-piercing, explosive or incendiary shells, as opposed to the smaller-caliber kinetic projectiles (bull ...
. Artillery units relied on military trucks and
M5A1 artillery tractors to tow its field guns and howitzers.
Artillery
Their artillery formations fielded British
QF Mk III 25-Pounder field guns, Soviet
M-30 122mm (M-1938) Howitzers and French
Mle 1950 BF-50 155mm howitzers. Six British
Bofors 40mm L/60 anti-aircraft guns, six Yugoslav
Zastava M55
The Zastava M55, also designated 20/3-mm-M55, is a Yugoslavian/Serbian 20mm triple-barreled automatic anti-aircraft gun developed in 1955 and produced by Crvena Zastava (now Zastava Arms company) in Kragujevac, Serbia, for Yugoslav People's Army ...
20mm triple-barreled autocannons,
Hispano-Suiza HS.661 30mm single-barreled AA autocannons, and 24 Soviet
ZU-23-2
The ZU-23-2, also known as ZU-23, is a Soviet towed 23×152mm anti-aircraft twin-barreled autocannon. ZU stands for ''Zenitnaya Ustanovka'' (Russian: Зенитная Установка) – anti-aircraft mount. The GRAU index is 2A13.
Developm ...
23mm twin-barreled AA autocannons were also employed in the direct fire supporting role.
The AFL in the Lebanese civil war 1976-78
Closely allied with the Christian rightist militias of the
Lebanese Front
The Lebanese Front ( ar, الجبهة اللبنانية, ''al-Jabha al-Lubnaniyya'') or ''Front Libanais'' in French, was a coalition of mainly Lebanese Nationalist parties formed in 1976 by majority Christian intellectuals during the Lebane ...
, the AFL battled the leftist
Lebanese National Movement
The Lebanese National Movement (LNM) ( ar, الحركة الوطنية اللبنانية, ''Al-Harakat al-Wataniyya al-Lubnaniyya'') or Mouvement National Libanais (MNL) in French, was a front of leftist, pan-Arabist and Syrian nationalist p ...
(LNM) militias, the LAA and the
Palestine Liberation Organization
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO; ar, منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية, ') is a Palestinian nationalism, Palestinian nationalist political and militant organization founded in 1964 with the initial purpose of establ ...
(PLO) guerrilla factions at Beirut, but also fought in
northern Lebanon. On March 5, 1976, some 200 Christian AFL soldiers led by Lt.
Khalil Nader – who entitled themselves the "Lebanese Liberation Army" (LLA), and later became the "Akkar Brigade" – from the Jounieh garrison departed without permission from their commanding Officer to their home towns of
Al-Qoubaiyat and
Andaket
Andaket, Aandqet, ( ar, عندقت) is a Maronite Christian village in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon. History
In 1838, Eli Smith noted Andakid'' as a Maronite
The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnorel ...
in the
Akkar District
Akkar District ( ar, قضاء عكار) is the only district in Akkar Governorate, Lebanon. It is coextensive with the governorate and covers an area of . The UNHCR estimated the population of the district to be 389,899 in 2015, including 106,935 ...
of
Northern Lebanon, which were being threatened by LAA attacks and artillery bombardments.
On March 13 at Beirut, the AFL units from the Shukri Ghanem Barracks in
Fayadieh under Col. Barakat clashed with the Officer cadets of the adjoining
Military Academy
A military academy or service academy is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps. It normally provides education in a military environment, the exact definition depending on the country concerned. ...
, whose Commander supported
Brigadier general
Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...
Aziz El-Ahdab's failed coup attempt against President Frangieh, despite the fact that some officers from the AFL (Fouad Malek, Wehbeh Katicha, and Ghazi Ghattas) had signed a petition pledging their support to Gen. Ahdab's initiative. Later on March 25, Col. Barakat's troops bolstered the hard-pressed
Republican Guard battalion and
Marada Brigade militiamen loyal to President Frangieh in defending the
Presidential Palace at
Baabda
Baabda ( ar, بعبدا) is the capital city of Baabda District as well as the capital of Mount Lebanon Governorate, western Lebanon. Baabda was the capital city of the autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon. Baabda is known for the Ottoman Castle (t ...
from a two-pronged combined LNM-
Lebanese Arab Army
The Lebanese Arab Army – LAA (Arabic: جيش لبنان العربي transliteration ''Jayish Lubnan al-Arabi''), also known as the Arab Army of Lebanon (AAL), Arab Lebanese Army or Armée du Liban Arabe (ALA) in French, was a predominantly ...
(LAA) ground assault amid intense shelling, though prior to the attack the President had decamped to the safety of
Zouk Mikael
Zouk Mikael ( ar, زوق مكايل, also spelled Zuq Mikha'il or Zouk Mkayel) is a town and municipality in the Keserwan District of the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate in Lebanon. Its inhabitants are predominantly Melkite and Maronite Catholics.
The ...
, near
Jounieh
Jounieh ( ar, جونيه, or ''Juniya'', ) is a coastal city in Keserwan District, about north of Beirut, Lebanon. Since 2017, it has been the capital of Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate. Jounieh is known for its seaside resorts and bustling nightlife ...
, and later to
Kfour in the
Keserwan District
Keserwan District ( ar, قضاء كسروان, transliteration: ''Qaḍā' Kisrawān'') is a district (''qadaa'') in Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate, Lebanon, to the northeast of Lebanon's capital Beirut. The capital, Jounieh, is overwhelmingly Maroni ...
. They also provided armour and artillery support to the Christian militias on the closing stages of the
Battle of the Hotels
The Battle of the Hotels ( ar, معركة الفنادق, ''Maʿrakah al-Fanādiq,'' French: Front des Hotels), was a subconflict within the 1975–77 phase of the Lebanese Civil War which occurred in the Minet-el-Hosn hotel district of downto ...
, during which an artillery barrage fired by a unit under Barakat's command struck the campus of the
American University of Beirut
The American University of Beirut (AUB) ( ar, الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت) is a private, non-sectarian, and independent university chartered in New York with its campus in Beirut, Lebanon. AUB is governed by a private, aut ...
at
Rue Bliss in the neighboring
Ras Beirut
Ras Beirut ("Tip of Beirut") is an upscale residential neighborhood of Beirut. It has a mixed population of Christians, Muslims, Druze, and secular individuals. Ras Beirut is home to some of Beirut's historically prominent families, such as th ...
district, causing a number of casualties among the students.
On late March–early April 1976 the AFL, aided by the
Internal Security Forces
The Internal Security Forces Directorate ( ar, المديرية العامة لقوى الأمن الداخلي, al-Mudiriyya al-'aamma li-Qiwa al-Amn al-Dakhili; french: Forces de Sécurité Intérieure; abbreviated ISF) is the national police ...
(ISF), fought off successfully an attempt by the LAA and the
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) militia to raid their own Headquarters at the Shukri Ghanem Barracks complex in the Fayadieh district of
East Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
. Under the command of Maj.
Fouad Malek Fouad may refer to:
People with the single name
*Fuad I of Egypt (1868-1936), also spelled Fouad, sultan and later king of Egypt
*Fuad II of Egypt (born 1952), deposed infant king of Egypt Fictional characters
*Fouad (Family Guy), character in Amer ...
, AFL units resumed the same roles later in the sieges of the PLO-held
Palestinian refugee camps
Camps are set up by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip to accommodate Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA, who fled or were expelled during the 1948 Palestinian ...
of
Jisr el-Basha and
Tel al-Zaatar
The Siege of Tel al-Zaatar ( ar, حصار تل الزعتر, French: Siège de Tel al-Zaatar), alternatively known as the Massacre of Tel al-Zaatar, was an armed siege of Tel al-Zaatar (meaning ''Hill of Thyme'' in Arabic), a fortified, UNRWA-adm ...
at
East Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
between June and August 1976.
During the
Hundred Days' War
The Hundred Days War ( ar, حرب المئة يوم, ''Harb Al-Mia'at Yaoum,'' French: La Guerre des Cent Jours) was a subconflict within the 1977–82 phase of the Lebanese Civil War which occurred in the Lebanese capital Beirut. It was foug ...
in early February 1978, the AFL found itself besieged and bombarded by the
Syrian Army
" (''Guardians of the Homeland'')
, colors = * Service uniform: Khaki, Olive
* Combat uniform: Green, Black, Khaki
, anniversaries = August 1st
, equipment =
, equipment_label =
, battles = 1948 Arab–Israeli War
Six ...
in their Fayadieh barracks, though they later helped the
NLP Tigers and the newly constituted
Lebanese Forces' Command in driving the Syrians out from
East Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
.
Disbandment
In March 1977, the newly elected President of Lebanon
Elias Sarkis
Elias is the Greek equivalent of Elijah ( he, אֵלִיָּהוּ ''ʾĒlīyyāhū''; Syriac: ܐܠܝܐ ''Eliyā''; Arabic: الیاس Ilyās/Elyās), a prophet in the Northern Kingdom of Israel in the 9th century BC, mentioned in several hol ...
began slowly to reorganize the battered
Lebanese Armed Forces
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
(LAF) structure, which had split into four (or six, according to other sources) sectarian factions. The first fraction of the AFL to be re-integrated into the official battle order of the re-organized
Lebanese Army
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
in June 1977 was the Jounieh garrison, whose commander
Fouad Malek Fouad may refer to:
People with the single name
*Fuad I of Egypt (1868-1936), also spelled Fouad, sultan and later king of Egypt
*Fuad II of Egypt (born 1952), deposed infant king of Egypt Fictional characters
*Fouad (Family Guy), character in Amer ...
was promoted to
Colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
and sent to the
École de Guerre
École may refer to:
* an elementary school in the French educational stages normally followed by secondary education establishments (collège and lycée)
* École (river), a tributary of the Seine flowing in région Île-de-France
* École, Sav ...
in
Paris
Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
, where he deserted in 1978 to become head of the
Lebanese Forces (LF) official representation at the French Capital the following year. In March 1978 at Beirut, Col. Barakat handed over the
Fayadieh barracks back to the official authorities, thus effectively signalling the disbandment of the AFL and the return of his troops to the LAF structure. Surprisingly, instead of being court-marshalled for insubordination, Antoine Barakat was promoted to
Brigadier general
Brigadier general or Brigade general is a military rank used in many countries. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries. The rank is usually above a colonel, and below a major general or divisional general. When appointed ...
and appointed as Military Attaché to the
Embassy of Lebanon in Washington, D.C.
The Embassy of Lebanon in Washington, D.C. is the Lebanon, Republic of Lebanon's diplomatic mission to the United States. It is located at 2560 28th Street, Northwest, Washington, D.C., in the Woodley Park, Washington, D.C., Woodley Park neighborho ...
, where he retired. Nearly all the remaining AFL combat group commanders' were rapidly re-integrated into the LAF without receiving any punishment or sanction, which enabled them to pursue their military careers unimpeded – Lt. Makhoul Hakmeh eventually rose to the rank of
Colonel
Colonel (abbreviated as Col., Col or COL) is a senior military officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of ...
and went to serve with
General
A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of highest military ranks, high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air forces, space forces, and marines or naval infantry.
In some usages the term "general officer" refers t ...
Michel Aoun
Michel Naim Aoun ( ar, ميشال نعيم عون ; born 30 September 1933) is a Lebanese politician and former military general who served as the President of Lebanon from 31 October 2016 until 30 October 2022.
Born in Haret Hreik to a Mar ...
as commander of the
10th Airmobile Brigade during the
Elimination War in January–October 1990.
One notable exception was Captain Samir el-Achkar and his commando battalion (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: ''Maghaweer''), who contested the re-integration process. Accused on 23 February 1978 by Colonel
Sami El-Khatib, the commander of the
Arab Deterrent Force
The Arab Deterrent Force (ADF; ar, قوات الردع العربية) was an international peacekeeping force created by the Arab League in the extraordinary Riyadh Summit on 17–18 October 1976, attended only by heads of state from Egypt, Kuw ...
(ADF), of being the instigator of the incident that sparked the
Hundred Days' War
The Hundred Days War ( ar, حرب المئة يوم, ''Harb Al-Mia'at Yaoum,'' French: La Guerre des Cent Jours) was a subconflict within the 1977–82 phase of the Lebanese Civil War which occurred in the Lebanese capital Beirut. It was foug ...
, Capt. el-Achkar refused to be put on trial by a military court on charges of desertion and treason, rebelling a few days later with his troops by establishing the
Lebanese Army Revolutionary Command
Lebanese may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Lebanese Republic
* Lebanese people, people from Lebanon or of Lebanese descent
* Lebanese Arabic, the colloquial form of Arabic spoken in Lebanon
* Lebanese culture
* Lebanese cuisine ...
(LARC), another dissident faction of the
Lebanese Army
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
closely aligned with the
Kataeb Regulatory Forces
The Kataeb Regulatory Forces – KRF ( ar, قوى الكتائب النظامية, translit=Quwwāt al-Katāʾib an-Niẓāmiyyah) or Forces Regulatoires des Kataeb (FRK) in French, were the military wing of the right-wing Lebanese Christian Ka ...
(KRF) militia led by
Bashir Gemayel
Bachir Pierre Gemayel ( ; 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) was a Lebanese militia commander who led the Lebanese Forces, the military wing of the Kataeb Party in the Lebanese Civil War and was elected President of Lebanon in 1982.
...
. The crisis came to an abrupt end on 1 November that year, when the LAF Command ordered a raid by a 300-strong commando detachment from the
Counter-sabotage regiment (
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
: ''Moukafaha'') under the command of Captain
Michel Harrouk
Michel may refer to:
* Michel (name), a given name or surname of French origin (and list of people with the name)
* Míchel (nickname), a nickname (a list of people with the nickname, mainly Spanish footballers)
* Míchel (footballer, born 1963), ...
and Lieutenants
Maroun Khreich and
Kozhayya Chamoun on the LARC headquarters at
Mtaileb
Mtaileb or Mtayleb ( ar, المطيلب) is a suburb north of Beirut in the Matn District of Mount Lebanon Governorate in Lebanon.
Mtaileb I
Mtaileb I or Rabiya is an archaeological site located east northeast of Antelias in a wooded ravin ...
in the
Matn District
Matn ( ar, قضاء المتن, '), sometimes spelled Metn (or preceded by the article El, as in El Matn), is a district (''qadaa'') in the Mount Lebanon Governorate of Lebanon, east of the Lebanon's capital Beirut. The district capital is Jd ...
, which resulted in the wounding and subsequent death of Capt. Samir el-Achkar, followed by the full re-incorporation of his men into the official Para-commando Regiment's own structure.
A different fate however, awaited the ex-AFL troops of the Marjayoun garrison in the south. By late 1976, pressure from PLO and LNM-LAA militias finally forced Major
Saad Haddad
Saad Haddad ( ar, سعد حداد; 1936 – 14 January 1984) was the founder and head of the South Lebanon Army (SLA) during the Lebanese Civil War. For years Haddad was closely collaborating and receiving arms and political support from Israe ...
to evacuate the town and withdraw unopposed with his battalion to the village of
Qlaiaa
Qlaiaa ( ar, القليعة) is a village in the Marjeyoun District in southern Lebanon. The inhabitants are mainly Maronite Christians.
Name
According to E. H. Palmer, the name means "the little castle".
History
In 1838, Eli Smith noted Qlaia ...
, close to the border with
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
. Here Maj. Haddad and his men placed themselves under the protection of the
Israel Defense Forces
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF; he, צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל , ), alternatively referred to by the Hebrew-language acronym (), is the national military of the Israel, State of Israel. It consists of three servic ...
(IDF), eventually providing the cadre – after merging with local Christian,
Shia Muslim
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
and
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
militias, gathered since October 21 into the informal "Army for the Defense of South Lebanon" or ADSL (
French: ''Armée de Défense du Liban-Sud'' or ADLS) – of the so-called "Free Lebanese Army" (FLA), later to become known as the
South Lebanon Army
The South Lebanon Army or South Lebanese Army (SLA; ar, جيش لبنان الجنوبي, Jayš Lubnān al-Janūbiyy), also known as the Lahad Army ( ar, جيش لحد, label=none) and referred to as the De Facto Forces (DFF) by the United Nat ...
(SLA).
Chamussy (René) – Chronique d'une guerre: Le Liban 1975-1977 – éd. Desclée – 1978
/ref>
See also
* Battle of the Hotels
The Battle of the Hotels ( ar, معركة الفنادق, ''Maʿrakah al-Fanādiq,'' French: Front des Hotels), was a subconflict within the 1975–77 phase of the Lebanese Civil War which occurred in the Minet-el-Hosn hotel district of downto ...
* Hundred Days' War
The Hundred Days War ( ar, حرب المئة يوم, ''Harb Al-Mia'at Yaoum,'' French: La Guerre des Cent Jours) was a subconflict within the 1977–82 phase of the Lebanese Civil War which occurred in the Lebanese capital Beirut. It was foug ...
* Internal Security Forces
The Internal Security Forces Directorate ( ar, المديرية العامة لقوى الأمن الداخلي, al-Mudiriyya al-'aamma li-Qiwa al-Amn al-Dakhili; french: Forces de Sécurité Intérieure; abbreviated ISF) is the national police ...
* Lebanese Armed Forces
)
, founded = 1 August 1945
, current_form = 1991
, disbanded =
, branches = Lebanese Ground ForcesLebanese Air Force Lebanese Navy
, headquarters = Yarze, Lebanon
, flying_hours =
, websit ...
* Lebanese Arab Army
The Lebanese Arab Army – LAA (Arabic: جيش لبنان العربي transliteration ''Jayish Lubnan al-Arabi''), also known as the Arab Army of Lebanon (AAL), Arab Lebanese Army or Armée du Liban Arabe (ALA) in French, was a predominantly ...
* Lebanese Civil War
The Lebanese Civil War ( ar, الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية, translit=Al-Ḥarb al-Ahliyyah al-Libnāniyyah) was a multifaceted armed conflict that took place from 1975 to 1990. It resulted in an estimated 120,000 fatalities a ...
* Lebanese Front
The Lebanese Front ( ar, الجبهة اللبنانية, ''al-Jabha al-Lubnaniyya'') or ''Front Libanais'' in French, was a coalition of mainly Lebanese Nationalist parties formed in 1976 by majority Christian intellectuals during the Lebane ...
* Lebanese Forces
* List of weapons of the Lebanese Civil War
The Lebanese Civil War was a multi-sided military conflict that pitted a variety of local irregular militias, both Muslim and Christian, against each other between 1975 and 1990.
A wide variety of weapons were used by the different armies and ...
* South Lebanon Army
The South Lebanon Army or South Lebanese Army (SLA; ar, جيش لبنان الجنوبي, Jayš Lubnān al-Janūbiyy), also known as the Lahad Army ( ar, جيش لحد, label=none) and referred to as the De Facto Forces (DFF) by the United Nat ...
* Tel al-Zaatar massacre
The Siege of Tel al-Zaatar ( ar, حصار تل الزعتر, French: Siège de Tel al-Zaatar), alternatively known as the Massacre of Tel al-Zaatar, was an armed siege of Tel al-Zaatar (meaning ''Hill of Thyme'' in Arabic), a fortified, UNRWA-adm ...
*
* 4th Infantry Brigade (Lebanon)
* 7th Infantry Brigade (Lebanon)
The 7th Infantry Brigade (Lebanon) is a Lebanese Army unit that fought in the Lebanese Civil War, being active since its creation in June 1983.
Origins
In the aftermath of the June–September 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, President Amin G ...
* 10th Airmobile Brigade
Notes
References
*Alain Menargues, ''Les Secrets de la guerre du Liban: Du coup d'état de Béchir Gémayel aux massacres des camps palestiniens'', Albin Michel, Paris 2004. (in French)
*Beate Hamizrachi, ''The Emergence of South Lebanon Security Belt'', Praeger Publishers Inc., New York 1984.
*Chris McNab, ''20th Century Military Uniforms'' (2nd ed.), Grange Books, Kent 2002.
*Edgar O'Ballance
Major Edgar “Paddy” O'Ballance (17 July 1918, Dublin, Ireland – 8 July 2009, Wakebridge, Derbyshire, England) was an Irish-born British military journalist, researcher, defence commentator and academic lecturer specialising in intern ...
, ''Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92'', Palgrave Macmillan, London 1998.
*Éric Micheletti and Yves Debay, ''Liban – dix jours aux cœur des combats'', RAIDS magazine n.º41, October 1989 issue. (in French)
* Farid El-Kazen, ''The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon 1967-1976'', I.B. Tauris, London 2000.
*Itamar Rabinovich
Itamar Rabinovich ( he, איתמר רבינוביץ; born 1942) is the president of the Israel Institute (Washington and Jerusalem). He was Israel's Ambassador to the United States in the 1990s and former chief negotiator with Syria between 1993 ...
, ''The war for Lebanon, 1970-1985'', Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London 1989 (revised edition). , 0-8014-9313-7
*Joseph A. Kechichian, ''The Lebanese Army: Capabilities and Challenges in the 1980s'', Conflict Quarterly, Winter 1985.
*Joseph Hokayem, ''L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985)'', Lulu.com, Beyrouth 2012. , 1291036601 (in French)
*Moustafa El-Assad, ''Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks'', Blue Steel books, Sidon 2008.
*N.R. Jenzen-Jones & Damien Spleeters, ''Identifying & Tracing the FN Herstal FAL Rifle: Documenting signs of diversion in Syria and beyond'', Armament Research Services Pty. Ltd., Australia, August 2015.
*Oren Barak, ''The Lebanese Army – A National institution in a divided society'', State University of New York Press, Albany 2009.
*Paul Jureidini, R. D. McLaurin, and James Price, ''Military operations in selected Lebanese built-up areas, 1975-1978'', Aberdeen, MD: U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Technical Memorandum 11–79, June 1979.
*Philipe Naud, ''La Guerre Civile Libanaise - 1re partie: 1975-1978'', Steelmasters Magazine, August–September 2012, pp. 8–16.
*Rex Brynen, ''Sanctuary and Survival: the PLO in Lebanon'', Boulder: Westview Press, 1990.
*Robert Fisk
Robert Fisk (12 July 194630 October 2020) was a writer and journalist who held British and Irish citizenship. He was critical of United States foreign policy in the Middle East, and the Israeli government's treatment of Palestinians. His stanc ...
, ''Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War'', London: Oxford University Press, (3rd ed. 2001).
*Samer Kassis, ''30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon'', Beirut: Elite Group, 2003.
*Samer Kassis, ''Véhicules Militaires au Liban/Military Vehicles in Lebanon 1975-1981'', Trebia Publishing, Chyah 2012.
*Steven J. Zaloga, ''Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948-78'', Vanguard series 19, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1981.
*Thomas Collelo (ed.), ''Lebanon: a country study'', Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Headquarters, Department of the Army (DA Pam 550–24), Washington D.C., December 1987 (Third edition 1989).
*Tony Badran (Barry Rubin ed.), ''Lebanon: Liberation, Conflict, and Crisis'', Palgrave Macmillan, London 2010.
*Zachary Sex & Bassel Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'', Modern Conflicts Profile Guide Volume II, AK Interactive, 2021. ISBN 8435568306073
Further reading
*Denise Ammoun, ''Histoire du Liban contemporain: Tome 2 1943-1990'', Éditions Fayard, Paris 2005. (in French)
* Fawwaz Traboulsi, ''A History of Modern Lebanon: Second Edition'', Pluto Press, London 2012.
*Leila Haoui Zod, ''William Haoui, temoin et martyr'', Mémoire DEA, Faculté d'Histoire, Université Saint Esprit, Kaslik, Liban 2004. (in French)
* Jean Sarkis, ''Histoire de la guerre du Liban'', Presses Universitaires de France - PUF, Paris 1993. (in French)
* Samir Kassir, ''La Guerre du Liban: De la dissension nationale au conflit régional'', Éditions Karthala/CERMOC, Paris 1994. (in French)
* Marius Deeb, ''The Lebanese Civil War'', Praeger Publishers Inc., New York 1980.
* William W. Harris, ''Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions'', Princeton Series on the Middle East, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton 1997. , 1-55876-115-2
{{refend
External links
Army of Free Lebanon's M42 Duster SPAAG at Tell el-Zaatar, 1976.
Histoire militaire de l'armée libanaise de 1975 à 1990
(in French)
Pre-1975 Lebanese Army vehicles
Factions in the Lebanese Civil War
Lebanese factions allied with Israel
Phoenicianism