Allography, from the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
for "other writing", has several meanings which all relate to how
word
A word is a basic element of language that carries an objective or practical meaning, can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible. Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no conse ...
s and
sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the ''reception'' of such waves and their ''perception'' b ...
s are
written
Writing is a medium of human communication which involves the representation of a language through a system of physically inscribed, mechanically transferred, or digitally represented symbols.
Writing systems do not themselves constitute h ...
down.
Authorship
An allograph may be the opposite of an
autograph
An autograph is a person's own handwriting or signature. The word ''autograph'' comes from Ancient Greek (, ''autós'', "self" and , ''gráphō'', "write"), and can mean more specifically: Gove, Philip B. (ed.), 1981. ''Webster's Third New Inter ...
– i.e. a person's words or name (
signature
A signature (; from la, signare, "to sign") is a handwritten (and often stylized) depiction of someone's name, nickname, or even a simple "X" or other mark that a person writes on documents as a proof of identity and intent. The writer of a ...
) written by someone else.
Script
In
graphemics
Graphemics or graphematics is the linguistic study of writing systems and their basic components, i.e. graphemes.
At the beginning of the development of this area of linguistics, Ignace Gelb coined the term '' grammatology'' for this discipline; ...
, the term ''allograph'' denotes any glyphs that are considered variants of a letter or other
grapheme
In linguistics, a grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system.
The word ''grapheme'' is derived and the suffix ''-eme'' by analogy with ''phoneme'' and other names of emic units. The study of graphemes is called '' graphemi ...
, like a number or punctuation. An obvious example in English (and many other writing systems) is the distinction between
uppercase and lowercase letters. Allographs can vary greatly, without affecting the underlying identity of the grapheme. Even if the word "cat" is rendered as "cAt", it remains recognizable as the sequence of the three graphemes ‹c›, ‹a›, ‹t›.
[The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, second edition, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 196]
Thus, if a group of individual glyphs (shapes that may or may not represent the same letter) are allographs (they do represent the same letter), they all represent a single grapheme (a single instance of the smallest unit of writing).
Letters and other graphemes can also have huge variations that may be missed by many readers. The letter
g, for example, has two common forms (
glyphs) in different
typeface
A typeface (or font family) is the design of lettering that can include variations in size, weight (e.g. bold), slope (e.g. italic), width (e.g. condensed), and so on. Each of these variations of the typeface is a font.
There are thousands o ...
s, and an enormous variety in people's
handwriting. A positional example of allography is the so-called
long s
The long s , also known as the medial s or initial s, is an archaic form of the lowercase letter . It replaced the single ''s'', or one or both of the letters ''s'' in a 'double ''s sequence (e.g., "ſinfulneſs" for "sinfulness" and "poſ ...
, a symbol which was once a widely used non-final allograph of the lowercase letter
s. A grapheme variant can acquire a separate meaning in a specialized
writing system
A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...
. Several such variants have distinct
code point
In character encoding terminology, a code point, codepoint or code position is a numerical value that maps to a specific character. Code points usually represent a single grapheme—usually a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or whitespace—but ...
s in
Unicode
Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the world's writing systems. The standard, wh ...
and so ceased to be allographs for some applications.
The fact that handwritten allographs differ so widely from person to person, and even from day to day with the same person, means that
handwriting recognition
Handwriting recognition (HWR), also known as handwritten text recognition (HTR), is the ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input from sources such as paper documents, photographs, touch-screens and other de ...
software is enormously complicated.
Chinese characters
In the
Chinese script
Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
, there exist several graphemes that have more than one written representation. Chinese typefaces often contain many variants of some graphemes. Different regional standards have adopted certain character variants. For instance:
:
Orthography
An allograph may also be a smaller fragment of writing, that is a
letter
Letter, letters, or literature may refer to:
Characters typeface
* Letter (alphabet), a character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet.
* Letterform, the graphic form of a letter of the alphabe ...
or a group of letters, which represents a particular sound. In the words ''cat'' and ''king'', the letters c and k are both allographs of the same sound. This relationship between a letter and a sound is not necessarily fixed, for example in a different word, such as ''city'', c is instead an allograph of an s sound.
Some words use groups of letters to represent a sound. In ''kick'' both k and ck are allographs of the sound that the c in ''cat'' represents. These associations are learned as part of learning to
read
Read
Read may refer to:
* Reading, human cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning
* Read (automobile), an American car manufactured from 1913 to 1915
* Read (biology), an inferred sequence of base pairs of ...
and write a
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
. However, the development of
phonetic associations is more difficult when deaf children are learning written languages. For example, without auditory knowledge of words, children are unable to associate graphemes with
phoneme
In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language.
For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-wes ...
s, or the sounds of letters or groups of letters. This lack o
alphabetic knowledgecorrelates with delayed literacy in early learning.
Allographs have found use in
humor and
pun
A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
s; a famous example of allographic humour is that of spelling ''fish'' as ''
ghoti
''Ghoti'' is a creative respelling of the word ''fish'', used to illustrate irregularities in English spelling and pronunciation.
Explanation
The word is intended to be pronounced in the same way (), using these sounds:
* ''gh'', pronounced as ...
''.
The primary reason that we accept all these varieties as representing the same sound or grapheme is that we have been taught to make these associations when learning to read the English language. That is to say, their meaning and correspondence is assigned ''arbitrarily'', by conventions adopted and observed by a particular language community. Many of these associations have to be unlearned if we study a second language whose writing system is based upon, or contains many elements similar to or shared by, our own alphabet or writing system. Very often, the letters one might be comfortable and familiar with are allographs of quite different sounds in the second language. For example, in written Spanish the grapheme ⟨v⟩ will often represent the phoneme /b/, whereas in English this does not occur.
Typography
The term 'allograph' is used to describe the different representations of the same grapheme or character in different typefaces. The resulting
font elements may look quite different in shape and style from the reference character or each other, but nevertheless their meaning remains the same.
In
Unicode
Unicode, formally The Unicode Standard,The formal version reference is is an information technology standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the world's writing systems. The standard, wh ...
, a given character is allocated a
code point
In character encoding terminology, a code point, codepoint or code position is a numerical value that maps to a specific character. Code points usually represent a single grapheme—usually a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or whitespace—but ...
: all allographs of that character have the same code point and thus the essential meaning is retained irrespective of font choice at time of printing or display.
See also
*
Glyph
*
Phonics
Phonics is a method for teaching people how to read and write an alphabetic language (such as English, Arabic or Russian). It is done by demonstrating the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language (phonemes), and the letters or g ...
*
Allophone
In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is a set of multiple possible spoken soundsor '' phones''or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in '' ...
References
{{reflist
External links
Blog entry on the associations the shapes of letters may holdForgotten Phonics rules from the early 1800s. Organized in printable sections to use as "cheat sheets" when figuring out how to pronounce words. Includes individual letter rules, diphthongs, triphthongs, silent letter rules and substitute letter rules.Allography.comLaunched in December 2010, allography.com is an experimental cross-format storytelling website.
Orthography
Writing systems
Penmanship
Typography