Anarchism in Switzerland appeared, as a political current, within the
Jura Federation
The Jura Federation represented the anarchist, Bakuninist faction of the First International during the anti-statist split from the organization. Jura, a Swiss area, was known for its watchmaker artisans in La Chaux-de-Fonds, who shared anti- ...
of the
International Workingmen's Association (IWA), under the influence of
Mikhail Bakunin and Swiss libertarian activists such as
James Guillaume
James Guillaume (February 16, 1844, London – November 20, 1916, Paris) was a leading member of the Jura federation, the anarchist wing of the First International. Later, Guillaume would take an active role in the founding of the Anarchist St. I ...
and
Adhémar Schwitzguébel
Adhémar Schwitzguébel (August 15, 1844, in Sonvilier – July 23, 1895, Evilard) was a Swiss anarchist
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the ...
. Swiss anarchism subsequently evolved alongside the nascent social democratic movement and participated in the local opposition to fascism during the interwar period. The contemporary Swiss anarchist movement then grew into a number of militant groups, libertarian socialist organizations and squats.
History
In August 1291, an
alliance was formed between the cantons of
Uri Uri may refer to:
Places
* Canton of Uri, a canton in Switzerland
* Úri, a village and commune in Hungary
* Uri, Iran, a village in East Azerbaijan Province
* Uri, Jammu and Kashmir, a town in India
* Uri (island), an island off Malakula Islan ...
,
Schwyz
The town of Schwyz (; french: Schwytz; it, Svitto) is the capital of the canton of Schwyz in Switzerland.
The Federal Charter of 1291 or ''Bundesbrief'', the charter that eventually led to the foundation of Switzerland, can be seen at the '' ...
and
Unterwalden
Unterwalden, translated from the Latin ''inter silvas''(''between the forests''), is the old name of a forest-canton of the Old Swiss Confederacy in central Switzerland, south of Lake Lucerne, consisting of two valleys or ''Talschaften'', now t ...
, establishing the
Swiss Confederacy with
imperial immediacy
Imperial immediacy (german: Reichsfreiheit or ') was a privileged constitutional and political status rooted in German feudal law under which the Imperial estates of the Holy Roman Empire such as Imperial cities, prince-bishoprics and secular pri ...
, which allowed for the territory's autonomy from the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
. During the
growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, it continued to assert its autonomy through a number of conflicts against noble houses such as the
Habsburgs
The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
and the
Burgundians
The Burgundians ( la, Burgundes, Burgundiōnes, Burgundī; on, Burgundar; ang, Burgendas; grc-gre, Βούργουνδοι) were an early Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared in the middle Rhine region, near the Roman Empire, and ...
, eventually achieving ''de facto'' independence from the empire after its victory in the
Swabian War, which exempted the Confederacy from the decisions of the
Imperial Diet. In its place, the Swiss Confederacy established the
Federal Diet, a regular meeting of cantonal delegates with only limited powers. The Diet was the only form of federal authority in Switzerland and the cantons remained essentially sovereign.
During the
Protestant Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
, social inequality grew significantly, as more political and economic power became concentrated in the hands of a few rich families, which began to draw resentment from peasants and free citizens. In response to the rise of these oligarchies,
popular revolts started to break out in many of the cantons, with the objective of restoring common democratic rights. Despite the cantonal authorities managing to subdue these uprisings through the granting of concessions,
autocratic tendencies continued to slowly transform the democratic cantons into oligarchies, culminating in the establishment of the absolutist ''
Ancien Régime
''Ancien'' may refer to
* the French word for "ancient, old"
** Société des anciens textes français
* the French for "former, senior"
** Virelai ancien
** Ancien Régime
** Ancien Régime in France
{{disambig ...
'' in 1648, with the
recognition
Recognition may refer to:
*Award, something given in recognition of an achievement
Machine learning
*Pattern recognition, a branch of machine learning which encompasses the meanings below
Biometric
* Recognition of human individuals, or biomet ...
of Swiss independence from the
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
. But the institution of absolutism in Switzerland soon led to the
Swiss peasant war of 1653, which resulted in the implementation of a series of reforms including the lowering of taxes, ultimately preventing the country from completely implementing absolutism as had occurred in
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
under
Louis XIV
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Vers ...
.
In 1798, the
French invasion of Switzerland brought about the collapse of the Old Confederacy, which was replaced with the
Helvetic Republic
The Helvetic Republic (, , ) was a sister republic of France that existed between 1798 and 1803, during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was created following the French invasion and the consequent dissolution of the Old Swiss Confederacy, ma ...
, representing an attempt to impose a central authority over Switzerland. However, a
federalist revolt eventually
overthrew the Republic, restoring the cantons and re-establishing a federal and decentralized
Swiss Confederation. Following the defeat and dissolution of the
First French Empire
The First French Empire, officially the French Republic, then the French Empire (; Latin: ) after 1809, also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established French hegemony over much of continental Eu ...
in the
War of the Sixth Coalition
In the War of the Sixth Coalition (March 1813 – May 1814), sometimes known in Germany as the Wars of Liberation, a coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, and a number of German States defeated F ...
, Cantonal constitutions began to be worked out independently and the Federal Diet was reconvened to replace the constitution with a new
Federal Treaty, beginning the
restoration
Restoration is the act of restoring something to its original state and may refer to:
* Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
** Audio restoration
** Film restoration
** Image restoration
** Textile restoration
* Restoration ecology
...
of the ''Ancien Régime''.
But the restoration of the Swiss ruling class brought with it a rise in
liberalism
Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty, consent of the governed, political equality and equality before the law."political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for c ...
and
radicalism, calling for greater democracy in the Swiss cantons. Following the
July Revolution
The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution (french: révolution de Juillet), Second French Revolution, or ("Three Glorious ays), was a second French Revolution after the first in 1789. It led to the overthrow of King ...
,
cantonal assemblies were held calling for new cantonal constitutions, particularly focused on the implementation of
proportional representation
Proportional representation (PR) refers to a type of electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. The concept applies mainly to geographical (e.g. states, regions) and political divis ...
and the ability to propose
citizens' initiatives. As liberal and radical groups attained more power,
they began to institute widespread reforms including the abolition of
censorship
Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
, the
separation of church and state
The separation of church and state is a philosophical and jurisprudential concept for defining political distance in the relationship between religious organizations and the state. Conceptually, the term refers to the creation of a secular sta ...
, the recognition of
popular sovereignty and the introduction of
representative democracy.
In 1848, Switzerland was officially
constituted as a
federal state
A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government ( federalism). In a federation, the self-governi ...
, imposing a
central government
A central government is the government that is a controlling power over a unitary state. Another distinct but sovereign political entity is a federal government, which may have distinct powers at various levels of government, authorized or dele ...
made up of representatives of a new
National Assembly
In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repre ...
, which came under the control of the
Free Democratic Party.
With the outbreak of the
Paris Commune
The Paris Commune (french: Commune de Paris, ) was a revolutionary government that seized power in Paris, the capital of France, from 18 March to 28 May 1871.
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, the French National Guard had defended ...
, the anarchist
James Guillaume
James Guillaume (February 16, 1844, London – November 20, 1916, Paris) was a leading member of the Jura federation, the anarchist wing of the First International. Later, Guillaume would take an active role in the founding of the Anarchist St. I ...
drew a contrast between the federalism practiced by the communards with the federalism of Switzerland. According to Guillaume, the Parisian conception of federalism, as inspired by the philosophy of
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, , ; 15 January 1809, Besançon – 19 January 1865, Paris) was a French socialist,Landauer, Carl; Landauer, Hilde Stein; Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl (1979) 959 "The Three Anticapitalistic Movements". ''European Socia ...
, was organized in direct opposition to nationalism and statism, whereas Swiss federalism maintained the nation-state, albeit organized through decentralization.
The International and early Swiss anarchism
The re-establishment of the Swiss confederation in 1848 provided a safe haven for many European revolutionaries, many of which had been forced into exile by the monarchist regimes that largely ruled the continent at the time. These expatriates included a significant number of revolutionary socialists and anarchists, who began to lay the groundwork for the labor movement in the country.
Following the repression of the
January Uprising
The January Uprising ( pl, powstanie styczniowe; lt, 1863 metų sukilimas; ua, Січневе повстання; russian: Польское восстание; ) was an insurrection principally in Russia's Kingdom of Poland that was aimed at ...
in
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
, European workers began to discuss the need for an international organization, culminating in the 1864 founding of the
International Workingmen's Association (IWA). In September 1866, the IWA convened its
first congress in
Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
, during which the French
mutualists came to dominate the discussion, with native Swiss trade unions and educational societies also in attendance, concluding its activities by taking up the demand for the universal establishment of the
eight-hour day. The following September, the IWA's
second congress was convened in
Lausanne
, neighboring_municipalities= Bottens, Bretigny-sur-Morrens, Chavannes-près-Renens, Cheseaux-sur-Lausanne, Crissier, Cugy, Écublens, Épalinges, Évian-les-Bains (FR-74), Froideville, Jouxtens-Mézery, Le Mont-sur-Lausanne, Lugrin (FR-74), ...
, where the majority of delegates cam from the local Swiss labor movement. It was during this second congress that the international took on a more explicitly socialist program. Here too the mutualists were predominant in the discussions of the congress, raising debates on national banks, trade union investments and education, ultimately bringing about the approval of resolutions to "induce the trade unions to devote their funds to cooperative production" to institute free, compulsory and secular education, and to call for the
public ownership of transportation.
Shortly after the Lausanne Congress, the
inaugural congress of the
League of Peace and Freedom
The Ligue internationale de la paix (League of Peace and Freedom) was created after a public opinion campaign against a war between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia over Luxembourg. The Luxembourg crisis was peacefully resolved ...
was held in Geneva, coordinated with the aim of achieving peace between European nations and the establishment of a "
United States of Europe
The United States of Europe (USE), the European State, the European Federation and Federal Europe, is the hypothetical scenario of the European integration leading to formation of a sovereign superstate (similar to the United States of Ameri ...
". This congress saw the participation of a number of prominent anarchists, including
Mikhail Bakunin and
Élisée Reclus
Jacques Élisée Reclus (; 15 March 18304 July 1905) was a French geographer, writer and anarchist. He produced his 19-volume masterwork, ''La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes'' ("Universal Geography"), over a period of ...
, who joined the league's central committee. However, the League's second congress in
Bern
german: Berner(in)french: Bernois(e) it, bernese
, neighboring_municipalities = Bremgarten bei Bern, Frauenkappelen, Ittigen, Kirchlindach, Köniz, Mühleberg, Muri bei Bern, Neuenegg, Ostermundigen, Wohlen bei Bern, Zollikofen
, website ...
marked a split between the organization's liberal democratic majority and the anarchist minority, which caused Bakunin, Reclus,
Mroczkowski and
Fanelli Fanelli is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Alison Fanelli (born 1979), American former actress
* Ernest Fanelli (1860–1917), French composer
* Francesco Fanelli (c. 1590–1653), Italian sculptor
* Gary Fanelli (born 195 ...
to leave the League and establish the
International Alliance of Socialist Democracy
The International Alliance of Socialist Democracy was an organisation founded by Mikhail Bakunin along with 79 other members on October 28, 1868, as an organisation within the International Workingmen's Association (IWA). The establishment of the A ...
, which soon dissolved itself into the various national sections of the IWA.
In September 1869, the IWA's
fourth congress was convened in
Basel
, french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese
, neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
, in which the Swiss delegates included the anarchists
James Guillaume
James Guillaume (February 16, 1844, London – November 20, 1916, Paris) was a leading member of the Jura federation, the anarchist wing of the First International. Later, Guillaume would take an active role in the founding of the Anarchist St. I ...
and
Adhémar Schwitzguébel
Adhémar Schwitzguébel (August 15, 1844, in Sonvilier – July 23, 1895, Evilard) was a Swiss anarchist
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the ...
. This congress saw the French section, which was largely composed of mutualists such as
Henri Tolain
Henri Louis Tolain (18 June 1828, Paris – 4 May 1897, Paris), was a leading member of the French trade union and socialist movement and a founding member of the First International and follower of Proudhon.
Life
He was the son of Antoine T ...
,
Eugène Varlin
Eugène Varlin (; 5 October 1839 – 28 May 1871) was a French socialist, anarchist, communard and member of the First International. He was one of the pioneers of French syndicalism.
Biography Early life and activism
Louis-Eugène Varlin was bo ...
and
Benoît Malon, become isolated from the International by the growing
Marxist
Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
faction.
In the wake of this excision, on October 9, 1870, anti-authoritarian and anarchist sections of the IWA's Romandy Federation went on to found the
Jura Federation
The Jura Federation represented the anarchist, Bakuninist faction of the First International during the anti-statist split from the organization. Jura, a Swiss area, was known for its watchmaker artisans in La Chaux-de-Fonds, who shared anti- ...
during a meeting in
Saint-Imier. The federation published the
Sonvilier Circular
The ''Sonvilier Circular'' is a 1871 anti-authoritarian treatise by the Jura Federation, a breakaway faction of the First International. Written during their Sonvilier
Sonvilier is a municipality in the Jura bernois administrative district i ...
in 1871, which aligned it against hierarchical political parties and advocated for horizontal revolutionary organizations that modelled themselves after the future society they wished to bring about.
When the anarchist faction was expelled from the IWA at the International's
fifth congress, the Jura Federation organized a
rival congress in Saint-Imier. The congress resolved to reject the expulsion of anarchists from the IWA and other resolutions of the
Hague Congress and the International's General Council, which they deemed as
authoritarian
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic votin ...
. From the libertarian section of the split rose the
Anti-Authoritarian International, which they claimed to be to true heirs of the IWA.
In September 1873, the two rival Internationals both held separate sixth congresses in Geneva. The Congress of the Marxist section proved to be a failure, as only a small number of regional federations participated and the General Council was itself unable to attend, leading it to eventually dissolve itself. Whereas the anarchist congress was attended by delegates from all over western Europe, with a federation from the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
even announcing its accession to the anarchist International. The anarchists agreed to the formal dissolution of the General Council and the autonomy of local federations, as well as the adoption of the
general strike
A general strike refers to a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large co ...
as a revolutionary tactic for the first time.
In 1874, Mikhail Bakunin retired to
Minusio and died on July 1, 1876. Following Bakunin's death, a number of debates began to emerge within the anarchist movement, concerning the concepts of
insurrectionism
Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory and tendency within the anarchist movement that emphasizes insurrection as a revolutionary practice. It is critical of formal organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based ...
,
syndicalism and
anarcho-communism
Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist communism, (or, colloquially, ''ancom'' or ''ancomm'') is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought that advocates communism. It calls for the abolition of private property but retains resp ...
. In September 1876, the International held its eighth congress in Bern, during which the proposal to open up the International to non-anarchist organizations was debated. Subsequent congresses thus took positions that were increasingly favorable to Russian
populism
Populism refers to a range of political stances that emphasize the idea of "the people" and often juxtapose this group against " the elite". It is frequently associated with anti-establishment and anti-political sentiment. The term developed ...
and
nihilism
Nihilism (; ) is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as objective truth, knowledge, morality, values, or meaning. The term was popularized by Ivan ...
, approving of more radical tactics like
propaganda of the deed
Propaganda of the deed (or propaganda by the deed, from the French ) is specific political direct action meant to be exemplary to others and serve as a catalyst for revolution.
It is primarily associated with acts of violence perpetrated by pro ...
. Debates also took place between the
collectivist position of Bakunin and the newly synthesized
anarcho-communism
Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist communism, (or, colloquially, ''ancom'' or ''ancomm'') is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought that advocates communism. It calls for the abolition of private property but retains resp ...
, which was proposed by
Peter Kropotkin
Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (; russian: link=no, Пётр Алексе́евич Кропо́ткин ; 9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist, socialist, revolutionary, historian, scientist, philosopher, and activis ...
, with the Jura Federation officially adopting anarcho-communism at its congress in
La Chaux-de-Fonds
La Chaux-de-Fonds () is a Swiss city in the canton of Neuchâtel. It is located in the Jura mountains at an altitude of 1000 m, a few kilometers south of the French border. After Geneva, Lausanne and Fribourg, it is the fourth largest city loc ...
. Kropotkin and Reclus also founded the Jura Federation's official newspaper ''
Le Révolté'' on February 22, 1879, and published a number of revolutionary pamphlets, although the political fallout that followed the
assassination of Alexander II of Russia
On 13 March Old Style], 1881, Alexander II of Russia, Alexander II, the Emperor of Russia, was assassinated in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, Russia while returning to the Winter Palace from Mikhailovsky Manège in a closed carriage.
The assa ...
in 1881 led to Kropotkin's expulsion from Switzerland. By this time, the Anti-Authoritarian International and the Jura Federation had both largely dissolved.
Social democracy and syndicalism
As a result of the split in the International, the socialist movement within Switzerland became split across the same lines. In
Romandy, anarchism became the predominant tendency, whereas in
German-speaking Switzerland, it was
social democratic
Social democracy is a political, social, and economic philosophy within socialism that supports political and economic democracy. As a policy regime, it is described by academics as advocating economic and social interventions to promote soci ...
tendencies that took the lead.
When the
Social Democratic Party
The name Social Democratic Party or Social Democrats has been used by many political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy as their political ideology.
Active parties
For ...
was founded in 1888, a number of German-speaking anarchists and syndicalists joined the party and its affiliated trade unions, influencing party policy towards anarchist, federalist and syndicalist ideas. However, anarchist activists were often the target of expulsion by Swiss authorities, a practice which was even applied by social democratic police officials. German and Austrian anarchists were only able to briefly agitate in Switzerland before themselves being expelled, at the behest of social democratic figures. The social democrats also led to expulsion of anarchists from the
Zürich Socialist and Labour Congress, which had been convened by the
Second International
The Second International (1889–1916) was an organisation of socialist and labour parties, formed on 14 July 1889 at two simultaneous Paris meetings in which delegations from twenty countries participated. The Second International continued th ...
. The Social Democrats went on to win their first eat in the
National Council during the
1896 Swiss federal election.
Nevertheless, the influence of anarcho-syndicalism had brought with it the strategy of the mass strike, as the early 1900s saw a wave of localized general strikes spread through the country, despite Swiss trade union leaders remaining largely skeptical of the practice. The anti-strike rhetoric that followed in their wake saw a surge in
anti-semitic
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.
Antis ...
and
xenophobic conspiracy theories, which blamed the strikes on Jewish speculators and foreign anarchist revolutionaries.
The Swiss anarchist press also began to flourish during this period. In 1900, ''
Il Risveglio anarchico'' was established by a group of Italian emigrants and exiles, led by
Luigi Bertoni, in collaboration with Romand anarchists such as
Jean Wintsch and
Jacques Gross. The paper published an
Italian language
Italian (''italiano'' or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. Together with Sardinian, Italian is the least divergent language from Latin. Spoken by about 85 m ...
edition and a
French language
French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages. French evolved from Gallo-Romance, the Latin spoken in Gaul, and more specifically in Nor ...
edition, which published different articles and had different target audiences. There was also a brief period between 1903 and 1907 when a
German language
German ( ) is a West Germanic languages, West Germanic language mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and Official language, official or co-official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the Ita ...
edition was published. On May 1, 1914, the newspaper ''
Le Falot'' was founded by a group of anarchists, syndicalists and free thinkers in
Valais
Valais ( , , ; frp, Valês; german: Wallis ), more formally the Canton of Valais,; german: Kanton Wallis; in other official Swiss languages outside Valais: it, (Canton) Vallese ; rm, (Chantun) Vallais. is one of the cantons of Switzerland, 26 ...
, declaring that it would not be the organ of any political party and instead defended the syndicalist route of organizing through trade unions, taking advantage of the prohibition of socialist newspapers. ''Le Falot'' demonstrated concern about the living conditions of immigrant workers and denounced the poor conditions offered in various localities, as well as discrimination against
Arabs in Switzerland.
After the outbreak of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, when the Social Democratic Party began to pursue the policy of ''
Burgfrieden
The or 'c.fBurgfriedeat Duden online. was a German medieval term that referred to imposition of a state of truce within the jurisdiction of a castle, and sometimes its estate, under which feuds, i.e. conflicts between private individuals, were ...
'', they received criticism from a number of far-left groups, including even the
Young Socialists, who had come under the influence of the anarchist physician
Fritz Brupbacher
Fritz Brupbacher (30 June 1874 – 1 January 1945) was a Swiss medical doctor, libertarian socialist and writer.
Biography Youth and study time
His father managed to achieve social advancement from a poor orphan to hotel owner of Zürich's Bahnh ...
and the pacifist theologian
Leonhard Ragaz
Leonhard Ragaz (1868–1945) was a Swiss people, Swiss Reformed tradition, Reformed theologian and, with Hermann Kutter, one of the founders of religious socialism in Switzerland. He was influenced by Christoph Blumhardt. He was married to the fem ...
. Anarchic tendencies continued to proliferate within the Young Socialists throughout the 20th century, particularly in the Bern section, which eventually began pushing for the abolition of the Social Democratic Party's central presidium.
During the war, the price of basic necessities rose while wages sank. Some workers were drafted into the military, but were not compensated for their lost wages and were even paid less than they had been in industrial work. The issues of ''Le Falot'' criticized the war as an "absurd massacre" and held that the remedy to the present conditions was through trade union organization. The newspaper took a leading role in developing trade unions, forming a union of about 150 workers in Vouvry, with a total of 12 unions being created by the initiative before the end of 1916. In January 1917, the Workers' Federation of Valais (FVO) was founded and ''Le Falot'' became its official body, publishing reports from the FVO secretariat and information about the various sections.
[ The Dada movement also emerged in Zurich out of a reaction to the war, developing an art style from ]anti-capitalist
Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and Political movement, movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economi ...
and anarchist philosophies that expressed itself through nonsense and irrationality
Irrationality is cognition, thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of rationality. It is more specifically described as an action or opinion given through inadequate use of reason, or through emotional distress or cognitive deficiency. T ...
. Meanwhile, the heightened inequalities, combined with the new political climate that followed in the wake of the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and ad ...
, led leaders of the Social Democratic Party, labor unions and the left-wing press to establish the Olten Action Committee (OAK), in order to provide a unified leadership for the labor movement.
On October 9, 1918, an explosives store with material of German origin discovered in the Seebach embankment near Zurich, which previously had been attributed to sabotage preparations by the German Consulate, was traced back to a fictitious anarchist group by the right-wing district attorney Otto Heusser and increased fear of revolution among the bourgeoisie. These fears of revolution led to the Federal Council deploying a military occupation of Zurich in November 1918, claiming that due to the economic and political instability the troops were needed to maintain order. The city's labor unions accused the government of attempting to establish a military dictatorship and the OAK called for a peaceful one-day strike in Swiss cities, in a move which Zurich's local labor leaders considered overly cautious. During a planned celebration of the first anniversary of the October Revolution
The October Revolution,. officially known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. in the Soviet Union, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was a key moment ...
, and following news of the German Revolution
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ger ...
successfully overthrowing the monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy) ...
, the military violently dispersed protesting crowds in Zurich. The OAK responded to these altercations by proclaiming a general strike
A general strike refers to a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large co ...
and calling for nine demands, including the institution of proportional representation
Proportional representation (PR) refers to a type of electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body. The concept applies mainly to geographical (e.g. states, regions) and political divis ...
, women's suffrage
Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...
, the 48-hour week and the reorganization of the military into a "people's army". But the government responded by rejecting the demands and mobilizing the Army
An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
. The general strike was therefore initiated on November 12, with its greatest participation coming from the industrial areas of German-speaking Switzerland. Clovis-Abel Pignat, on the first page of ''Le Falot'' of December 1, analyzed the situation and proposed to adopt a program in case of victory of the Revolution in Valais
Valais ( , , ; frp, Valês; german: Wallis ), more formally the Canton of Valais,; german: Kanton Wallis; in other official Swiss languages outside Valais: it, (Canton) Vallese ; rm, (Chantun) Vallais. is one of the cantons of Switzerland, 26 ...
. He was himself persuaded by the imminence of change: "From the train where the events are going to the countries around us, it is to be expected that its implementation will be soon. There are currents that it is unnecessary to bring back, and despite the fierce obstructionism by the owning and governing classes, the popular will will eventually triumph. For all conscious men, there is not a minute to spare. Groups must train everywhere to undertake extensive propaganda among the people. The day of salvation is approaching. Let's go ready!" However, the Federal Assembly passed several measures to break the strike, giving the OAK an ultimatum to call it off, which they complied with. In Basel and Zurich, many workers initially refused to believe that the strike had been called off, with some radical union leaders such as Ernst Nobs even ignoring the decision entirely. But eventually the moderate leaders prevailed and work largely resumed as normal. By the end of the strike, some workers had already been killed by soldiers, while many of the union leaders were trialed and convicted for their involvement. With the defeat of the strike, debates on the organization of political training and election participation came back in the columns of ''Le Falot''. By November 12, 1919, the newspaper had ceased publication entirely, ending its first editorial era.
Nevertheless, the general strike marked a turning point for the Swiss left-wing. In the 1919 Swiss federal election
Federal elections were held in Switzerland on 26 October 1919. Nohlen, D & Stöver, P (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p1894 The Free Democratic Party emerged as the largest party in the National Council, winning 60 of the 189 s ...
, the Social Democratic Party made massive gains, doubling their seats in the National Council, while in the subsequent election they gained their first seat in the Council of States. On March 6, 1921, the Communist Party of Switzerland
The Communist Party of Switzerland (german: Kommunistische Partei der Schweiz; KPS) or Swiss Communist Party (french: Parti communiste suisse; it, Partito Comunista Svizzero; PCS) was a communist party in Switzerland between 1921 and 1944. It was ...
was founded by far-left dissidents that were expelled from the SDP, one of which was the libertarian socialist Fritz Brupbacher
Fritz Brupbacher (30 June 1874 – 1 January 1945) was a Swiss medical doctor, libertarian socialist and writer.
Biography Youth and study time
His father managed to achieve social advancement from a poor orphan to hotel owner of Zürich's Bahnh ...
, although he would later also be expelled from the Communist Party due to his criticisms of Stalinism
Stalinism is the means of governing and Marxist-Leninist policies implemented in the Soviet Union from 1927 to 1953 by Joseph Stalin. It included the creation of a one-party totalitarian police state, rapid industrialization, the theory ...
.
Anti-fascism
In October 1922, the March on Rome
The March on Rome ( it, Marcia su Roma) was an organized mass demonstration and a coup d'état in October 1922 which resulted in Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party (PNF) ascending to power in the Kingdom of Italy. In late October 1922, Fa ...
resulted in the National Fascist Party
The National Fascist Party ( it, Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) was a political party in Italy, created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Italian Fascism and as a reorganization of the previous Italian Fasces of Combat. The ...
taking power and establishing a fascist regime
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...
in Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
. ''Il Risveglio anarchico'' began to aim its Italian language edition at Italian anti-fascists, who were now part of a growing resistance movement. Many Italian anti-fascist refugees sought asylum in Switzerland, where they were able to continue agitation due to the democratic and libertarian political climate.
Fascism first spread to Switzerland not long after, as the anti-communist
Anti-communism is Political movement, political and Ideology, ideological opposition to communism. Organized anti-communism developed after the 1917 October Revolution in the Russian Empire, and it reached global dimensions during the Cold War, w ...
''Union de défense économique'' (UDE) was established in 1923 by former members of the Radical
Radical may refer to:
Politics and ideology Politics
*Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change
*Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and ...
and Liberal
Liberal or liberalism may refer to:
Politics
* a supporter of liberalism
** Liberalism by country
* an adherent of a Liberal Party
* Liberalism (international relations)
* Sexually liberal feminism
* Social liberalism
Arts, entertainment and m ...
parties, winning seats in the Federal Council and Grand Council of Geneva
The Grand Council of Geneva (french: Grand Conseil de Genève) is the legislature of the canton of Geneva, in Switzerland. Geneva, styled as a 'Republic and Canton', has a unicameral legislature. The Grand Council was established in its prese ...
. In 1932, it merged with Georges Oltramare
Georges Oltramare (born 17 April 1896 in Geneva – died 16 August 1960 in Geneva) was a Swiss writer and fascist politician who became involved in collaboration in Nazi-occupied France.
Born into a leading Geneva family, he obtained a ''demi-li ...
's fascist political party the ''Ordre politique nacional'' to establish the National Union. The Union, known for its antisemitism
Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.
Antis ...
, organized a mock trial of the socialist leaders Léon Nicole
Léon Nicole (10 April 1887 in Montcherand, Vaud – 28 June 1965 in Geneva) was a prominent trade unionist, journalist, politician and member of the Grand Council of Geneva and the National Council (Switzerland), Swiss National Council. In 1933, ...
and Jacques Dicker
Jacques Dicker (1879, Khotyn, BessarabiaGattiker, Annetta. L'affaire Conradi'. Berne: H. Lang, 1975. p. 107 – 17 November 1942, GenevaHistorisches Lexikon Schweiz. Dicker, Jacques') was a Russian-born Swiss socialist politician and lawyer.
D ...
at Plainpalais in Geneva. A counter-demonstration
A political demonstration is an action by a mass group or collection of groups of people in favor of a political or other cause or people partaking in a protest against a cause of concern; it often consists of walking in a mass march formati ...
was called by the Swiss left-wing, with anarchist protestors being organized by Lucien Tronchet and André Bösiger
André Bösiger (born July 22, 1913 in Perrefitte; died in Geneva on April 13, 2005) was a Swiss anarcho-syndicalist. An activist of the ''Building Action League'' in Geneva, he collaborated with the '' Réveil anarchiste'' and the International ...
, in order to shut down the meeting. Between 4,000 and 5,000 protestors gathered at Plainpalais, a few anarchists were among the demonstrators to breach the police cordon and briefly gain access to the building and attempt to disrupt the meeting, before being thrown out. But the Swiss Army had been deployed in order to suppress the demonstration,[Jürg Stüssi-Lauterburg, « Résumé historique sur le thème du service d'ordre », communiqué de la Confédération suisse, 30 septembre 1996](_blank)
which was finally dispersed after 10 people were shot and killed by the armed forces. Among the dead was the libertarian socialist militant Melchior Allemann, a close friend of Bösiger's. In the aftermath, the Gruppe 33 was founded in Basel
, french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese
, neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
by a collective of avant-garde
The avant-garde (; In 'advance guard' or ' vanguard', literally 'fore-guard') is a person or work that is experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society.John Picchione, The New Avant-garde in Italy: Theoretical ...
and surrealist artists, united out of a shared anti-fascist political ideology.
During the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War ( es, Guerra Civil Española)) or The Revolution ( es, La Revolución, link=no) among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War ( es, Cuarta Guerra Carlista, link=no) among Carlists, and The Rebellion ( es, La Rebelión, lin ...
, Swiss anarchists sent arms, money and supplies to Spanish anarcho-syndicalists and coordinated links between Spanish agricultural collectives and Swiss consumer cooperatives. Some Swiss anarchists, like Clara Thalmann, even fought in the confederal militias
The confederal militias were a movement of people's militia organized during the Spanish civil war by the dominant organizations of anarchism in Spain: the National Confederation of Labor (CNT) and the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI).
These ...
. With the outbreak of World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
and Switzerland maintaining its neutrality, the fascist political parties dissolved and the Communist Party was banned for its support of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
, long_name = Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
, image = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg
, image_width = 200
, caption = Stalin and Ribbentrop shaking ...
. By 1943, the Federal Council made a decision to crack down on all groups linked to the Axis Powers
The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were ...
.
Contemporary anarchist movement
In 1957, the Centre International de Recherches sur l'Anarchisme (CIRA) was founded in Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
, moving to Lausanne
, neighboring_municipalities= Bottens, Bretigny-sur-Morrens, Chavannes-près-Renens, Cheseaux-sur-Lausanne, Crissier, Cugy, Écublens, Épalinges, Évian-les-Bains (FR-74), Froideville, Jouxtens-Mézery, Le Mont-sur-Lausanne, Lugrin (FR-74), ...
in 1965. It was established as an archive of anarchist works, functioning as an infoshop and library of anarchist materials in various different languages.
During the 1970s, anarchism took a more militant turn in Switzerland. A small group of conscienscous objectors that had met in prison formed the Fasel Gang in 1977 and committed a series of robberies, before being caught, and subsequently organizing a series of prison breaks. In 1979, the environmentalist activist Marco Camenisch
Marco Camenisch (born 21 January 1952) is a Swiss anarchist and environmental activist.
Biography Early life
Camenisch was born on January 21, 1952, in Campocologno, Switzerland and raised in a middle-class home in canton Graubünden.
Activi ...
sabotaged a power station at Bad Ragaz
Bad Ragaz is a municipality in the ''Wahlkreis'' (constituency) of Sarganserland in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland.
It is the home of a famous natural spring and is a popular spa and health resort destination.
History
Bad Ragaz is fi ...
with explosives, himself being arrested not long after and also escaping from prison. It was later reported that he had killed a border guard when fleeing to Italy. The Swiss anarchist Werner Sauber also took part in the 2 June Movement
The 2 June Movement (german: link=no, Bewegung 2. Juni) was a West German anarchist militant group based in West Berlin. Active from January 1972 to 1980, the anarchist group was one of the few militant groups at the time in Germany. Although ...
, which carried out a number of attacks throughout West Germany
West Germany is the colloquial term used to indicate the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; german: Bundesrepublik Deutschland , BRD) between its formation on 23 May 1949 and the German reunification through the accession of East Germany on 3 O ...
.
In 1978, the Libertarian Federation of the Mountains (french: Fédération Libertaire des Montagnes) was founded, which published the ''Bulletin de l’Agence de presse libertaire'' in 1978–1979, then ''Le Réveil anarchiste'' from 1979 to 1983. In 1982, it came together with other anarchist organizations in Vaud
Vaud ( ; french: (Canton de) Vaud, ; german: (Kanton) Waadt, or ), more formally the canton of Vaud, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of ten districts and its capital city is Lausanne. Its coat of arms b ...
and Bienne to establish the Libertarian Socialist Organisation (french: Organisation socialiste libertaire, OSL), which acted as a federation of libertarian socialist groups throughout Romandy. The OSL published a quarterly review ''Confrontations'' from 1988 to 1996 and a newsletter ''Rebellion'' from 1997.
It was at this time that the Geneva squatters movement also began to take off. Throughout the 1980s a number of vacant properties were occupied, the most notable of which was RHINO
A rhinoceros (; ; ), commonly abbreviated to rhino, is a member of any of the five extant species (or numerous extinct species) of odd-toed ungulates in the family Rhinocerotidae. (It can also refer to a member of any of the extinct species o ...
, a squat first occupied in 1988 that housed seventy people up until its eventual eviction in 2007. From out of the squatters movement, the libertarian communist organization Autonomous Action
The Autonomous Action (AD; russian: Автономное действие; АД; ''Avtonomnoye deystviye'', ''AD'') is a revolutionary anarchist federation in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine that was founded in January 2002.
AD is composed of anarch ...
was founded in 2007, with local groups in Geneva, Valais and Vaud.
While Swiss anarchism has historically been a phenomenon in Romandy, in 2010 Libertarian Action Winterthur (LAW) was founded in Zürich
Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...
and has organized anarchist festivals and bookfairs in German-speaking Switzerland. Like the OSL, LAW contributes to the Anarkismo.net project.
References
Bibliography and sources
*
*
*, Genève, Éditions d’en bas, Collège du travail, 2015.
**
*
**
*
*
*
Videography
* Gérald Mury, Christian Liardet, ''Jeunes contestataires'', Regards, Radio télévision suisse
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmit ...
, 5 October 1971, voir en ligne
/small>.
* Jacqueline Veuve, Diane de Rham, ''Militer ou subir'', Radio télévision suisse
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmit ...
, 20 September 1978, voir en ligne
/small>.
* Pascal Bourquin, ''L'esprit de Bakounine'', Tj-Régions, Radio télévision suisse
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmit ...
, 31 October 1996, voir en ligne
/small>.
External links
CIRA Website
- Centre International de Recherches sur l'Anarchisme
LAW Website
- Libertären Aktion Winterthur
OSL Website
- Libertarian Socialist Organisation
Switzerland topic
- The Anarchist Library
Switzerland topic
- Libcom.org
{{Portal bar, Anarchism, Switzerland
Political movements in Switzerland
Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...