The Alawite revolt (also called the Shaykh Saleh al-Ali Revolt) was a rebellion, led by Shaykh
Saleh al-Ali against the French authorities of the
Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
The Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (OETA) was a joint British, French and Arab military administration over Levantine provinces of the former Ottoman Empire between 1917 and 1920, set up on 23 October 1917 following the Sinai and Pale ...
and later as part of the
Franco-Syrian War
The Franco-Syrian War took place during 1920 between the Hashemite rulers of the newly established Arab Kingdom of Syria and France. During a series of engagements, which climaxed in the Battle of Maysalun, French forces defeated the forces of th ...
against the newly established
French Mandate of Syria
The Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (french: Mandat pour la Syrie et le Liban; ar, الانتداب الفرنسي على سوريا ولبنان, al-intidāb al-fransi 'ala suriya wa-lubnān) (1923−1946) was a League of Nations mandate foun ...
, primarily in the coastal
Jabal Ansariyah mountain range. The revolt was one of the first acts of armed resistance against the French forces in Syria, and its leader, Shaykh Saleh, declared his allegiance to the provisional
Arab government in Damascus. He coordinated with the leaders of other anti-French revolts in the country, including the
revolt
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
of
Ibrahim Hananu
Ibrahim Hananu or Ibrahim Hanano (1869–1935) ( ar, إبراهيم هنانو, Ibrāhīm Hanānū) was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman municipal official and later a leader of a Hananu Revolt, revolt against the French presence in northern Syria. He w ...
in the
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
countryside and
Subhi Barakat's revolt in
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; grc-gre, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου, ''Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou'', Learned ; also Syrian Antioch) grc-koi, Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπ ...
.
[Moubayed 2006, pp. 363-364.]
Background
Following the withdrawal of Ottoman troops from the coastal city of
Latakia
, coordinates =
, elevation_footnotes =
, elevation_m = 11
, elevation_ft =
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, area_code = Country code: 963 City code: 41
, geocode ...
in October 1918 as a result of the advance of
Entente forces and the Arab
Sharifian army
The Sharifian Army ( ar, الجيش الشريفي, links=yes), also known as the Arab Army ( ar, الجيش العربي, links=yes), or the Hejazi Army ( ar, الجيش الحجازي, links=yes) was the military force behind the Arab Revolt wh ...
into Syria, members of Latakia's
Sunni Muslim
Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word ''Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagree ...
elite established a provisional administration whose authority was, in effect, limited to the city. The Latakian administration declared its allegiance to the
Hashemite
The Hashemites ( ar, الهاشميون, al-Hāshimīyūn), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921 ...
leader of the Sharifian army, Emir
Faisal, who established a provisional government based in
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
.
[Khoury, p. 99.] In the
Jabal Ansariyah mountain range east of Latakia and the coastal cities, a chaotic state of affairs prevailed, with several
Alawite
The Alawis, Alawites ( ar, علوية ''Alawīyah''), or pejoratively Nusayris ( ar, نصيرية ''Nuṣayrīyah'') are an ethnoreligious group that lives primarily in Levant and follows Alawism, a sect of Islam that originated from Shia Isl ...
militias controlling the region, which was predominantly inhabited by Alawite Muslims. In early November, a French military contingent landed in Latakia, dismissed the city's provisional government, assumed control over the city and laid claims to the rest of Syria.
[Khoury, p. 100.]
The catalyst to the Alawite Revolt was an attempt by the French military authorities to arbitrate disputes between the Alawite and
Ismaili
Isma'ilism ( ar, الإسماعيلية, al-ʾIsmāʿīlīyah) is a branch or sub-sect of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (imām) to Ja'far al-Sa ...
leaders of the
al-Qadmus
Al-Qadmus ( ar, القدموس, also spelled al-Qadmous or Cadmus) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located northeast of Tartus and southeast of Baniyas. Nearby localities include Kaff al-Jaa and Ma ...
area in Jabal Ansariyah.
According to historian Dick Douwes, the conflict in al-Qadmus "cannot readily be attributed to class or sectarian factors" due to the "clannish nature of local politics" in the region.
[Douwes, ed. Daftary 2011, p. 32.] The conflict began when a new set of leaders in the vicinity of al-Qadmus emerged in the aftermath of the Ottoman withdrawal and challenged the traditional authority of the town's Ismaili emirs. The new leadership consisted of Ismailis, including the sons of some emirs, and local Alawites. Tensions between the two sides escalated when an Ismaili man killed the son of a leader of the Alawite Khayyatin tribe. The Khayyatin mobilized against the Ismaili emirs after they did not pay the traditional
blood money
Blood money may refer to:
* Blood money (restitution), money paid to the family of a murder victim
Films
* Blood Money (1917 film), ''Blood Money'' (1917 film), a film starring Harry Carey
* Blood Money (1921 film), ''Blood Money'' (1921 film ...
to compensate for the killing. After a failed mediation attempt by Alawite sheikhs from
Masyaf
Masyaf ( ar, مصياف ') is a city in northwestern Syria. It is the center of the Masyaf District in the Hama Governorate. As of 2004, Masyaf had a religiously diverse population of approximately 22,000 Ismailis, Alawites and Christians. The ci ...
, the Khayyatin and allied Alawite clans launched an attack against the Ismailis of al-Qadmus in March 1919.
[Douwes, ed. Daftary 2011, p. 33.]
In May 1919, intensifying disputes regarding land and livestock between the Sunni Muslim and Ismaili residents of the fortress village of
Khawabi
Khawabi ( ar, الخوابي), also spelled Qala'at al-Khawabi ( ar, قلعة الخوابي) is a village and medieval citadel in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 20 kilometers northeast of Tartus and 12 ...
, prompted the Sunni Muslims to invite Alawite clans to assault the Ismailis there. About 100 residents were killed in the ensuing fighting and thousands more Ismailis fled to the port city of
Tartus
)
, settlement_type = City
, image_skyline =
, imagesize =
, image_caption = Tartus corniche Port of Tartus • Tartus beach and boulevard Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa • Al-Assad Stadium&n ...
. Alawite militias also launched raids against
Greek Orthodox
The term Greek Orthodox Church (Greek language, Greek: Ἑλληνορθόδοξη Ἐκκλησία, ''Ellinorthódoxi Ekklisía'', ) has two meanings. The broader meaning designates "the Eastern Orthodox Church, entire body of Orthodox (Chalced ...
and
Maronite
The Maronites ( ar, الموارنة; syr, ܡܖ̈ܘܢܝܐ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant region of the Middle East, whose members traditionally belong to the Maronite Church, with the larges ...
-dominated villages in the Tartus area.
French representatives, who Douwes described as "ill-informed" about politics in the area,
attempted to negotiate with the Alawite chiefs involved in the conflict, including Shaykh
Saleh al-Ali. Shaykh Saleh was a locally respected 35-year-old Alawite landowner and religious
shaykh
Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliteration of Arabic, transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonl ...
popularly known for his resistance to Ottoman intervention into the affairs of Jabal Ansariyah's inhabitants.
French arbitration proved unsuccessful.
Prelude
Shaykh Saleh was determined to prevent foreign interference into the affairs of Jabal Ansariyah and saw the Arab government in Damascus as much less of a threat to his authority than the French.
The attempted French intervention lent the conflict "anti-colonial and nationalistic features", according to Douwes.
These were contributing factors to Shaykh Saleh's declaration of allegiance to Emir Faisal and the announcement of solidarity with the growing
Arab nationalist movement
The Arab Nationalist Movement ( ar, حركة القوميين العرب, ''Harakat al-Qawmiyyin al-Arab''), also known as the Movement of Arab Nationalists and the Harakiyyin, was a pan-Arab nationalist organization influential in much of the Ar ...
.
On 15 December 1918,
[Moosa 1987, p. 282.] Shaykh Saleh called for a meeting of twelve prominent Alawite notables in the town of
al-Shaykh Badr. Shaykh Saleh called the meeting in response to news that French military forces were occupying the Syrian coast and were moving to assert their control over the mountains.
Shaykh Saleh alerted the attendees at the meeting that the French had already occupied the Syrian coast with the intention of separating the region from the rest of the country, tearing up the flags of the Arabs and urged them to revolt and expel the French from Syria.
He succeeded in persuading the attending shaykhs to contribute fighters to his guerrilla army and confront the French.
Revolt
First clash
When the French authorities heard of the meeting hosted by Shaykh Saleh, they sent a force from al-Qadmus to al-Shaykh Badr in order to arrest Shaykh Saleh. Shaykh Saleh and his men ambushed the force at the village of
Niha, west of
Wadi al-Oyoun. The French forces were defeated and suffered more than 35 casualties.
Battles in al-Qadmus and Shaykh Badr
![Syria 2004 CIA map-2010-07-09](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Syria_2004_CIA_map-2010-07-09.JPG)
After his victory at Niha, Shaykh Saleh began organizing his rebels into a disciplined force with a general command and military ranks. The rebel army was supported by the local population, and some women supplied water and food and substituted the men as workers in the fields.
Shaykh Saleh was also steadily gaining support from other Alawite shaykhs and Sunni Muslim notables from Latakia,
Baniyas
Baniyas ( ar, بَانِيَاس ') is a Mediterranean coastal city in Tartous Governorate, northwestern Syria, located south of Latakia (ancient Laodicea) and north of Tartous (ancient Tortosa).
It is known for its citrus fruit orchards an ...
, Tartus,
al-Haffah
Al-Haffah ( ar, ٱلْحَفَّة, al-Ḥaffah) is a town in northwestern Syria administratively belonging to the Latakia Governorate, located east of Latakia. It is the centre of al-Haffah District, one of the four districts (''mantiqah'') of t ...
and elsewhere in the region.
[Moosa 1987, p. 283.] However, small bands of Ismaili militiamen, who had been in conflict with Alawite militiamen in the months preceding the revolt, assisted the French military in their attempts to stamp out armed rebellion in the coastal mountains.
Later on, Shaykh Saleh turned against the Ismailis, assaulting them at al-Qadmus, the Khawabi area and Masyaf. The French authorities rushed to the Ismailis' aid and attacked Shaykh Saleh's forces on 21 February 1919, but they were defeated again.
The result prompted the British general
Edmund Allenby
Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, (23 April 1861 – 14 May 1936) was a senior British Army officer and Imperial Governor. He fought in the Second Boer War and also in the First World War, in which he led th ...
to intervene by requesting Shaykh Saleh cease hostilities and retreat from al-Shaykh Badr. Shaykh Saleh replied positively, but demanded that French forces maintain at least an hour-long distance from al-Shaykh Badr, a demand the French did not accept. Instead, the French took positions in the mountains, installed cannons and began shelling the villages of al-Shaykh Badr and
al-Rastan
Al-Rastan ( ar, الرستن) is the third largest city in the Homs Governorate, located north of its administrative capital Homs and from Hama. Nearby localities include Talbiseh and al-Ghantu to the south, al-Zaafaraniyah and al-Mashrafah t ...
further east in the plains. The ensuing fighting continued on into the night and resulted in the French Army's third defeat to Shaykh Saleh. In the aftermath, Shaykh Saleh once again led an assault against the Ismailis of al-Qadmus, plundering the town and burning Ismaili religious books and manuscripts in the public square. The Ismailis recaptured al-Qadmus in a counterattack on 17 April.
In July 1919, in retaliation to French attacks against rebel positions, Shaykh Saleh attacked and occupied several Ismaili villages that were allied to the French. A truce was subsequently concluded between Shaykh Saleh and the French,
and by then, Shaykh Saleh's forces were in full control of Jabal Ansariyah.
However, the French breached the truce by occupying and burning the rebel village of
Kaf al-Jaz. Shaykh Saleh retaliated by attacking and occupying al-Qadmus from which the French conducted their military operations against him.
With the assistance of Committee of National Defense units from
Hama
, timezone = EET
, utc_offset = +2
, timezone_DST = EEST
, utc_offset_DST = +3
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, ar ...
and
Homs
Homs ( , , , ; ar, حِمْص / ALA-LC: ; Levantine Arabic: / ''Ḥomṣ'' ), known in pre-Islamic Syria as Emesa ( ; grc, Ἔμεσα, Émesa), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level ...
, Shaykh Saleh subsequently opened a military camp in al-Qadmus to train recruits.
Events outside of Jabal Ansariyah contributed to the success of Shaykh Saleh's rebel movement. The two major events were the popular revolt in
Talkalakh
Talkalakh ( ar, تَلْكَلَخ, Talkalaḵ) is a city in western Syria administratively belonging to the Homs Governorate as the capital of the Talkalakh District just north of the border with Lebanon and west of Homs. According to the Centr ...
, a major town just southeast of the mountain, led by the Dandashi clan, and an offensive by the Turkish irregular forces of
Mustafa Kemal
Mustafa ( ar, مصطفى
, Muṣṭafā) is one of the names of Prophet Muhammad, and the name means "chosen, selected, appointed, preferred", used as an Arabic given name and surname. Mustafa is a common name in the Muslim world.
Given name Mo ...
against the French in Latakia.
The Dandashi-led revolt in Talkalakh was backed by Committee of National Defense units from Homs and
Tripoli
Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to:
Cities and other geographic units Greece
*Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece
* Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece
* Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...
and armed volunteers from Damascus led by
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
leader
Sultan al-Atrash
Sultan al-Atrash, (March 5, 1891 – March 26, 1982) ( ar, سلطان الأطرش), commonly known as Sultan Pasha al-Atrash ( ar, سلطان باشا الأطرش, links=no) was a prominent Arab Druze leader, Syrian nationalist and Commander Ge ...
.
The rebels in Talkalkah forced the French garrison in that city to withdraw further away from Jabal Ansariyah to Tripoli in the summer of 1919. Meanwhile, the Turkish offensive against Latakia around the same time was halted by a small French force north of the city,
but served to distract French forces from fully concentrating on Shaykh Saleh's rebels.
[Khoury, p. 101.]
For an entire year after July 1919, French military forces were unable to assert control over Jabal Ansariyah.
On 20 February 1920, Shaykh Saleh attacked a French depot in the port city of Tartus,
but a French naval counterattack forced his retreat. On 3 April, well into the
Franco-Syrian War
The Franco-Syrian War took place during 1920 between the Hashemite rulers of the newly established Arab Kingdom of Syria and France. During a series of engagements, which climaxed in the Battle of Maysalun, French forces defeated the forces of th ...
, the French attacked Shaykh Saleh, inflicting heavy casualties and damage against his force, but Shaykh Saleh's counterattack drove the French out of the villages they had previously conquered.
In the summer of 1920, the senior French general in Syria,
Henri Gouraud, renewed preparations to take over Jabal Ansariyah and the rest of Syria. Gouraud secured a truce with Mustafa Kemal in May and approached Shaykh Saleh to make a truce on 12 June. Shaykh Saleh did not accept the truce and a week prior to the negotiations of 12 June, he had met with General
Yusuf al-'Azma
Yusuf al-Azma ( ar, يوسف العظمة, ALA-LC: ''Yūsuf al-ʻAẓmah''; 1883 – 24 July 1920) was the Syrian minister of war in the governments of prime ministers Rida al-Rikabi and Hashim al-Atassi, and the Arab Army's chief of general sta ...
of Faisal's makeshift Arab Army, who requested that Shaykh Saleh continue his resistance against the French military. Shaykh Saleh also received material military support from the Haroun and Shraytih families, which were the two most prominent Sunni Muslim clans of Latakia, and their militias, in addition to similar aid from Faisal's government and Turkish irregulars from southern Anatolia. With this support, Shaykh Saleh opted to continue the armed struggle, despite the defections of some of his partisans and Alawite rivals, all of whom were bribed to drop their support of the revolt by French liaison officers.
Suppression
The balance of power began to shift in favor of the French when they conquered Damascus and brought an end to the
Arab Kingdom of Syria
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, No ...
, a day after defeating an al-'Azma's makeshift army at the
Battle of Maysalun
The Battle of Maysalun ( ar, معركة ميسلون), also called the Battle of Maysalun Pass or the Battle of Khan Maysalun (french: Bataille de Khan Mayssaloun), was a four-hour battle fought between the forces of the Arab Kingdom of Syria an ...
on 24 July 1920. Following the Arab Army defeat at Maysalun, Shaykh Saleh sought to consolidate his position and attacked the French and Ismailis at Maysaf.
Despite the setback of losing the Arab government as a source for support, arms and funds, which hindered the progress of the revolt, Shaykh Saleh's rebellion received a boost by the opening of a major front in the
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
countryside northeast of Jabal Ansariyah. A
revolt led by Ibrahim Hananu had been present there for months, but was intensified following the French occupation of Aleppo on 23 July. The rebel bands in the Aleppo countryside and their operations against the French helped to alleviate pressure from Shaykh Saleh's rebels in the mountains. It also served as a new source for military aid and "much needed moral support", according to historian Phillip S. Khoury.
On 29 November 1920 Gouraud mounted a full-fledged campaign against Shaykh Saleh's forces in Jabal Ansariyah, first attempting to assault Shaykh Saleh's forces at
Ayn Qadib near Qadmus, but without success. They then entered Shaykh Saleh's village of al-Shaykh Badr facing no resistance and arrested many Alawite notables, a number of whom were executed or imprisoned. Shaykh Saleh managed to evade arrest and fled to the north, with French forces in pursuit.
On 10 February 1921, Shaykh Saleh made official contact with
Ibrahim Hananu
Ibrahim Hananu or Ibrahim Hanano (1869–1935) ( ar, إبراهيم هنانو, Ibrāhīm Hanānū) was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman municipal official and later a leader of a Hananu Revolt, revolt against the French presence in northern Syria. He w ...
in order to obtain military assistance. The two men also issued a joint letter to the
League of Nations
The League of Nations (french: link=no, Société des Nations ) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference that ...
calling for Syria's independence and freedom in line with the League's charter and US President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
's
Fourteen Points
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson
The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms ...
proposal.
Shaykh Saleh's rebels launched further raids against the French between the winter of 1920 and the early spring of 1921.
[Khoury, p. 102.] Documents from the Turkish Military archives (ATASE) show that Salih al-'Ali was directly in contact with the Kemalists for the purposes of receiving weapons. The French military claimed he was taking orders directly from Turkish "headquarters".
[Winter 2016, pp. 246-254.]
Turkish aid came to a halt following renewed peace talks between Mustafa Kemal and the French. Meanwhile, a French force consisting of three
columns
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. ...
was assembled and surrounded Shaykh Saleh's positions from Latakia and Baniyas in the west and
Hama
, timezone = EET
, utc_offset = +2
, timezone_DST = EEST
, utc_offset_DST = +3
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, ar ...
in the east. Between April and May 1921, several engagements between the French and Shaykh Saleh's rebels gave French forces the military edge, but with heavy French casualties.
On 15 June, French forces overran Shaykh Saleh's positions in the northern mountains, but Shaykh Saleh evaded capture again and consequently went into hiding.
By the end of the summer, the French military was in control of Jabal Ansariyah.
Aftermath
A French
court-martial
A court-martial or court martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of memb ...
in Latakia sentenced Shaykh Saleh to death ''
in absentia
is Latin for absence. , a legal term, is Latin for "in the absence" or "while absent".
may also refer to:
* Award in absentia
* Declared death in absentia, or simply, death in absentia, legally declared death without a body
* Election in absen ...
'',
[Moubayed 2006, p. 364.] and offered a reward of 100,000 francs for information on his whereabouts, but the latter effort did not succeed. After the French gave up trying to capturing Shaykh Saleh, a pardon was issued by General Gouraud.
Eventually, after roughly one year of hiding, Shaykh Saleh surrendered to French general
Gaston Billotte
Gaston-Henri Billotte (10 February 1875 – 23 May 1940) was a French military officer, remembered chiefly for his central role in the failure of the French Army to defeat the German invasion of France in May 1940. He was killed in a car accident ...
. In response to a question by Billotte asking Shaykh Saleh why he ultimately surrendered, Shaykh Saleh told him "By God, if I only had ten armed men left to fight, I would not have quit."
Shaykh Saleh died at his home in 1950,
four years after Syria's independence from French rule.
See also
*
Sultan al-Atrash
Sultan al-Atrash, (March 5, 1891 – March 26, 1982) ( ar, سلطان الأطرش), commonly known as Sultan Pasha al-Atrash ( ar, سلطان باشا الأطرش, links=no) was a prominent Arab Druze leader, Syrian nationalist and Commander Ge ...
*
Hasan al-Kharrat
Abu Muhammad Hasan al-Kharrat ( ar, حسن الخراط ''Ḥassan al-Kharrāṭ''; 1861 – 25 December 1925) was one of the principal Syrian people, Syrian rebel commanders of the Great Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate of Syria, French ...
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
{{Use dmy dates, date=June 2017
1919 in Mandatory Syria
1920 in Mandatory Syria
History of the Alawites
Military history of France
Anti-imperialism in Asia
Franco-Syrian War
Resistance to the French colonial empire