Ancient furniture was made of many different materials, including
reeds,
wood
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
,
stone
In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...
,
metal
A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...
s,
straws, and
ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals i ...
. It could also be decorated in many different ways. Sometimes furniture would be covered with
upholstery
Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather covers. The word also refers to the materials used to upholster something.
''Upholstery'' comes from the Middle English w ...
, upholstery being
padding
Padding is thin cushioned material sometimes added to clothes. Padding may also be referred to as batting when used as a layer in lining quilts or as a packaging or stuffing material. When padding is used in clothes, it is often done in an attempt ...
, springs,
webbing
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Webbing_is_a_strong_nylon_webbing_as_used_in_auto_racing_harnesses">auto_racing.html"_;"title="nylon_webbing_as ...
, and
leather
Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning, or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle, sheep, goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hog ...
. Features which would mark the top of furniture, called
finials, were common. To decorate furniture, contrasting pieces would be inserted into depressions in the furniture. This practice is called
inlay
Inlay covers a range of techniques in sculpture and the decorative arts for inserting pieces of contrasting, often colored materials into depressions in a base object to form Ornament (art), ornament or pictures that normally are flush with th ...
ing.
It was common for ancient furniture to have
religious
Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatur ...
or
symbolic purposes. The
Incans
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
had
chacmool
A chacmool (also spelled chac-mool) is a form of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican sculpture depicting a reclining figure with its head facing 90 degrees from the front, supporting itself on its elbows and supporting a bowl or a disk upon its stomach. Th ...
s which were dedicated to sacrifice. Similarly, in
Dilmun
Dilmun, or Telmun, ( Sumerian: , later 𒉌𒌇(𒆠), ni.tukki = DILMUNki; ar, دلمون) was an ancient East Semitic-speaking civilization in Eastern Arabia mentioned from the 3rd millennium BC onwards.
Based on contextual evidence, it was ...
they has sacrificial altars. In many civilizations, the furniture depended on wealth. Sometimes certain types of furniture could only be used by the upper class citizens. For example, in Egypt,
throne
A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the mona ...
s could only be used by the rich. Sometimes the way the furniture was decorated depended on wealth. For example, in Mesopotamia tables would be decorated with expensive
metal
A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...
s, chairs would be
padded with
felt
Felt is a textile material that is produced by matting, condensing and pressing fibers together. Felt can be made of natural fibers such as wool or animal fur, or from synthetic fibers such as petroleum-based acrylic or acrylonitrile or wood ...
, rushes, and
upholstery
Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather covers. The word also refers to the materials used to upholster something.
''Upholstery'' comes from the Middle English w ...
. Some chairs had metal
inlay
Inlay covers a range of techniques in sculpture and the decorative arts for inserting pieces of contrasting, often colored materials into depressions in a base object to form Ornament (art), ornament or pictures that normally are flush with th ...
s.
Mesopotamia
Sumeria
Materials
![Standard of Ur - Peace Panel - Sumer](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Standard_of_Ur_-_Peace_Panel_-_Sumer.jpg)
Most Sumerian furniture was constructed out of wood, reeds, and other
perishable
Decomposition or rot is the process by which dead organic substances are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars and mineral salts. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is ...
materials.
Sumerian records mention many kinds of wood. One example is a type of wood named Halub wood. It is described as a kind of wood used to make
bed
A bed is an item of furniture that is used as a place to sleep, rest, and relax.
Most modern beds consist of a soft, cushioned mattress on a bed frame. The mattress rests either on a solid base, often wood slats, or a sprung base. Many beds ...
s, bedframes, furniture legs, chairs, foot-stools, baskets, containers, drinking vessels, and other prestigious goods.
Timber
Lumber is wood that has been processed into dimensional lumber, including beams and planks or boards, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, w ...
, a wood which would have been
imported from
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
, was used for
carpentry.
Timber and Halub wood were not the only kinds of wood the Sumerians used. Some other types of wood were ''kusabku,'' ''Sulum Meluhi'' wood, and date palm. ''Kusakbu'' wood, which was either
teak
Teak (''Tectona grandis'') is a tropical hardwood tree species in the family Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests. ''Tectona grandis'' has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters ( pan ...
or
mangrove
A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in severa ...
wood, could be used for inlaying thrones with
lapis lazuli.
''Sulum Meluhi'' wood may have been
ebony
Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, coming from several species in the genus '' Diospyros'', which also contains the persimmons. Unlike most woods, ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely textured and has a mirror finish when ...
. However, no ebony has been found at archaeological sites. Another possibility is
rosewood
Rosewood refers to any of a number of richly hued timbers, often brownish with darker veining, but found in many different hues.
True rosewoods
All genuine rosewoods belong to the genus ''Dalbergia''. The pre-eminent rosewood appreciated ...
imported from
Harrapa
Harappa (; Urdu/ pnb, ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a mode ...
.
Date palm was imported from Meluhha. The source of date palm is a contentious topic. Because date palm grew in southern Mesopotamia, they may have not import date palm from a foreign country. Instead, it is possible that they imported a material similar to date palm.
Bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, ...
or
Sugarcane from
Magan
Magan may refer to:
Places
*Magan (civilization), also written Makan or Makkan, an ancient region referred to in Sumerian texts
*Magan, Russia, a rural locality (a ''selo'') in the Sakha Republic, Russia
*Magan Airport, an airport in the Sakha Re ...
was used by Sumerians. They described it as "reeds bundled together to look like wood."
More kinds of wood used by the Sumerians included
palmwood,
wicker wood,
hardwood. Kinds of wood were not the only materials in Sumeria. Felt, rushes, leather, skin, and wool were used to make materials such as padding and rugs. Metals such as bronze, copper, silver, and gold had many uses in Sumeria. They could be used for inlaying. Sometimes metals would be used to make rings for furniture legs.
Chairs
Beds,
stools, and
chairs made of
palmwood or woven reeds were used in Sumeria.
Wealthy citizens would have chairs padded with
felt
Felt is a textile material that is produced by matting, condensing and pressing fibers together. Felt can be made of natural fibers such as wool or animal fur, or from synthetic fibers such as petroleum-based acrylic or acrylonitrile or wood ...
, rushes, and leather upholstery.
The most expensive chairs were inlaid with
bronze,
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
,
silver
Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...
, and
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile me ...
. In Akkad, the finest furniture would be inlaid or overlaid with panels and ornaments of metals,
gemstones, ivory,
faience
Faience or faïence (; ) is the general English language term for fine tin-glazed pottery. The invention of a white pottery glaze suitable for painted decoration, by the addition of an oxide of tin to the slip of a lead glaze, was a major a ...
. Chairs would also have brightly colored
wood
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin ...
en and ivory finials depicting arms and bull's heads.
Sometimes these finials would be cast-bronze or carved-bone. Oftentimes the chairs would have bronze panels that had images of griffins and winged deities carved into them. The Royal Standard of Ur showcases the king of
Ur on a low-back chair with animal legs. The seats depicted on the Royal Standard were likely made of Rush and
Cane
Cane or caning may refer to:
*Walking stick or walking cane, a device used primarily to aid walking
* Assistive cane, a walking stick used as a mobility aid for better balance
*White cane, a mobility or safety device used by many people who are ...
. During this period of Sumerian history chairs were not used by the majority of people. Most people simply sat on the floor. Low-backed chairs with curved or flat seats and turned legs were incredibly common in the
Akkadian Empire
The Akkadian Empire () was the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia after the long-lived civilization of Sumer. It was centered in the city of Akkad () and its surrounding region. The empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one ...
.
Beds
Although there were beds in Sumeria, most people slept on the floor rather than beds. The Sumerian bed was a wooden bed on a wooden frame. The bed frame was a tall head-board decorated with pictures of birds and flowers.
Sometimes the bed's leg would be inlaid with precious metals and shaped to look like animal's paws.
Some Akkadian beds had ox-hoof feet.
The upper class in Sumeria would use leather, cloth strips, carefully woven reeds to form the sleeping platform.
Wealthy Mesopotamians had beds with wooden frames and mattresses stuffed with
cloth
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
, goat's hair,
wool
Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. ...
, or
linen. The marriage bed was an important kind of bed in Sumeria. It was where couples engaged in
sexual intercourse after a marriage. If the bride did not get pregnant, the marriage could be invalidated.
Mats
People would cover their floors with
mats woven from reeds, skin rugs, and woolen hangings.
During the early parts of Sumerian history, reed mats would be fastened to sticks and stuck into the ground or houses. Sometimes reed-mats were used to make houses. The roofs of certain houses would be flat mud spread out over mats. These mats would be supported by cross beams. Another way of supporting these huts was to tie bundles of reeds together and bend the top inwards. These bundles would serve as arches. Some food would have been sprayed over mats. For example, one Sumerian text explains that a person should spread cooked
mash over reed mats. Other Sumerian texts talk about covering chariots in reed mats. Mats could have also been used to cover skeletons.
Household furniture
It was uncommon for most houses to have a lot of furniture as most furniture was reserved for the wealthy.
The majority of furniture in Sumeria was made of
wicker wood. Storage
chests were common. Chests could be made from reed or wood. Some were elaborately carved.
Stools,
tables
Table may refer to:
* Table (furniture), a piece of furniture with a flat surface and one or more legs
* Table (landform), a flat area of land
* Table (information), a data arrangement with rows and columns
* Table (database), how the table d ...
, and reed mats were also common. Tables were used to hold meals or belongings. Wealthy Mesopotamians would decorate their tables with metals. Aside from chests and tables people would use
basket
A basket is a container that is traditionally constructed from stiff fibers and can be made from a range of materials, including wood splints, runners, and cane. While most baskets are made from plant materials, other materials such as horsehai ...
s made of reed, wicker wood, or straw; and bins made of sun-dried
clay
Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4).
Clays develop plasticity when wet, due to a molecular film of water surrounding the clay par ...
,
palmwood, or reeds for storage.
Sumerians would have household vessels made of clay, stone copper, and bronze. Braziers burning animal dung were used to heat homes.
People would light their houses by placing a wick made of reed or
wool
Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. ...
in
sesame seed
Sesame ( or ; ''Sesamum indicum'') is a flowering plant in the genus '' Sesamum'', also called benne. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cu ...
oil then lighting it.
Statues would usually be hidden inside houses in order to ward off evil spirits.
In Mesopotamian art, gods would often be depicted sitting on mountains or heaps of
produce
Produce is a generalized term for many farm-produced crops, including fruits and vegetables (grains, oats, etc. are also sometimes considered ''produce''). More specifically, the term ''produce'' often implies that the products are fresh and g ...
. Some
gods
A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
could be depicted as sitting on stools. These stools might represent
temple
A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
s or the god's seat on Earth. In Ancient Sumeria doors would be made out of wood or red ox-hide.
A variety of furniture dedicated to
relaxing existed in Ancient Mesopotamia. Some
ancient art
Ancient art refers to the many types of art produced by the advanced cultures of ancient societies with some form of writing, such as those of ancient China, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The art of pre-liter ...
depicts people lounging on
sofas.
The legs of the sofas had iron panels that depicted women and lions.
In Mesopotamia bathrooms would have had
bathtub
A bathtub, also known simply as a bath or tub, is a container for holding water in which a person or animal may bathe. Most modern bathtubs are made of thermoformed acrylic, porcelain-enameled steel or cast iron, or fiberglass-reinforced ...
s,
stools, jars, mirrors, and large water
pitchers
In baseball, the pitcher is the player who throws ("pitches") the baseball from the pitcher's mound toward the catcher to begin each play, with the goal of retiring a batter, who attempts to either make contact with the pitched ball or draw a ...
occasionally with a
pottery dipper. Rich Sumerians would have toilets and proper
drainage systems.
Archaeology
Because of the perishable materials common throughout Sumerian furniture,
archaeological evidence
The archaeological record is the body of physical (not written) evidence about the past. It is one of the core concepts in archaeology, the academic discipline concerned with documenting and interpreting the archaeological record. Archaeological ...
for Mesopotamian furniture is limited. The few sources we have consists of
artifacts the
Assyria
Assyria ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the ...
ns gained from their conquests.
From the Assyrian records we learn that Mesopotamian furniture was similar to Egyptian furniture. Although, it was heavier and had more curves then Egyptian furniture.
Another source for Sumerian furniture was depictions from the city of
Ur.
Babylonia
There are few sources for Babylonian furniture. As the Babylonians did not put any furniture in tombs, aside from a few drinking vessels and some jewelry, few examples of Babylonian furniture survive. There are also few surviving artistic depictions of Babylonian furniture, aside from a few
seals and
terracotta
Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic where the fired body is porous.
In applied art, craft, construction, and architecture, terracotta ...
s. Thus our main sources for Babylonian furniture are textual. One Babylonian text mentions large and small chests, as well as 60 different types of chairs. Each chair was of a different usage and materials. The source mentions the footstool, claiming that it is "for bathing, portable, for the worker, for the barber, for the road, for the seal cutter, for the metal-worker, for the potter." The text also mentions foot-rests and beds. Beds are described as "to sit on, to lie on, of reeds, with oxen-feet, with goat's hair, stuffed with wool, stuffed with goat hair, of Sumerian type," and "of Akkadian type" Babylonian wills often mention important pieces of furniture, such as chests to store textiles, clothing, beds, chairs and stools.
The few artistic depictions we have of Babylonian furniture showcase a variety of chairs and miniature models of beds. These chairs would often have their legs carved in the shape of claws, paws, or oxen-feet. Chairs from the
Old and
Middle Babylonian period with curved backs are depicted in
relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
s from the late third millennium BCE. Some plaques from the
reign of Gudea showcase chairs with sloped backs.
The beds would have been made of clay and had rectangular bed frames. It is common for these artistic depictions of beds to show a couple in the act of sexual intercourse.
Babylonian tables would be covered or inlaid with ivory. Depictions from the
Neo-Babylonian Period display eating scenes, with tables and chairs being used together. These tables also became more elaborate during this period.
Some household items include vessels for oil, wine, beer, and honey. Other household items include ladders, bowls, bowls,
mortars
Mortar may refer to:
* Mortar (weapon), an indirect-fire infantry weapon
* Mortar (masonry), a material used to fill the gaps between blocks and bind them together
* Mortar and pestle, a tool pair used to crush or grind
* Mortar, Bihar, a villag ...
, pestles, reed-mats, cushions, tables, chairs, grindstones, ovens, and furnaces. Reeds and
palm branch
The palm branch is a symbol of victory, triumph, peace, and eternal life originating in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean world. The palm ''( Phoenix)'' was sacred in Mesopotamian religions, and in ancient Egypt represented immortality. I ...
es were common materials used to make cheap everyday products such as mats, screens, boxes, containers, baskets, and colanders. Clay was a much more common material. It was used to make plates, jars, jugs, storage, and cooking tools. Metal, especially copper, was used to make cooking pots, mortars, and iron implements in
mills
Mills is the plural form of mill, but may also refer to:
As a name
* Mills (surname), a common family name of English or Gaelic origin
* Mills (given name)
*Mills, a fictional British secret agent in a trilogy by writer Manning O'Brine
Places Uni ...
The Babylonians were highly specialized in carpentry and "cabinet-making": they would
export
An export in international trade is a good produced in one country that is sold into another country or a service provided in one country for a national or resident of another country. The seller of such goods or the service provider is an ...
furniture to the
Assyria
Assyria ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the ...
ns and other civilizations. The most elaborate pieces were found in temples.
Assyria
![8th Century BCE Assyrian Plaque from Fort Shalmaneser](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/8th_Century_BCE_Assyrian_Plaque_from_Fort_Shalmaneser._in_Nimrud.jpg)
In Ancient Assyria plaques would be used as furniture. The Ancient Assyrians had carved
ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals i ...
pieces. They were used to make fan handles,
box
A box (plural: boxes) is a container used for the storage or transportation of its contents. Most boxes have flat, parallel, rectangular sides. Boxes can be very small (like a matchbox) or very large (like a shipping box for furniture), and can ...
es, and furniture inlays. The furniture would commonly depict
flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...
s. There was a wide variety of Assyrian chairs. Some chairs had backs and arms, some resembled a
footstool
A footstool (foot stool, footrest, foot rest) is a piece of furniture or a support used to elevate the foot. There are two main types of footstool, which can be loosely categorized into those designed for comfort and those designed for func ...
. Sometimes Assyrian chairs would be placed so high a footstool was required to sit on them. Chairs and footstool would be furnished with cushions covered in
tapestries
Tapestry is a form of textile art, traditionally woven by hand on a loom. Tapestry is weft-faced weaving, in which all the warp threads are hidden in the completed work, unlike most woven textiles, where both the warp and the weft threads may ...
. Wealthier Assyrians would also furnish their
couches and bed frames with tapestries. Poorer Assyrians would have a single mattress instead of a bed. Assyrian tables had four legs, often these legs would be inlaid with ivory. Other metals could be inlaid into chairs and sofas. Households would also have bronze
tripod
A tripod is a portable three-legged frame or stand, used as a platform for supporting the weight and maintaining the stability of some other object. The three-legged (triangular stance) design provides good stability against gravitational loads ...
s for the purpose of holding
vase
A vase ( or ) is an open container. It can be made from a number of materials, such as ceramics, glass, non-rusting metals, such as aluminium, brass, bronze, or stainless steel. Even wood has been used to make vases, either by using tree species ...
s of
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grapes. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are m ...
and
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an Inorganic compound, inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living ...
. Some vases were made of
terracota
Terracotta, terra cotta, or terra-cotta (; ; ), in its material sense as an earthenware substrate, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic where the fired body is porous.
In applied art, craft, construction, and architecture, terracotta ...
, these vases could also be glazed with a blue vitrified substance resembling vases used by the Egyptians. The tripods used to hold these vases had feet shaped to resemble oxen or clinched hands.
Egypt
Chairs
Old Kingdom
Tombs dating back to the
First Dynasty have wooden furniture. This furniture is usually decorated with basketry motifs, ivory inlays, hippopotamus and elephant ivories, and it was finely carved in the shape of bull legs. The base of each leg, terminated in a ribbed cylinder design to protect the foot of the support. Furniture legs were finished with the pedestal feet.
The chair developed from the stool in the
second dynasty
The Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt (or Dynasty II, c. 2890 – c. 2686 BC) is the latter of the two dynasties of the Egyptian Archaic Period, when the seat of government was centred at Thinis. It is most known for its last ruler, K ...
. A stele found in a
tomb
A tomb ( grc-gre, τύμβος ''tumbos'') is a repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber, of varying sizes. Placing a corpse into a tomb can be called ''immureme ...
from this time period depicts
Prince Nisuheqet sitting on a chair. The chair has a high back made of plain sawn boards.
[KILLEN, GEOFFREY. ''Ancient Egyptian Furniture Volume I: 4000 – 1300 BC''. 2nd ed., vol. 1, Oxbow Books, 2017. ''JSTOR'', www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1m321gz. Accessed 11 Jan. 2021.] Suggesting that the earliest chairs were used by the wealthy. Egyptian chairs likely continued to be
status symbols. In another tomb, this time from the
third dynasty
The Third Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty III) is the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Other dynasties of the Old Kingdom include the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth. The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was at Memphis.
Overview
Af ...
, more depictions of chairs are found.
King
Khafre's chair is shown to imitate animal parts. This design feature is not unique to Old Kingdom furniture, it existed in even
Predynastic times. However, the innovation of using animal
hooves
The hoof (plural: hooves) is the tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, which is covered and strengthened with a thick and horny keratin covering. Artiodactyls are even-toed ungulates, species whose feet have an even number of digits, yet the rumi ...
as a decoration for furniture is new to the
Fourth Dynasty. This decoration could have been fashioned from ivory. Animal legs were usually supported on a small cone-shaped pedestal.
In the Old Kingdom, a system of leather straps would have been used to build the seats of chairs. This type of design appeared throughout the chairs during other periods of Egyptian chairs.
Middle Kingdom
In the
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The Period of Reunification) is the period in the history of ancient Egypt following a period of political division known as the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately ...
chairs were still straight legged with cushioned backs and upholstered vertical backs. During this period, chairs became more
stylized
In the visual arts, style is a "...distinctive manner which permits the grouping of works into related categories" or "...any distinctive, and therefore recognizable, way in which an act is performed or an artifact made or ought to be performed a ...
. The legs of these chairs were animal shaped, however instead of bovine shaped, they were slender and
gazelle
A gazelle is one of many antelope species in the genus ''Gazella'' . This article also deals with the seven species included in two further genera, '' Eudorcas'' and '' Nanger'', which were formerly considered subgenera of ''Gazella''. A third ...
shaped or
lion shaped. The joints were no jointed and tied together with
leather
Leather is a strong, flexible and durable material obtained from the tanning, or chemical treatment, of animal skins and hides to prevent decay. The most common leathers come from cattle, sheep, goats, equine animals, buffalo, pigs and hog ...
. Instead they were
glued and
dwelled. Chairs in this period were now designed to be shaped like the human back. The backs of chairs were carved from wooden blocks or angled battens. Steles dating back to the Middle Kingdom showcase chairs elevated on small platforms and deeply recessed back supports with a center supporting a strut. Inlays or paintwork simulating animal skins may have been used to decorate chairs.
Another Middle Kingdom chair, called the Anderson chair, has an
ornament made of alternating light and dark wood on its back. Circular inlays on the back of the chair and bones on the top rail are also present. Like other Egyptian chairs, the legs were carved to appear like a lion's legs. The feet were carved on horizontally lined
spools and wide tenons that are fastened with pegs and mortised joints are used on the chair. The chair was shaped through downwards sloping and conclave curving to conform to the
lumbar area in the back. The outer back consists of three straight splats and seven vertical strips both of which mortised at the top and bottom. Mortises, along with wide tenons, were used to make the joints of this chair.
New Kingdom
Eighteenth Dynasty
Much of the old Egyptian furniture which still survives to this day has only survived due to the ancient Egyptians beliefs about the
afterlife. Furniture would be placed in tombs, and a result would survive to the modern day.
However, much of this furniture is from the New Kingdom of Egypt, and specifically the 18th Dynasty. Chairs from the
eighteenth dynasty of Egypt had legs made out of a square sectioned wood. The tenons on the side rail passed through the top of each leg at top right angles. The rails, combined with curved braces pegged into the chair would hold up the back of the chair.
The joints would have wedged to give the frame rigidity. The
webbing
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of the sting passes through holes drilled into the chair. A vertical
bridle joint
A bridle joint is a woodworking joint, similar to a mortise and tenon, in that a tenon is cut on the end of one member and a mortise is cut into the other to accept it. The distinguishing feature is that the tenon and the mortise are cut to the ...
connected to the legs springs off two vertical back legs. The legs of the chairs would be made in the style of animals. Some legs were of oxen,
Amenhotep III is depicted as being seated on a low-back lion legged chair. Sometimes the back support of the chairs would be added through an upright cut into a piece of wood. The top rail of the back support would be held together by upright extensions. Beneath these extensions would lie a frame of the back support which would enclose vertical panels.
Another open back chair has finely carved legs shaped like a lion. The back legs of this chair are not extended like the previous chair, however an additional vertical element is jointed to the seat above and the back legs. Seven inclined boards are used to ouch or ''
klinē'', in metal and reconstructed woconstruct the back panels of the chair. Between each of these boards thinner stringing strips of alternatively colored wood. The outer strips are
miter in the corners and the panels are framed with horizontal strips of wood. A single elbowed bracket and a
pin joint are used to hold the seat together. The elbow bracket is made of a light colored wood with dark
veneers, which were cut to fit the shape of the wood. They were then attached to the side rails and the back support by
dowels.
A different kind of open back chair was found at
Lahun. Each joint was glued and held together by two dowels. Although a single dowel was used to mortise, tenoned, and dwell the seats to the side rail. A hole would be drilled through the joints allowing string to pass through it, strengthening the seat frame. Mortise and tenons on the would be used to attach the chairs back panel. The chairs back panel was constructed out of vertical panels of wood placed into frame. The outer frame was mortised and tenoned together. Horizontal joints would be used to joint together the bottom rail and vertical rail of the frame. In the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
an ancient Egyptian chair is preserved. This chair is constructed out of
buxus
''Buxus'' is a genus of about seventy species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box or boxwood.
The boxes are native to western and southern Europe, southwest, southern and eastern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, northernmost South ...
and
acaia wood. The seat is supported by lion shaped legs on a drum. Many opposing colored wood panels and strips were used to make the back of the chair. On another frame of wood placed above this
symbols of the
god
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
Bes BES or Bes may refer to:
* Bes, Egyptian deity
* Bes (coin), Roman coin denomination
* Bes (Marvel Comics), fictional character loosely based on the Egyptian deity
Abbreviations
* Bachelor of Environmental Studies, a degree
* Banco Espírito ...
were carved. A similar chair has been preserved by the
National Museum of Scotland
The National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, Scotland, was formed in 2006 with the merger of the new Museum of Scotland, with collections relating to Scottish antiquities, culture and history, and the adjacent Royal Scottish Museum (opened in ...
, however the seat of this chair is supported by four round-top legs which are transfixed at right angles by the seat rails.
In a tomb belonging to
Senenmut's mother
Hatnofer a chair made of boxwood and ebony has been found. The seat of the chair was made of string mesh composed of triple stands of linen cords interwoven into a herring bone pattern. Its legs are carved to look like lion legs. Mortise and tenon joints were used to hold the chair together. An openwork design of the god Bes also appears on the chair. It is flanked by symbols of
Isis
Isis (; ''Ēse''; ; Meroitic: ''Wos'' 'a''or ''Wusa''; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎, romanized: ʾs) was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Isis was first mentioned in the Old Kin ...
and
Osiris
Osiris (, from Egyptian ''wsjr'', cop, ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ , ; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎𐤓, romanized: ʾsr) is the god of fertility, agriculture, the afterlife, the dead, resurrection, life, and vegetation in ancient Egyptian religion. He wa ...
made of ebony. This chair did not belong to Senenmut, it belonged to his mother Hatnofer. Another chair, of a similar type to Hatnofer's chair, had a wooden back frame with no
marquetry
Marquetry (also spelled as marqueterie; from the French ''marqueter'', to variegate) is the art and craft of applying pieces of veneer to a structure to form decorative patterns, designs or pictures. The technique may be applied to case fur ...
that enclosed five vertical slats. A dark reddish hardwood was used to build this chair. This chair was once veneered with strips of ebony and ivory. Lion shaped legs were used to support the chair.
Double cove chairs were rare in ancient Egypt. One example, likely paid for through
tribute
A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of land which the state conqu ...
s or
commerce
Commerce is the large-scale organized system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions directly and indirectly related to the exchange (buying and selling) of goods and services among two or more parties within local, regional, nation ...
, has legs fashioned like lions and ivory claws. The "shoes" were made of ivory, gold, and gilded bronze. It is set upon
gilded bronze drums. This was done to elevate the user, both literally and metaphorically. Ebony, which was rare and valuable in ancient Egypt was used to make the chair. Four wooden stretchers would be docked between the lion legs with dowels. This would be reinforced with gilded bronze. Dowels from each stretcher extended to the seat of the chair. Thus reinforcing it.
File:Reniseneb's Chair.png, Renseneb's Chair
File:Hatnefer's Chair.png, Hatnofer's Chair
File:Depiction on the back of a chair.png, A depiction on the back of Hatnofer's chair. The amulets are on the sides. The pillars on the ends.
File:Egyptian Bed or Chair Legs.png, Egyptian Bed or Chair Legs from the New Kingdom. The left one is of a bull, the right is of another animal.
File:Egyptian Armchair With a cushion hanging over its back.png, Egyptian Armchair with a cushion hanging over its back
File:A lion-legged Egyptian Chair.png, A lion legged Egyptian chair
File:Chair with box seat and vulture arm.png, Chair with a box seat and a vulture arm
File:Ancient Egyptian Chair.png, An Egyptian chair, one of the oldest in the world
File:Amenhotep III sitting in a Lion legged chair.png, Amenhotep III sitting in a Lion legged chair. (1411-1375 BCE).
= Chairs from the Tomb of Tutankhamen
=
The chairs from Tutankhamen's tomb were highly decorated with imported ebony and ivory inlay. They were also made for ceremonial purposes.
Funerary paraphernalia was common amongst these chairs.
![Petit fauteuil de Toutânkhamon 2019](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Petit_fauteuil_de_Tout%C3%A2nkhamon_2019.jpg)
A child's chair with lion legs fashioned from wood and sat upon drums carved from bronze plates beaten around wooden plates was found in the
Tomb of Tutankhamen. The entire frame of this chair was
gesso
Gesso (; "chalk", from the la, gypsum, from el, γύψος) is a white paint mixture consisting of a binder mixed with chalk, gypsum, pigment, or any combination of these. It is used in painting as a preparation for any number of substrates suc ...
ed. Three vertical members were used to support the back rest. A
hawk with partially open wings holding a
cartouche
In Egyptian hieroglyphs, a cartouche is an oval with a line at one end tangent to it, indicating that the text enclosed is a royal name. The first examples of the cartouche are associated with pharaohs at the end of the Third Dynasty, but the f ...
of the kings name is depicted on the panel.
Another chair found in the Tomb of Tutankhamen was likely made of
cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
wood and it had feline legs placed on a drum covered in gold sheet and set upon bronze pads. The claws of the chair are inlaid with ivory. Three gold capped dowels, along with a mortise and tenon would be used to pin the legs to the seat. Two cartouches, each being of the
Pharaoh
Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until the ...
s name are on the sides of this symbol. Three carved panels jointed into the both the bottom and the top rails are used to make the openwork
carving
Carving is the act of using tools to shape something from a material by scraping away portions of that material. The technique can be applied to any material that is solid enough to hold a form even when pieces have been removed from it, and ...
on the chair. Images of the god Heh holding an ankh and palm stems. Some of these are the heads of dowels connected to the elements.
![Egyptian Museum 000 (37)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Egyptian_Museum_000_%2837%29.jpg)
A golden chair from Tutankhamen's tomb has no double cove seat, and it is covered in gold
sheet. While the drum is covered in bronze. Part of the
Pschent
The pschent (; Greek '' ψχέντ'') was the double crown worn by rulers in ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians generally referred to it as sekhemty (''sḫm.ty''), the Two Powerful Ones. It combined the White Hedjet Crown of Upper Egypt and ...
is depicted on the chair. It is made of silver and depicted on wood.
Turquoise
Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula . It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gemstone and ornamental stone for thousands of year ...
colored glass is used to inlay the claws. Decorative Lower Egyptian papyrus flowers and Upper Egyptian lilly ornaments are beneath the seat. A sing depicting the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt is also present on the underside of the chair. Both of the legs have lion's heads as a
capital. A single golden sheet would have been beaten and worked around a wooden core. The eyes would have been inlaid inside of this. This resembles a uraeus cobra wearing the Pschent supporting a cartouche of the kings name.
[Trindade Lopes, M. H., Rosa, M. D. F., & Gomes de Almeida, I. (2020). ''Antiquity and Its Reception: Modern Expressions of the Past''. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82132]
Stools
Stools did not come into being in Egypt until the 18th Dynasty. Still, the majority of people did not have chairs, so stools were most people's only option for comfortable seating. This resulting in stools becoming one of the most common kinds of furniture. They were usually made with four legs, a slightly curved seat, and latticework bracing. The most simple ones were made of three legs with a solid, flat, wooden slab seat. Another type of folding stool had crossed legs and a leather fabric seat. This stool used
goose
A goose ( : geese) is a bird of any of several waterfowl species in the family Anatidae. This group comprises the genera ''Anser'' (the grey geese and white geese) and '' Branta'' (the black geese). Some other birds, mostly related to the ...
and duck heads to form the lower end of the seat. It is likely this kind of stool was used for personal travel. Three small 18th Dynasty stools have plaited rush seats and short sturdy legs. Such stools, despite being six inches high and a foot square, were employed as seats rather than footstools. Other 18th Dynasty chairs had four slender cylindrical legs with waisted lower parts decorated with bands of incised rings. Light horizontal stretchers found within the legs indicate that all parts of the stool were the same in the three primary dimensions. This chair was made of a dark heavy hardwood, likely tamarisk, and a light softwood, possibly pine. The rushwork seats were made of string mesh and leather. Ceremonial stools would be blocks of stone or wood. If the stool was made out of wood it would have a
flint
Flint, occasionally flintstone, is a sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as the variety of chert that occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Flint was widely used historically to make stone tools and sta ...
seat.
Footstool
A footstool (foot stool, footrest, foot rest) is a piece of furniture or a support used to elevate the foot. There are two main types of footstool, which can be loosely categorized into those designed for comfort and those designed for func ...
s were made of wood. The Royal Footstool had enemies of Egypt painted on the footstool, so that way the pharaoh could symbolically crush them.
Stools used by the
upper-class
Upper class in modern societies is the social class composed of people who hold the highest social status, usually are the wealthiest members of class society, and wield the greatest political power. According to this view, the upper class is gen ...
would have upward sweeping corners and woven leather seats, with a padded cushion on top.
Beds
Most Egyptians did not use beds as only the wealthy had access to them.
Ancient beds found in the tombs of
Tutankhamen
Tutankhamun (, egy, twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn), Egyptological pronunciation Tutankhamen () (), sometimes referred to as King Tut, was an Egyptian pharaoh who was the last of his royal family to rule during the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ruled ...
and
Hetepheres {{Use dmy dates, date=May 2012
Hetepheres is the name of several queens, princesses and noble women from the Fourth dynasty of Egypt.
* Hetepheres I, wife of Pharaoh Sneferu and mother of Khufu
* Hetepheres A, daughter of Sneferu, wife of Ankhhaf ...
tended to resemble that of an animal, usually a bull. The beds sloped up towards the head, and down towards the foot. To prevent the sleeper from falling off the bed, there was a wooden
footboard. Wood or ivory headrests were used instead of pillows. It is possible that the headrests served ceremonial purposes. They may have been used exclusively for the heads of dead pharaohs.
To upholster the beds, leather and fabrics were used to support the mattress; Egyptians would weave leather strips into the open holes of the bed frame. Royal beds would often be gilded and richly decorated. Beds were constructed out of wood and had a simple framework that was supported by four legs. A plaited flax cord was lashed to the side of the framework. The flax cords were used in weaving together opposite sides of the framework to form an elastic surface for the user.
Also found inside of the tomb of Hetepheres, was a royal
canopy
Canopy may refer to:
Plants
* Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests)
* Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes
Religion and ceremonies
* Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an ...
. This royal canopy was encased in gold, and from it hung curtains. Either for privacy or to keep out
insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s.
Other beds consisted of a simple frame standing on short legs, with a network of lacing to support a mattress pad of folded linen. A typical bed sloped down from head to foot, ending in a vertical footboard. The frame had a series of holes drilled to accommodate the cross lacing that provided the sleeping surface.
Another kind of bed was called a box-bed. These structures were built into the wall and were painted with images of Bes and
Taweret
In Ancient Egyptian religion, Taweret (also spelled Taurt, Tuat, Tuart, Ta-weret, Tawaret, Twert and Taueret, and in Greek, Θουέρις – Thouéris, Thoeris, Taouris and Toeris) is the protective ancient Egyptian goddess of childbirth and ...
demonstrating a fertility function. Some box-beds contain
limestone
Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms whe ...
headrests, and a fragment of a female statue. This indicates that the box-bed may have been used for sexual purposes. Another theory is that these beds were used for childbirth. However, this is unlikely, as the beds would not be suitable for the way childbirth was practiced in Ancient Egypt. In Egypt, the mother would squat whilst giving birth, this was impossible in this bad.
Tables
![Tables from sculptures at Thebes](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Tables_from_sculptures_at_Thebes.png)
Tables were rare in ancient Egypt. The earliest Egyptian tables were carved from stone and made with very low projections to keep the table surface off the ground. Later, in the Old Kingdom, tables would develop longer legs and be braced with a stretcher between them. The most common tables were either round, square, or oblong.
Round tables were usually made of a circular flat summit which was supported by a single leg in the center. Some had three legs, and large tables had four legs. Sometimes a figure of a man, usually representative of a captive, was used to support the table instead of a leg. Tables were made of wood, willow, or wicker. Although some were made of metal or stone.
They were used for games and dining. A game called Mehen would be played on a one legend table carved or inlaid into the shape of a snake. The Egyptians also had offering tables made of stone which would be placed in home shrines or tombs. Lightweight tables made of reeds could be made of reeds. Most Egyptians did not have access to tables, instead stands were commonly used.
Materials
Wood
Wood was a common material used in furniture production despite its scarcity. The woods native to Egypt were incredibly rare and of inferior quality to woods imported from elsewhere. The most common types of wood were
sycamore
Sycamore is a name which has been applied to several types of trees, but with somewhat similar leaf forms. The name derives from the ancient Greek ' (''sūkomoros'') meaning "fig-mulberry".
Species of trees known as sycamore:
* ''Acer pseudoplata ...
,
elm
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the flowering plant genus ''Ulmus'' in the plant family Ulmaceae. They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting the temperate and tropical-montane regions of North ...
, date palm,
poplar,
turkey oak Turkey oak is a common name for several species of oaks and may refer to:
*''Quercus cerris'', native to southeastern Europe and Asia Minor
*''Quercus laevis
''Quercus laevis'', the turkey oak, is a member of the red oak group of oaks. It is n ...
,
spruce,
olive wood
The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'', meaning 'European olive' in Latin, is a species of small tree or shrub in the family Oleaceae, found traditionally in the Mediterranean Basin. When in shrub form, it is known as ''Olea europaea'' 'M ...
,
walnut
A walnut is the edible seed of a drupe of any tree of the genus ''Juglans'' (family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, '' Juglans regia''.
Although culinarily considered a "nut" and used as such, it is not a true ...
,
oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ''L ...
,
sidr,
ash
Ash or ashes are the solid remnants of fires. Specifically, ''ash'' refers to all non-aqueous, non- gaseous residues that remain after something burns. In analytical chemistry, to analyse the mineral and metal content of chemical samples, ash ...
,
cypress,
acacia,
box
A box (plural: boxes) is a container used for the storage or transportation of its contents. Most boxes have flat, parallel, rectangular sides. Boxes can be very small (like a matchbox) or very large (like a shipping box for furniture), and can ...
,
chestnut and
tamarisk
The genus ''Tamarix'' (tamarisk, salt cedar, taray) is composed of about 50–60 species of flowering plants in the family Tamaricaceae, native to drier areas of Eurasia and Africa. The generic name originated in Latin and may refer to the Ta ...
.
Maple
''Acer'' () is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated since http ...
,
beech, and
cherry were also used. However, their usage was far more limited than the other woods.
Carob
The carob ( ; ''Ceratonia siliqua'') is a flowering evergreen tree or shrub in the Caesalpinioideae sub-family of the legume family, Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit pods, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and lands ...
,
fig
The fig is the edible fruit of ''Ficus carica'', a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Moraceae. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world ...
s,
doum palm, and persea may have also been used. Hardwoods such as
cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
,
juniper, and
ebony
Ebony is a dense black/brown hardwood, coming from several species in the genus '' Diospyros'', which also contains the persimmons. Unlike most woods, ebony is dense enough to sink in water. It is finely textured and has a mirror finish when ...
were also used. Some woods were imported from
Syria and
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
, such as
cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
,
fir,
pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts ...
,
yew, and possibly
birch
A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains ...
. Timber would have been imported from other nations as well. Large pieces of timber were tied to an upward post, and they were cut downwards with short saws.
Common Woods
Acacia was one of the most common woods used to make furniture in the Ancient Near East. Egypt primarily imported it from
Nubia
Nubia () (Nobiin: Nobīn, ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), or ...
. This wood was not unique to Nubia, it existed throughout much of the
Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
. Acacia was not the only common wood in Egypt. Cypress wood,
Lebanese Cedar
''Cedrus libani'', the cedar of Lebanon or Lebanese cedar (), is a species of tree in the genus cedrus, a part of the pine family, native to the mountains of the Eastern Mediterranean basin. It is a large evergreen conifer that has great reli ...
,
Cedrus libanotica, and
Cedrus Atlantica
''Cedrus atlantica'', the Atlas cedar, is a species of tree in the pine family Pinaceae, native to the Rif and Atlas Mountains of Morocco (Middle Atlas, High Atlas), and to the Tell Atlas in Algeria.Gaussen, H. (1964). Genre ''Cedrus''. Les ...
were all common and popular woods in Ancient Egypt. Cedar Wood had a variety of different ways to be cultivated. Lebanese cedar and Cedrus Libanotica were all imported from
Syria. Cedrus Atlantica was imported from
Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
and the
Atlas Mountains. Some cedar wood was grown in Egypt. This wood was unlike other woods in the sense that it was desired by the Ancient Egyptians because of its pleasant smell, rather than its usage in craftsmanship. This does not mean it was useless. It could be used to make monumental doors,
ship masts, structural beams, furniture, and
statues. Some pieces of Cedar measured as long as 30
cubit
The cubit is an ancient unit of length based on the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was primarily associated with the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. The term ''cubit'' is found in the Bible regarding ...
s. Cypress wood became popular in Egypt quickly. It was already widespread by the
Predynastic Period
Prehistoric Egypt and Predynastic Egypt span the period from the earliest human settlement to the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period around 3100 BC, starting with the first Pharaoh, Narmer for some Egyptologists, Hor-Aha for others, with ...
.
Short planks of wood were used in Ancient Egpyt. They needed to be left to dry before being used to avoid problems that might arise from the contraction of the wood. Ash wood was a wood was used to make furniture which was supposed to last an
eternity
Eternity, in common parlance, means infinite time that never ends or the quality, condition, or fact of being everlasting or eternal. Classical philosophy, however, defines eternity as what is timeless or exists outside time, whereas sempit ...
. Ash wood was utilized due to the fact that it was
perishable
Decomposition or rot is the process by which dead organic substances are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars and mineral salts. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is ...
. Making it last a long time. This wood was used for rounded designs, as was suited for carving. Other goods were produced using Ash wood. Such as handles, joinery, coverings, carving projects, bows, arrows, and small furniture. To construct boxes, furniture, musical instruments, knives, bows, and arrows Sycamore wood was used. Small furniture and delicate objects was created using Olive Wood. Olive wood was also one of the most common types in Ancient Egypt. Chariot wheels, spokes, dowels and joints were created using Tamarisk. Dowels, inserts, roof shingles, ladder rungs, or veneer was made using Turkey Oak. When this wood was used to make curved elements, it would be heated and bent. Sometimes carpenters would use naturally curved pieces of wood would be used. Turkey Oak grew around
Thebes. This wood was valued by the Egyptians. An inscription from the time of
Thutmose III
Thutmose III (variously also spelt Tuthmosis or Thothmes), sometimes called Thutmose the Great, was the sixth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Officially, Thutmose III ruled Egypt for almost 54 years and his reign is usually dated from 2 ...
, called it "one of the good, sweet woods of god's land." Dowels, boat parts, and plywood coffins were made of Sidder. Beds, tables, and other kinds of furniture, joints, inserts, and support parts were made of Persea wood. This wood was cultivated by the Egyptians through
sustenance. Elm wood was mostly used to make
chariots. It was imported to Egypt from the
Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
,
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, and
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
. Dom palm was the preferred kind of palm in Ancient Egypt. This was due to its hardness and compactness.
Rare Woods
Ebony was one of the rarest valuable kinds of wood in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptian aristocracy ensured it was constantly being imported from Kush and Punt. This wood was primarily used to create chests, statues, musical instruments, tables, chairs, beds, and footstools for the royals and upper elite. Ebony was used since the First Dynasty. Despite this, it became far mor popular in the New Kingdom. The honor of being a prestigious wood was not exclusive to Ebony. Birch was also rare and valuable. It was so rare, only a few samples of anything made from birch have been found. This kind of wood was probably brought to Egypt by travelers visiting Persia. Pine was also rare in Egypt. It was imported to Egypt from Syro-Palestine. After being imported to Egypt it was used to make chariots during the 18th Dynasty. One of the most precious woods in Egypt was Walnut wood. This wood was imported from the Mediterranean Coast, and it was mainly used as a veneer. Juniper was a wood used since the Third Dynasty. This wood was popular amongst the Egyptian Royalty, and it was used to make roof timbers, coffins, wagons, frames, and tenon joints. From the Middle Kingdom to the
Ptolemaic Kingdom boxwood was used for inlays, tables, sculptures, turned items, tool handles, and beds. Boxwood was suitable for larger structures due to its weight and strength. This wood was imported from the mountains of Lebanon.
Acquisition
Trade Outposts and Routes
Egypt had trade outposts spread throughout the Levant. Cities like
Byblos
Byblos ( ; gr, Βύβλος), also known as Jbeil or Jubayl ( ar, جُبَيْل, Jubayl, locally ; phn, 𐤂𐤁𐤋, , probably ), is a city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon. It is believed to have been first occupied between 8 ...
were very important to the Egyptian economy. This city stood at the heart of Egypt's trade routes. Trade between Egypt and Byblos began in the 3rd Dynasty. Furniture would be exported to Byblos, and in return Egypt would import wood. Byblos was important, but it was not the only way of acquiring wood. After the
First Intermediate Period Egypt lost influence over certain parts of the world. For example, Egypt had no military presence in the Levant, instead Egypt dominated the area economically. Egypt had so much economic influence in the Levant, that it was a common sight to see ships filled with wood traveling between Egypt and Syria.
Ugarit
)
, image =Ugarit Corbel.jpg
, image_size=300
, alt =
, caption = Entrance to the Royal Palace of Ugarit
, map_type = Near East#Syria
, map_alt =
, map_size = 300
, relief=yes
, location = Latakia Governorate, Syria
, region = ...
replaced Byblos during the New Kingdom. Ugarit would export copper and boxwood to Egypt, in return for furniture. Ugarit was so important to Egyptian trade that there were Egyptian merchants permanently stationed in Ugarit to ensure the demand for wood was meant.
Sidon
Sidon ( ; he, צִידוֹן, ''Ṣīḏōn'') known locally as Sayda or Saida ( ar, صيدا ''Ṣaydā''), is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located in the South Governorate, of which it is the capital, on the Mediterranean coast. ...
and
Tyre were also important trade outposts. They ascended to importance during the
Third Intermediate Period
The Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1077 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latt ...
. Trade routes developed due to
Urbanization
Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...
. This exposed many civilizations to a greater variety of materials. After the
Late Bronze Age Collapse these trade routes collapsed, resulting in less luxurious furniture. The wood trade was very important in Egypt. It was responsible for the prevalence of the furniture industry as native Egyptian wood was poor and scarce. As a result, the pharaoh had a lot of control of the trade. Only the pharaoh could order trees to be cut down, he needed to grant permission to plant trees, and he had a personal fleet of ships which could trade. Despite all this, it was difficult to secure trade deals.
Furniture Trade
As trade routes developed timber became increasingly more valued. It was so valuable that the goods would only be loaded onto ships once they had already been paid for. The woods that were the most common to trade were oak, pine, cypress, fir, and juniper. Some woods, like Cedar began to be importer during the Early Dynastic period. Other began to be imported later, like how fir, pine, and juniper began being imported from Phoenicia in 2650 BCE. Trade relations between Lower and Upper Egypt existed around 3100 BCE. Egypt traded with other nations around 3300 2200 BCE. During the Fourth Dynasty Syrian timber, elm, ash, sycamore, and Lebanese cedar began to be imported from Syria. Other places that wood could be imported from was the Eastern Taurus, Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, Amanus, Anti-Taurus, Pontus, and Zagros Mountains. The best wood came from Cyprus, Macedonia, Thrace, and Italy. Egypt imported most of its coastal regions and mountains of Anatolia and Lebanon. Imported wood was more durable, which likely spurred the development of more grandiose buildings. Materials like
Lapis Lazuli were mined. Many industries used this material, however the furniture industry specifically used it to create exquisite furniture. Which would then be exported to other nations. Metal like ivory, copper, wickerwork, glass beads, gold, silver, turquoise, malachite and stone were used to decorate furniture. Resulting in furniture that was either blue, green, or polychrome. These materials would not just be imported from other countries, but they would also be exported back to those countries. This trade was so important that pharaohs would be gifted tin, copper, lapis lazuli, silver, wood at their coronation. Such a practice became especially prevalent in the New Kingdom. Among the most important of these materials was bronze. It was introduced in the Middle Kingdom in the form of ingots and adopted due to its uses. This metal was used to make armrests, backrests, and side-panels easily. By 2000 BCE bronze tools were used. Bronze was replaced with Iron, which was introduced to Egypt through the
Hyksos
Hyksos (; Egyptian '' ḥqꜣ(w)- ḫꜣswt'', Egyptological pronunciation: ''hekau khasut'', "ruler(s) of foreign lands") is a term which, in modern Egyptology, designates the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).
T ...
. Iron was more suited to the creation of furniture than bronze.
Conquest
In times of conflict, would become scarce. This resulted in felled trees would constituting as loot. Sometimes wars were waged to gather resources. Thutmose III campaigned in Lebanon to gather cedar wood. During the coronation of a new Pharaoh ready cut wood along with other metals would be sent by other nations as a gift. This would have been highly valuable due to the scarcity of wood in Egypt. Many nations would send these gifts, especially during the New Kingdom, when Egypt was one of the world's superpowers.
Tools and Manufacturing
Saws
In Ancient Egypt, the first occurrence of saws was saw knives with curved edges, teeth on one side of the blade, and rounded blunt noses. These originated from the earliest parts of Egyptian history. However, as the material conditions of Egyptian carpenters improved, so did the tools. Sometime between 4500 and 4400 BCE during the First Dynasty flint saws and knives were replaced with copper tools. Also in the first dynasty, the pull-saw was introduced. This saw was thin bladed with uncanted teeth. Unlike other saws, the teeth of the saw face in the direction of the handle and do not extend over the entire length of the blade. Pull-saws had increased accuracy, provided greater ease of movement, made cutting large timber logs easier, and had superior workability. This was done through the unique knob on the handle. The knob was downward turned on the handle. Some of these benefits resulted from how the saw was pulled instead of pushed. While manufacturing goods the carpenter's free hand was needed to secure the furniture. This led to the saws used to cut designs or joints usually being one handed. Two handed saws allowed the carpenter to put his bodyweight behind the thrusting action. Sturdy frames, wedges, tourniquets, and weights were used to support the beam. Beams would have their edges beaten out and their teeth punched out. The edges were beaten out because this added hardness and durability. It was not an uncommon result for the teeth to be flat blunted, or irregular in shape and pitch. During the production of saw blades, wedges were needed to prevent the blade from jamming in the resinous kerf. Such an event could leave marks on the worked surface of the wood.
Adzes
Before the Predynastic Period flint was used to make adzes. Other early adzes had rounded heads with straight sides and a ridge below. Later, during the predynastic period, copper was used instead. This was not the only change; the new adzes became more rounded and side lungs were added. Other design features remained. Adzes were still hammered into a flat shape, some still had dual cutting edges or only one sharpened edge. These newer adzes were lashed to wood handles. This would allow them to plane and trim surfaces. To attach the flat blades to these tools, an L-shaped head was used. The head also provided a cutting angle which made for easier downward scraping or chopping. Any cuts would be made perpendicular to the handle. Once finished, this tool would resemble a T-shape. Other tools resembled swan's necks or candy canes. Each served adze had a different purpose. T-shaped adzes were used to shape angles, swan neck adzes would carve horizontal beams. Another kind of adze, called a modified candy cane adze was used to flatten large surfaces. This other kind of adze had a rigid neck and four rectangular angles. While using the T-shaped adze, the carpenter could be positioned at manty different angles. Adzes from the First Dynasty of Egypt became larger, as they were intended for large furniture. Adzes from this point onwards had a flared body combined with a straight cutting edge. Although, over the course of time the tools did become more necked below the blade's head until the neck was one fifth the size of the cutting edge. While large tools underwent a history of redesigns and changes, smaller adzes remained constant since the Predynastic Period. Such small adzes were used for delicate work, such as carving furniture legs.
Sharpening and Honing Instruments
The first sharpening and honing instruments were made of copper. These tools were present throughout all of Ancient Egyptian history, as this equipment was needed to sharpen all materials, no matter how advanced. Slate allowed the carpenter to use both hands whilst sharpening. This would be done by forcing the slate to hang vertically by suspending it to a stone attached to a hole. This hole was drilled into the thickest end of the furniture. Small quantities of oil were used to lubricate the tool and the stone. This provided the carpenter a smooth workable surface. Another side effect was that after continued usage the slate would narrow towards the piece of furniture's center
Wood Manufacturing Tools
Before making or gathering the wood, a Cubit Rod was used to take measurements of the wood. Another tool used to take measurements. This tool was triangular, and was it made by using
Gravity
In physics, gravity () is a fundamental interaction which causes mutual attraction between all things with mass or energy. Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 1038 times weaker than the stro ...
to align a plumb bob to a centered marking on the device's frame. This plumb bob was weighed down by a line. In order to use this tool properly, the wood needed to be affixed to support frames. Only slight adjustments needed to be made to the wood. These slight adjustments were done to give the carpenter a level cutting surface. If a carpenter needed guidance on where and how to cut or measure the wood, try squares and cutting aids would be used.
Drills and Bow Drills
Bow drill
A bow drill is a simple hand-operated type of tool, consisting of a rod (the ''spindle'' or ''drill shaft'') that is set in rapid rotary motion by means of a cord wrapped around it, kept taut by a bow which is pushed back and forth with one han ...
s were initially used to start fires. The tool in this stage was made from a cord strung between two ends of a curved wooden bow. This tool needs to be wrapped around a drill shaft, which meant enough slack needed to be left in the cord so this could be done. A rotating device would be kept in balance by a stone cup held at the top of the drill-shaft. Weight would be applied to the stone cup by the user, allowing the drill to penetrate the wood. This part of its history was ended when people realized it was suited for
boring holes. By the time of the Old Kingdom, bow drills were already a common tool. It was regularly used during the
5th Dynasty. The holes it made would allow the insertion of dowel joints. Dowel joints were used to fasten rawhide lacings, woven rush seats, woven seats, or lashings. Minute holes would be created by a different tool, the bradawl. This tool would drill through thin sheets of wood or other materials. Egyptian bradawls would have utilized pressure applied to its wood surface to drill these holes. This also allowed it to function without a mullet. Another use for the bradawl was to indicate where the bow drill should be used to drill holes.
Process
The most useful kind of wood would have come from a tree with straight trunks, sufficient heartwood, and no defects. Before using manufacturing furniture or anything out of this wood, first axes needed to be used to cut down the tree. The lumberjacks would start by cutting down the bottom of the tree. Several other men would catch the rest of the tree after it fell. Once this part of the process had been completed, a new stage would start. After branches,
sapwood, and
bark were removed, the logs would be cut into smaller and more manageable boards. In order to achieve this, the boards would cleave with mallets and wedges. Saws were used to cut shorter logs that were vertically secured to posts. Egyptians would have cut through logs using a method called through and through cutting. Also, the wood needed to properly be positioned and created. If this was not done the climate of Egypt would cause problems for the furniture and material. The wood needed to be kept away from sunlight as this might result in unwanted drying. Fitting lids, firm joints, and unwarped boards of furniture were used to season the timber. This was because other forms required more advanced tools. Once this process was completed, the beams were placed on a simple lumber stack. This allowed for natural air drying. Sometimes this resulted in microbial organisms growing, causing the material to decay. Other times the material simply changed shape. Whilst cutting, logs would be strapped to a trestle. This
trestle supported the log by using a horizontal beam held up by two splayed legs. This was done to make cutting logs safer for the workers.
Religious Significance
Religion and furniture were linked in Ancient Egypt. Aside from the fact that the reason for the preservation of so much furniture is the Egyptian belief in
life after death
The afterlife (also referred to as life after death) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. The surviving ess ...
; decorations and ornaments in Ancient Egyptian furniture were often for
religious purposes. The decorations would be carefully chosen based on their religious significance and their aesthetic appeal.
Wood was an important material not just structurally, but also religiously. The material was connected to gods and goddesses through those deities associations with
forest
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
s.
Forests represented the homes of the gods and they stood as natural
places of worship
A place of worship is a specially designed structure or space where individuals or a group of people such as a congregation come to perform acts of devotion, veneration, or religious study. A building constructed or used for this purpose is somet ...
. It was believed that certain gods and goddesses preferred different types of wood. It was also believed that certain kinds of wood were sacred, and therefore had limited usage. Temples controlled the trade required to gather materials used to make furniture, and they could regulate the craftsmanship required to create furniture.
Dilmun
![Seals from Dilmun A112](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Seals_from_Dilmun_A112.JPG)
Because no Dilmunite furniture survives, archaeologists and historians are forced to rely on Dilmunite seals. These seals, which are primarily from
Bahrain
Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
and
Failaka
Failaka Island ( ar, فيلكا '' / ''; Kuwaiti Arabic: فيلچا ) is a Kuwaiti Island in the Persian Gulf. The island is 20 km off the coast of Kuwait City in the Persian Gulf. The name "Failaka" is thought to be derived from the ancie ...
, show a side view of furniture, leaving the dimensions of the furniture ambiguous.
Thus historians have to rely on the dimensions of furniture in other civilizations to imagine what furniture in Dilmun looked like.
Chairs and thrones would have been built out of Shorea wood.
Dowels would have been used for mortise and tenon joints. Sharp chisels would carve hardwood into furniture.
Turpentine
Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthene, terebinthine and (colloquially) turps) is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Mainly used as a spec ...
was used to thin
animal fat, wax, and honey to finish the wood.
Glue may have been used in the construction of furniture.
Posts would penetrate the seat of the chair. Chairs had backs fixed to the lower frame of the seat. At the top of the back support of some chairs, there was a sphere with horns imitating a goat's or bull's head. In some seals, chairs are depicted with seats shaped like boxes.
The chairs would have been 90 cm high, the seat and the back support would have been 45 cm (18 inches) high. The diameter of the back is 8 cm or 3 inches. The width of the seat is 70 cm (27 in), the depth of the seat is 50 cm (20 in). The legs were 5 cm by 5 cm (2 in by 2 in) or 10 cm by 5 cm (4 in by 2 in).
The seals depict thrones with stools in front of them. Kings, important officials, and wealthy people would have used these thrones. One seal depicts a throne with vertical back support and front legs. Another seal depicts a similar throne but with a rectangular frame base. Stools in Dilmun are well built and are similar to thrones. However, they have no back support. Stools would have been well decorated if they were used by gods, kings, officials, and rich people.
![Dilmun pottery A234](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Dilmun_pottery_A234.jpg)
Very few tables have been depicted in seals from Dilmun. All of these tables are ceremonial. Dilmunite tables had a concave or crescent top sitting on a column that divides into three curved legs with bull's hooves. Such tables may have been used for trade.
Rectangular
hatched altars would be used for
sacrificing
Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly ex ...
items and animals to the
Dilmunite gods. The tabletop of the altar is concave. Spikes would stick out of a column. The legs of the altar end in animal hooves. The column and legs may be one piece, with the concave top joining the piece. Some altars looked like double boxes.
Although very rarely a complete vase, archaeology has resulted in pottery from the Dilmunite city of
Qal'at al Bahrain being unearthed. There were two styles of pottery, "Barbar" and "Eastern." Sanctuaries would be filled with small figurines. Most of these figurines were of a bearded horseman holding a mount without reigns. Other figurines depicted hybrids between animals and people. Inside ancient Dilmunite houses storage jars, painted pots, fine chisels, and copper have been found.
Decorations for the furniture would have been borrowed from other civilizations.
Greece
Ancient Greek furniture was typically constructed out of wood, though it might also be made of stone or metal, such as bronze, iron, gold, and silver. Little wood survives from ancient Greece, though varieties mentioned in texts concerning Greece and Rome include
maple
''Acer'' () is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated since http ...
,
oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ''L ...
,
beech,
yew, and
willow
Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
. Pieces were assembled using
mortise-and-tenon
A mortise and tenon (occasionally mortice and tenon) joint connects two pieces of wood or other material. Woodworkers around the world have used it for thousands of years to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect at right ...
joinery, held together with
lashings, pegs, metal
nails, and
glue. Wood was shaped by
carving
Carving is the act of using tools to shape something from a material by scraping away portions of that material. The technique can be applied to any material that is solid enough to hold a form even when pieces have been removed from it, and ...
, steam treatment, the
lathe, and furniture is known to have been decorated with ivory, tortoise shell,
glass
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent, amorphous solid that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling ( quenching ...
, gold, or other precious materials. Similarly, furniture could be veneered with expensive types of wood to make the object appear more costly, though classical furniture was often pared down in comparison to objects attested in the East, or those from earlier periods in Greece.
[Stephanus T. A. M. Mols, ]
Wooden Furniture in Herculaneum: Form, Technique and Function
', in vol. 2 of Circumvesuviana (Amsterdam: Gieben, 1999), 10. These relatively simple varieties of furniture may be connected to ancient Greek sumptuary laws. The effects of these laws on craftsmen are discussed by Alison Burford in ''Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1972), 146.
Extensive research was done on the forms of Greek furniture by
Gisela Richter
Gisela Marie Augusta Richter (14 or 15 August 1882 – 24 December 1972) was a classical archaeologist and art historian. She was a prominent figure and an authority in her field.
Early life
Gisela Richter was born in London, England, the daught ...
, who utilized a typological approach based primarily on illustrated examples depicted in Greek art, and it is from Richter's account that the main types can be delineated.
Seating
![Parthenon frieze east IV fragment](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Parthenon_frieze_east_IV_fragment.JPG)
The modern word “
throne
A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the mona ...
” is derived from the ancient Greek ''thronos'' (Greek singular: θρόνος), which was a seat designated for deities or individuals of high status or honor. The colossal chryselephantine statue of
Zeus at Olympia, constructed by
Phidias
Phidias or Pheidias (; grc, Φειδίας, ''Pheidias''; 480 – 430 BC) was a Greek sculptor, painter, and architect. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the stat ...
and lost in antiquity, featured the god Zeus seated on an elaborate throne, which was decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony, and ivory, according to
Pausanias Pausanias ( el, Παυσανίας) may refer to:
*Pausanias of Athens, lover of the poet Agathon and a character in Plato's ''Symposium''
*Pausanias the Regent, Spartan general and regent of the 5th century BC
* Pausanias of Sicily, physician of t ...
. Less extravagant though more influential in later periods is the ''
klismos
A klismos (Greek: κλισμός) or klismos chair is a type of ancient Greek chair, with curved backrest and tapering, outcurved legs.
Ancient Greece
Klismoi are familiar from depictions of ancient furniture on painted pottery and in bas-relief ...
'' (Greek singular: κλισμός), an elegant Greek chair with a curved backrest and legs whose form was copied by the Romans and is now part of the vocabulary of furniture design. A fine example is shown on the
grave stele of Hegeso
The Grave Stele of Hegeso, most likely sculpted by Callimachus, is renowned as one of the finest Attic grave stelae surviving (mostly intact) today. Dated from ca. 410 – ca. 400 BCE, it is made entirely of Pentelic marble. It stands 1.49m high ...
, dating to the late fifth century BCE. As with earlier furniture from the east, the ''klismos'' and ''thronos'' could be accompanied by footstools. There are three types of footstools outlined by Richter – those with plain straight legs, those with curved legs, and those shaped like boxes that would have sat directly on the ground.
The most common form of Greek seat was the backless stool. These were known as
''diphroi'' (Greek singular: δίφρος) and they were easily portable. The
Parthenon frieze
The Parthenon frieze is the high-relief Pentelic marble sculpture created to adorn the upper part of the Parthenon’s naos. It was sculpted between c. 443 and 437 BC, most likely under the direction of Pheidias. Of the 160 meters (524 ft) ...
displays numerous examples, upon which the gods are seated. Several fragments of a stool were discovered in the forth-century BCE. tomb in
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
, including two of the legs and four transverse stretchers. Once made of wood and covered in silver foil, all that remains of this piece are the parts made of precious metal.
![Greek furniture 002](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Greek_furniture_002.jpg)
The folding stool, known as the ''diphros okladias'' (Greek singular: δίφρος ὀκλαδίας), was practical and portable. The Greek folding stool survives in numerous depictions, indicating its popularity in the Archaic and Classical periods; the type may have been derived from earlier Minoan and Mycenaean examples, which in turn were likely based on Egyptian models. Greek folding stools might have plain straight legs or curved legs that typically ended in animal feet.
Klinai
![Locri Pinax Persephone Opens Liknon Mystikon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Locri_Pinax_Persephone_Opens_Liknon_Mystikon.jpg)
A couch or
'' kline'' (Greek: κλίνη) was a form used in Greece as early as the late seventh century B.C.E. The ''kline'' was rectangular and supported on four legs, two of which could be longer than the other, providing support for an armrest or headboard. Three types are distinguished by Richter – those with animal legs, those with “turned” legs, and those with “rectangular” legs, although this terminology is somewhat problematic. The fabric would have been draped over the woven platform of the couch, and cushions would have been placed against the arm or headrest, making the Greek couch an item well suited for a
symposium gathering. The foot of a bronze bed discovered in situ in the House of the Seals at
Delos indicate how the “turned” legs of a ''kline'' might have appeared. Numerous images of ''klinai'' are displayed on vases, topped by layers of intricately woven fabrics and pillows. These furnishings would have been made of leather, wool, or linen, though silk could also have been used. Stuffing for pillows, cushions, and beds could have been made of wool, feathers, leaves, or hay.
Tables
In general, Greek tables (Greek singular: τράπεζα, τρἰπους, τετράπους, φάτνη, ὲλεóς) were low and often appear in depictions alongside ''klinai'' and could perhaps fit underneath. The most common type of Greek table had a rectangular top supported on three legs, though numerous configurations exist. Tables could have circular tops, and four legs or even one central leg instead of three. Tables in ancient Greece were used mostly for dining purposes – in depictions of banquets, it appears as though each participant would have utilized a single table, rather than a collective use of a larger piece. On such occasions, tables would have been moved according to one's needs.
Tables also would have figured prominently in religious contexts, as indicated in vase paintings. One example by the Chicago Painter from The Art Institute of Chicago, dating to around 450 B.C.E., shows an image of three women performing a Dionysian ritual, in which a table functions as an appropriate place to rest a ''kantharos'' – a wine vessel associated with Dionysus. Other images indicate that tables could range in style from the highly ornate to the relatively unadorned.
Rome
![Herculaneum Casa del Tramezzo di Legno Letto](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Herculaneum_Casa_del_Tramezzo_di_Legno_Letto.jpg)
To a large extent, the types and styles of ancient Roman furniture followed those of their Classical and Hellenistic Greek predecessors. Because of this, it is difficult to differentiate Roman forms from earlier Hellenistic ones in many cases.
Gisela Richter
Gisela Marie Augusta Richter (14 or 15 August 1882 – 24 December 1972) was a classical archaeologist and art historian. She was a prominent figure and an authority in her field.
Early life
Gisela Richter was born in London, England, the daught ...
's typological approach is useful in tracing developments of Greek furniture into Roman expressions. Knowledge of Roman furniture is derived mainly from depictions in
frescoes and representations in sculpture, along with actual pieces of furniture, fragments, and fittings, several of which were preserved by the
eruption of Vesuvius
Of the many eruptions of Mount Vesuvius, a major stratovolcano in southern Italy, the best-known is its eruption in 79 AD, which was one of the deadliest in European history. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD is one of the best-known in h ...
in AD 79. The most well-known archaeological sites with preserved images and fragments from the eruption are
Pompeii and
Herculaneum in
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
. There are fine examples of reconstructed Roman furniture at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
in
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...
as well as the
Capitoline Museum
The Capitoline Museums (Italian: ''Musei Capitolini'') are a group of art and archaeological museums in Piazza del Campidoglio, on top of the Capitoline Hill in Rome, Italy. The historic seats of the museums are Palazzo dei Conservatori and Pal ...
in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
.
Chairs
The ''sella'', or stool or chair, was the most common type of seating in the Roman period, probably because of its easy portability. The ''sella'' in its simplest form was inexpensive to make. Both slaves and emperors used it, although those of the poor were plain, while the wealthy had access to precious woods, ornamented with inlay, metal fittings, ivory, and silver and gold leaf. Bronze ''sellae'' from Herculaneum were squares and had straight legs, decorative stretchers, and a dished seat. The
''sella curulis'', or folding stool, was an important indicator of power in the Roman period. There were ''sellae'' resembling both stools and chairs that folded in a scissor fashion to facilitate transport.
![Triclinium - Archäologische Staatssammlung München](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Triclinium_-_Arch%C3%A4ologische_Staatssammlung_M%C3%BCnchen.JPG)
The Roman ''cathedra'' was a chair with a back, although there is disagreement as to the exact meaning of the Latin term. Richter defines the ''cathedra'' as a later version of the Greek ''klismos'', which she says was never as popular as its Greek predecessor. A. T. Croom, however, considers the ''cathedra'' to be a high-backed wickerwork chair that was typically associated with women. They have also been seen being used as early school teachers, pupils would sit around him in this chair while he taught. It showed who held the seat of power in the classroom. As with Greek furniture, the names of various Roman types as found in texts cannot always be associated with known furniture forms with certainty.
The Latin ''solium'' is considered to be equivalent to the Greek term ''thronos'' and thus is often translated as “throne.” These were like modern chairs, with backs and armrests. Three types of ''solia'' based on Greek prototypes are distinguished by Richter: thrones with “turned” and “rectangular” legs and grandiose thrones with solid sides, of which several examples remain in stone. Also, a type with a high back and arms, resting upon a cylindrical or conical base, is said to derive from Etruscan prototypes.
Couches
![Roman - Banquet Couch - Walters 542365](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Roman_-_Banquet_Couch_-_Walters_542365.jpg)
Few actual Roman couches survive, although sometimes the bronze fittings do, which help with the reconstruction of the original forms. While in wealthy households beds were used for sleeping in the bedrooms (''lectus cubicularis''), and couches for banqueting while reclining were used in the dining rooms (''lectus tricliniaris''), the less well off might use the same piece of furniture for both functions. The two types might be used interchangeably even in richer households, and it is not always easy to differentiate between sleeping and dining furniture. The most common type of Roman bed took the form of a three-sided, open rectangular box, with the fourth (long) side of the bed open for access. While some beds were framed with boards, others had slanted structures at the ends, called ''fulcra'', to better accommodate pillows. The ''fulcra'' of elaborate dining couches often had sumptuous decorative attachments featuring ivory, bronze, copper, gold, or silver ornamentation.
The bench, or ''subsellium'', was an elongated stool for two or more users. Benches were considered to be “seats of the humble,” and were used in peasant houses, farms, and bathhouses. However, they were also found in lecture halls, in the vestibules of temples, and served as the seats of senators and judges. Roman benches, like their Greek precedents, were practical for the seating of large groups of people and were common in theaters, amphitheaters, odeons and auctions. The ''scamnum'', related to the ''subsellium'' but smaller, was used as both a bench and a footstool.
Tables
Types of Roman tables include the ''abacus'' and the ''mensa'', which are distinguished from one another in Latin texts. The term ''abacus'' might be used for utilitarian tables, such as those for making shoes or kneading dough, as well as high-status tables, such as sideboards for the display of silverware. A low, three-legged table, thought to represent the ''mensa delphica'', was often depicted next to reclining banqueters in Roman paintings. This table has a round tabletop supported by three legs configured like those of a tripod. Several wooden tables of this type were recovered from
Herculaneum.
Surviving examples
The most important source for wooden furniture of the Roman period is the collection of carbonized furniture from Herculaneum. While the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 C.E. was tremendously destructive to the region, the pyroclastic surges that engulfed the town of Herculaneum ultimately preserved the wooden furniture, shelves, doors, and shutters in carbonized form. Their preservation, however, is imperiled, as some of the pieces remain in situ in their houses and shops, encased in unprotected glass or entirely open and accessible. Upon excavation, much of the furniture was conserved with paraffin wax mixed with carbon powder, which coats the wood and obscures important details such as decorations and joinery. It is now impossible to remove the wax coating without further damaging the furniture. Several wooden pieces were found with bone and metal fittings.
Wooden shelving and racks are found in shops and kitchens in the Vesuvian sites, and one house has elaborate wooden room dividers.
India
Bamboo, alongside Shisham, Mango, and Teak wood were common furniture materials in Ancient India.
The bamboo's colors ranged from yellow to black.
The lower classes of Ancient India had beds made of a mat extended across a small frame. Houses of the poor would also have basins, stone jar-stands,
querns
Quern-stones are stone tools for hand- grinding a wide variety of materials. They are used in pairs. The lower stationary stone of early examples is called a saddle quern, while the upper mobile stone is called a muller, rubber or handstone. The ...
, palettes, flat dishes, a brass drinking vessel with a spout, a lamp, jars, mortar, pots, knives, saws, axes, and ivory needles and awls. Indians also had access to wooden chairs, bed stands, and stools. As well as reed mats, bamboo thrones, and copper lamps.
Japan
Terminology
Furniture was of limited usage in Japan. Despite this, defining furniture in Japan can be difficult, as the furniture that did exist was very diverse, with furniture varying widely depending on the social status of the owner. Furniture also changed drastically over the course of
Japanese history
The first human inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago have been traced to prehistoric times around 30,000 BC. The Jōmon period, named after its cord-marked pottery, was followed by the Yayoi period in the first millennium BC when new inventi ...
. Another problem is that the Japanese word ''kagu'', meaning furniture, has referred to many things not considered furniture in other languages. This word also has not been used throughout Japanese history. ''Kagu'' dates back to the
Meiji Era. After Japan imported furniture from the west the term ''kagu'' was used to describe the new kinds of furniture.
Kinds of Furniture
''Byōbu ''and ''Noren ''
The screens used to partition areas were called ''
byōbu
are Japanese folding screens made from several joined panels, bearing decorative painting and calligraphy, used to separate interiors and enclose private spaces, among other uses.
History
are thought to have originated in Han dynasty C ...
''and ''
noren
are traditional Japanese fabric dividers hung between rooms, on walls, in doorways, or in windows. They usually have one or more vertical slits cut from the bottom to nearly the top of the fabric, allowing for easier passage or viewing. are ...
'' respectively. In order to build these kinds of furniture,
tatami
A is a type of mat used as a flooring material in traditional Japanese-style rooms. Tatamis are made in standard sizes, twice as long as wide, about 0.9 m by 1.8 m depending on the region. In martial arts, tatami are the floor used for traini ...
mats would be laid down. Concurrently, a low table or a free-standing shelf needed to be set in place. The ''byōbu'' is a multi-paneled screen covered in paintings. Each panel is called an ''andon''. The name ''byōbu '' means "wind-shelter." It appeared in Japan at an unknown point in time. However, the earliest known historical record of it shows that a
Korean ambassador presented the kind of folding screen to the
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
in
686. Another academic by the name of Akiyama suggests that the byōbu was created during the
Kamakura period
The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the Genpei War, which saw the struggle bet ...
.
These folding screens would have been used exclusively by the
aristocracy at first. This kind of folding screen provided privacy. Eventually, another use was found for the ''byōbu''.
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
and
Japanese art styles, called ''
kara-e'' and ''
yamato-e
is a style of Japanese painting inspired by Tang dynasty paintings and fully developed by the late Heian period. It is considered the classical Japanese style. From the Muromachi period (15th century), the term Yamato-e has been used to distingui ...
'' were both used on the ''byōbu'' to create paintings. Usually these paintings were of people in verdant landscapes.
The usage of the ''byōbu'' as a canvas increased in popularity during the Edo period, however it declined as time went on. Culminating in its scarcity today.
Norens were straw or cloth curtains that guarded the entrances to homes. Sometimes the norens were made of
rope
A rope is a group of yarns, plies, fibres, or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similar ...
woven with
hemp. Usually norens had many vertical slits which would determine the way you entered the building. Norens had other purposes. They could block the sun and merchants would dye their stores name on their norens. Sometimes these names would not be names of stores but instead they might simply state something like "
sushi
is a Japanese dish of prepared , usually with some sugar and salt, accompanied by a variety of , such as seafood, often raw, and vegetables. Styles of sushi and its presentation vary widely, but the one key ingredient is "sushi rice," also ...
." This led to the noren becoming a symbol of
business and
reputation
The reputation of a social entity (a person, a social group, an organization, or a place) is an opinion about that entity typically as a result of social evaluation on a set of criteria, such as behavior or performance.
Reputation is a ubiquitous ...
. Merchants would sign
contract
A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties that creates, defines, and governs mutual rights and obligations between them. A contract typically involves the transfer of goods, services, money, or a promise to tr ...
s on their norens and to act poorly would "sully your noren."
''Fusuma ''
![Fusuma Kawabata](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Fusuma_Kawabata.jpg)
The ''Fusuma'' is made from a transparent paper panels called ''andons ''stretched across a frame it was used to divide houses. ''Fusuma'' also provided support for decorations. Many ''fusuma'' had aluminum or plastic frames or sliding partitions. ''Fusumas'' were used to guide the
eye to painted landscapes. Sometimes the ''fusuma'' were painted. They would be decorated by the most skilled artists in Japan. This kind of furniture was not fixed, it would move and change.
Shoji
The
Shoji
A is a door, window or room divider used in traditional Japanese architecture, consisting of translucent (or transparent) sheets on a lattice frame. Where light transmission is not needed, the similar but opaque '' fusuma'' is used (oshiir ...
is a kind of Japanese sliding paper door. It was divided into smaller rectangular panels. This piece of furniture used black lacquered strips to make its framework. Paper, polylastex, plastics, and fabrics were used to fill in the open rectangular spaces. They separated parts of houses, served as screens, and concealed undesirable parts of houses.
''Tansu ''
![Sendai Tansu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Sendai_Tansu.jpg)
The ''
tansu
are traditional Japanese mobile storage cabinets. are commonly used for the storage of clothing, particularly kimono.
were first recorded in the Genroku era (1688–1704) of the Edo period (1603–1867). The two characters, and , appear to h ...
''was a kind of Japanese traditional chest. There were many kinds of ''tansu.'' ''Mizuya-dansu'' were large kitchen chests primarily used for holding utensils and tableware. ''Kaidan-dansu'', or staircase ''tansu'' functioned as replacements for staircases. ''Yofuku-dansu'' were chests used for storing clothes. Chests used for holding tea were called ''cha-dansu''. Many other types existed. Such as ship-board ''tansu'', traveling ''tansu'', ''tansu'' designed ofr shops, and strong-box ''tansu''.
Some ''tansu'' had
cast-iron
Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloy constituents affect its color when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impuriti ...
metalwork
Metalworking is the process of shaping and reshaping metals to create useful objects, parts, assemblies, and large scale structures. As a term it covers a wide and diverse range of processes, skills, and tools for producing objects on every scale ...
. To build most ''tansu'' a framework made of hardwood would be combined with softwood drawers and shelves. ''Tansu'' were crafted all throughout
Japan. However, northeastern
Honshu
, historically called , is the largest and most populous island of Japan. It is located south of Hokkaidō across the Tsugaru Strait, north of Shikoku across the Inland Sea, and northeast of Kyūshū across the Kanmon Straits. The island se ...
was a major producer of ''tansu''. This was because Honshu had access to expensive and valued woods. Such as
keyaki,
sugi
''Cryptomeria'' (literally "hidden parts") is a monotypic genus of conifer in the cypress family Cupressaceae, formerly belonging to the family Taxodiaceae. It includes only one species, ''Cryptomeria japonica'' ( syn. ''Cupressus japonica'' ...
,
hinoki
''Chamaecyparis obtusa'' (Japanese cypress, hinoki cypress or hinoki; ja, 檜 or , ) is a species of cypress native to central Japan in East Asia, and widely cultivated in the temperate northern hemisphere for its high-quality timber and orname ...
, and
kiri wood. Paulownia wood was highly valued by the Japanese because it does not expand or contract much. Making it easier to work with. This wood is also resistant to high
temperature
Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer.
Thermometers are calibrated in various Conversion of units of temperature, temp ...
and has a high combustion point.
''Oshiire''
The ''Oshiire'' was a type of
closet
A closet (especially in North American usage) is an enclosed space, with a door, used for storage, particularly that of clothes. ''Fitted closets'' are built into the walls of the house so that they take up no apparent space in the room. Closet ...
in Japan. In order to enter it one needed to pass through a ''fusuma''. These closets had a shelf where cotton filled mattresses would be stored. Sometimes beds themselves would be built into the ''Oshiire''. The word ''Oshiire'' literally translates to "push in" bedding closets.
Other and Materials
Japanese households also had family shrines called ''butsudan''. Other than reading stands, writing stands, headrests, Kimono racks, and armrests, there was no other furniture in Japan. Most furniture would not be decorated unless it was
lacquered. Despite the fact that bamboo was common in the furniture of India and China, bamboo was not common in Japanese furniture.
History
Japanese furniture generally did not have legs or stands. All furniture was low, remaining within reach of a person sitting on the floor. This was because most Japanese people sat on the floor instead of using chairs or tables. Such a practice was adopted from the Chinese. Japan was not the only
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
n civilization to borrow from the Chinese, the
Koreans
Koreans ( South Korean: , , North Korean: , ; see names of Korea) are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula.
Koreans mainly live in the two Korean nation states: North Korea and South Korea (collectively and simply re ...
also adopted this practice. People sat on the floor instead of using chairs and tables in order to gain easier movement and look at the world from a different perspective. In the earliest parts of Japanese history, during the
Kōbun Period, people lived in pit dwellings.
Eventually, houses started to be built out of timber with its bark unshaven. These houses would have antechambers made for women. The antechamber was separated from the rest of the world by doors made of curtains and window
blinds
A window blind is a type of window covering. There are many different kinds of window blinds which use a variety of control systems. A typical window blind is made up of several long horizontal or vertical slats of various types of hard mater ...
made of grass called ''sudare''. Beds would be made by stacking ''mushiro'' mats and then spreading the mats with a ''fusuma'' quilt.
Screens were one of the most important and common kinds of furniture in Japan. ''Shitsurai'' is a Japanese word referring to a carpentry technique called the "from the floor" approach. ''Shitsurai'' originated from another style called ''
shinden'' style. Which originated from the
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means "peace" in Japanese ...
. ''Shinden'' style was generally sparse. It involved little furniture and generally produced barren houses. This style utilized folding screens and doorway curtains to partition areas. Eventually, this
style of architecture developed into the
Shoin style
is a style of Japanese residential architecture used in the mansions of the military, temple guest halls, and Zen abbot's quarters of the Muromachi (1336-1573), Azuchi–Momoyama (1568–1600) and Edo periods (1600–1868). It forms the basis ...
. With this new style, many new types of screens were developed. Removable and slidable screens called ''
fusuma
In Japanese architecture, are vertical rectangular panels which can slide from side to side to redefine spaces within a room, or act as doors. They typically measure about wide by tall, the same size as a ''tatami'' mat, and are thick. The ...
'',
Translucent
In the field of optics, transparency (also called pellucidity or diaphaneity) is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without appreciable scattering of light. On a macroscopic scale (one in which the dimensions ...
paper panels called ''
shoji
A is a door, window or room divider used in traditional Japanese architecture, consisting of translucent (or transparent) sheets on a lattice frame. Where light transmission is not needed, the similar but opaque '' fusuma'' is used (oshiir ...
'', ''
tansu
are traditional Japanese mobile storage cabinets. are commonly used for the storage of clothing, particularly kimono.
were first recorded in the Genroku era (1688–1704) of the Edo period (1603–1867). The two characters, and , appear to h ...
'', ''
sudare
are traditional Japanese screens or blinds, made of horizontal slats of decorative wood, bamboo, or other natural material, woven together with simple string, colored yarn, or other decorative material to make nearly solid blinds can be ei ...
'' blinds, doorway curtains, and folding screens were all adopted. All of these mats were
3 feet by 6 feet. ''Tansu ''mats might be stacked on top of each other.
China
![MS-PerlmuttlackPäoniendose16Jh](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/MS-PerlmuttlackP%C3%A4oniendose16Jh.JPG)
In the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
, mainly in southern China, bamboo was used to make furniture that would be used outside. This was done primarily in Southern China. The bamboo would be made by growing the plant in a prepared sheath. Bamboo was a highly valued material in Ancient China, and other woods would be carved to look like it. Furniture could also be made from dense
hardwoods and
softwoods. Most wooden furniture in Ancient China was lacquered.
Joinery
Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining pieces of wood, engineered lumber, or synthetic substitutes (such as laminate), to produce more complex items. Some woodworking joints employ mechanical fasteners, bindings, or adhesives, ...
was also common in ancient Chinese and Indian furniture.
Mortise and tenon joints were very common in Chinese furniture.
The ''huchaung'' was a consolable folding chair.
Screens were introduced to China in the
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...
and
Western Zhou dynasty
The Western Zhou ( zh, c=, p=Xīzhōu; c. 1045 BC – 771 BC) was a royal dynasty of China and the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended when the Quanrong nom ...
. As time went on carpentry and woodworking techniques developed. Carpenters such as
Lu Ban contributed greatly to this development. These new techniques being commonly used in the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
and the
Spring and Autumn Period. The mortise and tennon joint was developed in the
Warring States period
The Warring States period () was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest ...
.
Levant
Religious
Throughout rural
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
and
Judah household shrines were common. Some rural shrines and other religious objects found in ancient houses are: a tripod basalt offering bowl, a zoomorphic figurine head, a carved ivory panel depicting a griffin, and terracotta masks. These would be accompanied by Cypro-Phoenician vessels, censers, amulets, stamp seals, chalice fragments, and metal objects. Aside from this, ancient households in the Levant might have ceramic vessels, Phoenician pitchers, censer cups, and zoomorphic vessels. All of these materials suggest that the kinds of religious activity these people would have engaged in involved offering food and drink to the gods in return for blessings. Other kinds of religious furniture such as
astragali usually had magic connotations. Terracotta figurines have been found throughout ancient Israel and Judah. These figurines are divided into three types. One type depicts a person with a circular dislike object on the left breast. The object is possibly a tambourine or a cake. A second type depicts a figure with outstretched limbs supporting breasts. This is possibly a depiction of the goddess Astarte or a fertility figurine. It could also be done to emphasize the features of the female body. The third type depicts a person on a horse, which is possibly a male deity named
Baal
Baal (), or Baal,; phn, , baʿl; hbo, , baʿal, ). ( ''baʿal'') was a title and honorific meaning "owner", "lord" in the Northwest Semitic languages spoken in the Levant during antiquity. From its use among people, it came to be applied t ...
.
Chairs, Beds, and Other
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
s furniture was often borrowed from other cultures. In ancient Israel ordinary people used stools and chairs that had footrests and armrests and did not have upholstery.
King Solomon had a chair made with armrests and a throne that was six steps higher than the floor and laid with ivory carvings and plated in gold. The throne was six steps higher than the floor. Most houses only had one chair and table. It is possible that ancient Israeli tables might have just been a raised piece of earth. Sometimes they would have cushions and mats. Beds did exist in Ancient Israel. Solomon had a bed made of cedar, silver, and gold with linen sheets, and scented with cinnamon and other spices.
Members of the upperclass had beds with pillows made from goatskins filled with feathers or wool. Other beds had cushions. Most people would have used mats instead of beds. Ancient Israelites also had cosmetic spoons, cosmetic bottle stoppers, round pyxides mirror handles, and
platter to eat food.
Wood and Ivory
Woods such as olive wood were used to make furniture in ancient Israel. Other materials were still used. Ivory was a particularly common resource. It was used to make wardrobes and round lace-like openwork plaques. Ivory was used to make inlaid furniture in
Samaria
Samaria (; he, שֹׁמְרוֹן, translit=Šōmrōn, ar, السامرة, translit=as-Sāmirah) is the historic and biblical name used for the central region of Palestine, bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The first ...
. They would also have patterns of colored paste with precious stones coated with gold or leaves. Alternatively, they could have the colored paste and stones painted. These ivories would have
Phoenician letters inscribed on their backs. Ivories tended to be mounted with pegs onto beds, chairs, and stools. This would then be hidden by ivory
florets
This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...
.
Mesoamerica
Maya
![Maya vase](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Maya_vase.jpg)
In one
Mayan
Mayan most commonly refers to:
* Maya peoples, various indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and northern Central America
* Maya civilization, pre-Columbian culture of Mesoamerica and northern Central America
* Mayan languages, language family spoken ...
ceramic
A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain ...
, a
god
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
who is possibly the
God L
God L of the Schellhas-Zimmermann-Taube classification of codical gods is one of the major pre-Spanish Maya deities, specifically associated with trade. Characterized by high age, he is one of the Mam (Maya mythology), Mam ('Grandfather') deities. ...
is shown seated on a throne-like stool covered in cloth placed on a raised platform. Carved stone pieces of furniture called chacmools would be used to hold offerings in sacrificial ceremonies. Some chacmools were painted with bright colors.
Instead of doors, Mayan homes may have had a cloth or a blanket hanging on the entryway. Bed frames were made from wood and covered in a woven straw mat. The bed frames were usually very low on the floor. Most likely, the only big furniture in a home would be wooden stools or benches. However, it there might also be baskets, small wooden chests, cotton bags, pottery, and stone tools. Mayans usually would hang bunches of
chili pepper
Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for ...
s from the roofs of their houses. A hollowed-out chunk of wood called a bee pot was also common.
Bees without
stinger
A stinger (or sting) is a sharp organ found in various animals (typically insects and other arthropods) capable of injecting venom, usually by piercing the epidermis of another animal.
An insect sting is complicated by its introduction of ve ...
s would be housed in the pot to make
honey
Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
.
Aztecs
A quantity of furniture in an
Aztec
The Aztecs () were a Mesoamerican culture that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl ...
home would have been uncommon sight. Usually instead of beds or chairs, mats made of reeds or dirt platforms were used to sit or sleep on. Nobleman would have curtains and
murals around their sleeping areas. Aside from this, Aztec households have low tables, and small
kitchen
A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. A modern middle-class residential kitchen is typically equipped with a stove, a sink with hot and cold running wate ...
s. Belongings were kept in wooden blocks or reed chests.
Looms, pots, frying pans, and
grinding stones
Grind is the cross-sectional shape of a blade.
Grind, grinds, or grinding may also refer to:
Grinding action
* Grinding (abrasive cutting), a method of crafting
* Grinding (dance), suggestive club dancing
* Grinding (video gaming), repetitive a ...
for grinding corn,
hunting
Hunting is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products ( fur/ hide, bone/tusks, horn/antler, ...
, and
fishing gear
Fishing tackle is the equipment used by anglers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used in fishing can be called fishing tackle, examples being hooks, lines, baits/ lures, rods, reels, floats, sinkers/ feeders, nets, stringers/ k ...
were common tools amongst the Aztecs. The
Tlatoani
''Tlatoani'' ( , "one who speaks, ruler"; plural ' or tlatoque) is the Classical Nahuatl term for the ruler of an , a pre-Hispanic state. It is the noun form of the verb "tlahtoa" meaning "speak, command, rule". As a result, it has been variousl ...
, such as
Moctezuma, would have had wooden chairs, dining tables, and ceremonial shrines.
Incans
In
Incan temples, the important areas were decorated with gold and polished reflective surfaces. The typical Incan house had adobe walls with hollow niches to store items. Incan houses also had animal skins and woven mats to decorate their floors. They also used brightly dyed woven materials for blankets and wall hangings.
Pucará de Tilcara
The Pucará de Tilcara is a pre-Inca fortification or '' pukara'' located on a hill just outside (approximately a 15-minute walk) the small town of Tilcara, in the Argentine province of Jujuy. The location was strategically chosen to be easily def ...
has sites related to crafts production, processing, storage, and food consumption. Some areas were reused for burial.
References
Sources
{{commons category
* Andrianou, Dimitra. ''The Furniture and Furnishings of Ancient Greek Houses and Tombs''. New York: Cambridge UP, 2009.
* Baker, Hollis S. ''Furniture in the Ancient World: Origins & Evolution, 3100-475 B.C''. New York: Macmillan, 1966.
* Blakemore, Robbie G. ''History of Interior Design & Furniture: from Ancient Egypt to Nineteenth-century Europe''. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons, 2006.
* Boger, Louise Ade. ''Furniture Past & Present: A Complete Illustrated Guide to Furniture Styles from Ancient to Modern''. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966.
* Burford, Alison. ''Craftsmen in Greek and Roman Society''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1972.
* Gigante, Linda Maria. “Funerary Art,” in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome''. Vol. 1. Edited by Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
* Guhl, E., and W. Koner. ''Everyday Life in Greek and Roman Times''. New York: Crescent, 1989.
* Mols, Stephanus T.A.M. ''Wooden Furniture in Herculaneum: Form, Technique and Function''. Vol. 2 of Circumvesuviana. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1999.
* Nevett, Lisa C. ''Domestic Space in Classical Antiquity''. New York: Cambridge UP, 2010.
* Pollen, John Hungerford. ''Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork''. London: Pub. for the Committee of Council on Education, by Chapman and Hall, 1875. ''South Kensington Museum of Art Handbooks'', No. 3.
* Richter, G.M.A. ''The Furniture of the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans''. London: Phaidon, 1966.
* Robsjohn-Gibbings, Terence Harold, and Carlton W. Pullin. ''Furniture of Classical Greece''. New York: Knopf, 1963.
* Simpson, Elizabeth. “Furniture,” in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome''. Vol. 1. Edited by Michael Gagarin and Elaine Fantham. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
* Wanscher, Ole. ''Sella Curulis: The Folding Stool, an Ancient Symbol of Dignity''. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1980.
History of furniture
Ancient Greek culture
Ancient Roman furniture
Ancient Greek art
Ancient Roman art
Sumerian art and architecture
Ancient Egyptian architecture
Ancient Roman culture
Ancient Egyptian culture
Ancient Indian culture
Chinese art
Japanese art
Japanese culture
Chinese culture