Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar ( ar, أحمد باشا الجزّار; ota, جزّار أحمد پاشا; ca. 1720–30s7 May 1804) was the
Acre
The acre is a unit of land area used in the imperial
Imperial is that which relates to an empire, emperor, or imperialism.
Imperial or The Imperial may also refer to:
Places
United States
* Imperial, California
* Imperial, Missouri
* Imp ...
-based
Ottoman governor of
Sidon Eyalet
ota, ایالت صیدا
, common_name = Eyalet of Sidon
, subdivision = Eyalet
, nation = the Ottoman Empire
, year_start = 1660
, year_end = 1864
, date_start =
, date_end =
, eve ...
from 1776 until his death in 1804 and the simultaneous governor of
Damascus Eyalet
ota, ایالت شام
, conventional_long_name = Damascus Eyalet
, common_name = Damascus Eyalet
, subdivision = Eyalet
, nation = the Ottoman Empire
, year_start = 1516
, year_end ...
in 1785–1786, 1790–1795, 1798–1799, and 1803–1804. A
Bosniak
The Bosniaks ( bs, Bošnjaci, Cyrillic: Бошњаци, ; , ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to the Southeast European historical region of Bosnia, which is today part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who share a common Bosnian ancestry, cu ...
of obscure origins, he began his military career in
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
in the service of various
mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
officials, eventually becoming a chief enforcer and assassin for
Ali Bey al-Kabir, Egypt's practical ruler. He gained the epithet of ''al-Jazzar'' (the Butcher) for his deadly ambush on a group of
Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and A ...
tribesmen in retaliation for the death of his master in a Bedouin raid. Al-Jazzar fell out with Ali Bey in 1768 after refusing to take part in the assassination of one of his former masters. He ultimately fled to
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
, where he was tasked with defending
Beirut
Beirut, french: Beyrouth is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint o ...
from a joint assault by the
Russian Navy and
Zahir al-Umar
Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Daher al-Omar or Dahir al-Umar ( ar, ظاهر العمر الزيداني, translit=Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar az-Zaydānī, 1689/90 – 21 or 22 August 1775) was the autonomous Arab ruler of northern Ottom ...
, the Acre-based ruler of northern
Palestine
__NOTOC__
Palestine may refer to:
* State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia
* Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia
* Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
. He eventually surrendered and entered Zahir's service before defecting from him and fleeing with stolen tax money.
After the Ottomans defeated and killed Zahir, they appointed al-Jazzar as their garrison commander in Acre. He set about pacifying the
Galilee
Galilee (; he, הַגָּלִיל, hagGālīl; ar, الجليل, al-jalīl) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon. Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Galil ...
and
Mount Lebanon
Mount Lebanon ( ar, جَبَل لُبْنَان, ''jabal lubnān'', ; syr, ܛܘܪ ܠܒ݂ܢܢ, ', , ''ṭūr lewnōn'' french: Mont Liban) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It averages above in elevation, with its peak at .
Geography
The Mount Le ...
, which were dominated by
Zahir's kinsmen and the
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
forces of
Yusuf Shihab
Yusuf Shihab () (1748–1790) was the autonomous emir of Mount Lebanon between 1770 and 1789. He was the fifth consecutive member of the Shihab dynasty to govern Mount Lebanon.
Family
Yusuf Shihab was the son of Emir Mulhim.Harris, 2012, p119/r ...
, respectively. In 1776 or 1777, he was appointed governor of Sidon, but relocated the provincial capital to Acre, which he strongly fortified. In the following years, he defeated his erstwhile
Shia Muslim
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
ally,
Nasif al-Nassar
Nasif ibn al-Nassar al-Wa'ili ( ar, ناصيف النصار; died 24 September 1781) was the most powerful sheikh of the rural Shia Muslim (Matawilah) tribes of Jabal Amil (modern-day South Lebanon) in the mid-18th century. He was based in the to ...
, consolidating his control over
Jabal Amil
Jabal Amil ( ar, جبل عامل, Jabal ʿĀmil), also spelled Jabal Amel and historically known as Jabal Amila, is a cultural and geographic region in Southern Lebanon largely associated with its long-established, predominantly Twelver Shia Musl ...
(modern southern Lebanon). In 1785, al-Jazzar was appointed to his first of four terms as governor of Damascus, each time gaining more influence in the province's affairs in opposition to his rivals from the
Azm family. In 1799, with the help of the British navy, al-Jazzar defended Acre from
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
, forcing the latter to withdraw from Palestine in disarray. His successful defense of Acre earned him prestige in the empire and made him well known in Europe.
Al-Jazzar died in office in 1804. He was ultimately succeeded in Acre by his mamluk
Sulayman Pasha al-Adil
Sulayman Pasha al-Adil (c. 1760s – August 1819; given name also spelled ''Suleiman'' or ''Sulaiman'') was the Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet between 1805 and 1819, ruling from his Acre headquarters. He also simultaneously served as governor o ...
; until his suppression of a mamluk revolt in 1789, al-Jazzar had appointed mamluks to senior posts in his military and administration. Al-Jazzar attempted to develop the areas under his control by improving road security and maintaining order. However, his domestic military expeditions and stringently enforced and exploitative taxation policies precipitated high emigration, although the cities of Acre and Beirut prospered. The former became a powerful regional center rivaling Damascus and until today contains many architectural works commissioned by al-Jazzar, such as its walls, the
el-Jazzar Mosque and the
Khan al-Umdan
Baháʼí name: Khán-i-'Avámid
, image = Akko BW 13.JPG
, caption =
, map_type =
, altitude =
, building_type = Caravanserai
, architectural_style = Ottoman
, structural_system ...
caravanserai
A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was a roadside inn where travelers ( caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade routes covering ...
.
Sources
Volney was al-Jazzar's first European biographer and visited al-Jazzar's capital of Acre in 1783. According to historian Thomas Philipp, Volney "decided to use Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar as the archetype of the despotic tyrant. Since then, no literary vilification of al-Jazzar could be bad enough. Increasingly he was depicted as a murderous, paranoid, treacherous, and cruel despot." Among the European contemporary sources who wrote about al-Jazzar after Volney were
Baron de Tott
Baron is a rank of nobility or title of honour, often hereditary, in various European countries, either current or historical. The female equivalent is baroness. Typically, the title denotes an aristocrat who ranks higher than a lord or knigh ...
who visited Acre in 1784, the French vice consul in Acre Jean-Pierre Renaudot, the French traveler Olivier who met al-Jazzar in 1802, and A.J. Dénain. European contemporaries of al-Jazzar often considered him the symbol of despotism and monstrosity, but also acknowledged the complexities and paradoxes of his personality. According to Philipp, it was only the descriptions of al-Jazzar by later authors, namely
Mikhail Mishaqah
Mikhail Mishaqa or Michael Mishaka (March 20, 1800 – July 19, 1888; ar, ميخائيل مشاقة, gr, Μιχαήλ Μισάκα), also known as Doctor Mishaqa, was born in Rashmayyā, Lebanon, and is reputed to be "the first historian of mo ...
and
Édouard Lockroy
Édouard Lockroy (18 July 183822 November 1913) was a French politician.
He was born in Paris, the son of Joseph Philippe Simon (1803–1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy.
Revolutionary years
He had begun by studying art ...
, that were "reduced entirely to the monstrous and sensational".
"They say al-Jazzar is cruel and barbaric; he is only just."
— Jazzar Pasha, in response to European perceptions of him.
Philipp asserts that "al-Jazzar must have been a highly unpleasant ruler and probably did suffer towards the end of his life from paranoia, but there were also different sides to his personality". Accordingly, Philipp indicates that al-Jazzar's biography by Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, an 18th-century contemporary Arabic chronicler, "provides ... a much more sober account of al-Jazzar's life", which is largely corroborated by another Arabic contemporary source, Ahmad Haydar al-Shihab. Both al-Jabarti, who was based in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
, and al-Shihab, who was based in
Mount Lebanon
Mount Lebanon ( ar, جَبَل لُبْنَان, ''jabal lubnān'', ; syr, ܛܘܪ ܠܒ݂ܢܢ, ', , ''ṭūr lewnōn'' french: Mont Liban) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It averages above in elevation, with its peak at .
Geography
The Mount Le ...
, had considerable access to information about al-Jazzar and though their accounts are similar, they did not correspond with each other or share sources. The early 19th-century English writer
E. D. Clarke commented that European stories of al-Jazzar "are easily propagated, and as readily believed and it is probable that many of them are without foundation." Nonetheless, Philipp states "the testimony is too general and too consistent to dismiss all accusations against him
l-Jazzar.
Early life and career
Origins
Al-Jazzar was born in
Stolac
Stolac is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cities in Bosnia and Herzego ...
,
Bosnia Eyalet
The Eyalet of Bosnia ( ota, ایالت بوسنه ,Eyālet-i Bōsnâ; By Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters ; sh, Bosanski pašaluk), was an eyalet (administrative division, also known as a ''beylerbeylik'') of the Ottoman Empire, mostly based o ...
. One source lists the year of his birth as 1720, but historian Thomas Philipp believes it is more likely that he was born in the 1730s. At the age of 20,
[Philipp 1998, p. 119.] or in his late adolescent years,
[Philipp 2013, p]
50
around 1755, he moved to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
.
In al-Jazzar's biography by Volney in ''Voyage'', al-Jazzar fled Bosnia at the age of 16 because he raped his sister-in-law, while in Olivier's account, al-Jazzar fled at age 17 after stabbing a woman who did not accede to his desires.
[Philipp 2013, p]
52
According to Olivier, he then began work as a sailor and drifted throughout
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
before selling himself to a Turkish slave trader. Al-Jazzar subsequently converted to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
in Egypt.
Service with the Mamluks of Egypt
In 1756, al-Jazzar departed Constantinople for Egypt with
Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha
Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha (1689 – 13 August 1758) was an Ottoman statesman and military leader who served as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire three times.
Family
His father, Nuh, was a Venetian convert to Islam who worked in Constantinople ...
as a barber in his entourage.
Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha had been appointed ''
beylerbey
''Beylerbey'' ( ota, بكلربكی, beylerbeyi, lit=bey of beys, meaning the 'commander of commanders' or 'lord of lords') was a high rank in the western Islamic world in the late Middle Ages and early modern period, from the Anatolian Seljuks ...
'' (governor) of
Egypt Eyalet
The Eyalet of Egypt (, ) operated as an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire from 1517 to 1867. It originated as a result of the conquest of Mamluk Egypt by the Ottomans in 1517, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) and the a ...
and al-Jazzar became a member of his household, serving Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha in the citadel.
In 1758, possibly as a result of a dispute with another of Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha's men or upon his own intuition, he accompanied Salih Bey al-Qasimi, a Mamluk and the ''
amir al-hajj'' (commander of the
Hajj
The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried ...
caravan) to
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
.
There, the two men developed a close friendship,
and al-Jazzar subsequently entered into the service of Salih Bey.
After returning to Cairo, al-Jazzar, who was then known as "Ahmad al-Busnawi" (Ahmad the Bosnian), entered the service of the Mamluk Abdullah Bey, who was a retainer of another Mamluk,
Ali Bey al-Kabir,
the ''shaykh al-balad'', a powerful post in Egypt with unclear duties, between 1760 and 1766.
During his time in Abdullah Bey's service, al-Jazzar learned how to speak
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
, learned the skills and knowledge of the Mamluks and adopted their dress. When Abdullah Bey was later killed in an attack by
Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and A ...
tribesmen, al-Jazzar decided to avenge his death. He proceeded to set a trap for the Bedouin and ambushed them,
killing around 70 tribesmen. Thereafter, he became known as "al-Jazzar", which means "the Butcher" in Arabic.
While later European writers believed al-Jazzar gained his name because of his cruel nature, the name was given to him as a sign of respect.
The term "al-Jazzar" as an epithet was typically reserved for those who slaughtered Bedouin raiders.
![Ali Bey al-kabir](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Ali_Bey_al-kabir.jpg)
Al-Jazzar arrived in Egypt as a freeman and was not a ''
mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning " slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') ...
'' (manumitted slave soldier) in the traditional sense. However, the respect and admiration he gained from the Mamluks of Egypt for his loyalty to his Mamluk master and the revenge he took on the Bedouin for his death earned him a welcoming into the Mamluk ranks.
Among those impressed with the loyalty and courage of al-Jazzar was Ali Bey al-Kabir, who adopted al-Jazzar as his protégé.
Ali Bey appointed al-Jazzar ''
sanjak-bey
''Sanjak-bey'', ''sanjaq-bey'' or ''-beg'' ( ota, سنجاق بك) () was the title given in the Ottoman Empire to a bey (a high-ranking officer, but usually not a pasha) appointed to the military and administrative command of a district (''sanjak' ...
'' (district governor) of Cairo,
and he became known as "Ahmad Bey al-Jazzar".
Al-Jazzar was tasked with enforcing law and order in the province, but was also assigned to discreetly eliminate Ali Bey's enemies.
He shared this task with
Abu al-Dhahab at times.
In September 1768, Ali Bey instructed al-Jazzar and Abu al-Dahab to assassinate Salih Bey because Ali Bey perceived him as a threat to his power. Al-Jazzar was wary of killing his old friend and master, and proceeded to warn Salih Bey of Ali Bey's plot. Salih Bey did not believe that Ali Bey, a close friend and ally, would have him killed and dismissed al-Jazzar's warning, going so far as to approach Ali Bey himself and report the matter. Ali Bey denied the plot and informed Salih Bey that he was only testing the loyalty of al-Jazzar. Salih Bey was indeed ambushed and killed by Ali Bey's men. Al-Jazzar was present among the hitmen, but did not participate in the actual assassination. Abu al-Dahab, who was also present, reported al-Jazzar's lack of enthusiasm in the operation to Ali Bey.
Fearing for his life in lieu of his betrayal of Ali Bey, al-Jazzar fled Cairo dressed as a
Maghreb
The Maghreb (; ar, الْمَغْرِب, al-Maghrib, lit=the west), also known as the Arab Maghreb ( ar, المغرب العربي) and Northwest Africa, is the western part of North Africa and the Arab world. The region includes Algeria, ...
i. Before leaving his home, he instructed his family to tell anyone who inquired about him that he was ill and could not see visitors. Ali Bey's men sought to arrest al-Jazzar and learned of his escape to the port of
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
and pursued him. However, al-Jazzar managed to board a ship heading to Istanbul hours before the arrival of Ali Bey's men to the port.
[Philipp 2013, p]
51
Early career in Syria
Information about al-Jazzar between 1768 and 1770 is unclear;
according to historian Thomas Philipp, he "may have drifted through Anatolia to
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
".
According to the chronicler al-Jabarti, al-Jazzar returned to Egypt and allied himself with a Bedouin tribe to confront Ali Bey, but fled the province for a second time. However, by 1770 it was clear that al-Jazzar was in
Deir al-Qamar
Deir al-Qamar ( ar, دَيْر الْقَمَر, lit=Monastery of the moon, translit=Dayr al-qamar), is a city south-east of Beirut in south-central Lebanon. It is located five kilometres outside of Beiteddine in the Chouf District of the Mount Le ...
, a
Druze
The Druze (; ar, دَرْزِيٌّ, ' or ', , ') are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group from Western Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic, monotheistic, syncretic, and ethnic religion based on the teachings of ...
village in Mount Lebanon. He was impoverished there to the point that he was forced to sell his clothes in order buy food. He was then taken into the care of
Yusuf Shihab
Yusuf Shihab () (1748–1790) was the autonomous emir of Mount Lebanon between 1770 and 1789. He was the fifth consecutive member of the Shihab dynasty to govern Mount Lebanon.
Family
Yusuf Shihab was the son of Emir Mulhim.Harris, 2012, p119/r ...
, the
emir of Mount Lebanon
The Emirate of Mount Lebanon () was a part of Mount Lebanon that enjoyed variable degrees of partial autonomy under the stable suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire between the mid-16th and the early-19th century.
The town of Baakleen was the sea ...
and leader of the region's Druze clans, who took an interest in al-Jazzar. For an undefined period of time, al-Jazzar remained in Mount Lebanon before searching for employment in the coastal cities. He did not have success finding work and left for
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
, where he was also unable to gain employment.
For a third time, al-Jazzar traveled to Egypt, this time to retrieve money and other valuables from his home in Azbakiya. To avoid detection by the authorities, he dressed as an
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
. His trip to Egypt was short and he subsequently returned to
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
.
In 1772, the Ottoman commander-in-chief of the Syrian provinces, Uthman Pasha al-Wakil, and Emir Yusuf besieged
Sidon
Sidon ( ; he, צִידוֹן, ''Ṣīḏōn'') known locally as Sayda or Saida ( ar, صيدا ''Ṣaydā''), is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located in the South Governorate, of which it is the capital, on the Mediterranean coast. ...
to oust the forces of
Zahir al-Umar
Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Daher al-Omar or Dahir al-Umar ( ar, ظاهر العمر الزيداني, translit=Ẓāhir al-ʿUmar az-Zaydānī, 1689/90 – 21 or 22 August 1775) was the autonomous Arab ruler of northern Ottom ...
, the virtually autonomous
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
ruler of
Palestine
__NOTOC__
Palestine may refer to:
* State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia
* Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia
* Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...
, and
Nasif al-Nassar
Nasif ibn al-Nassar al-Wa'ili ( ar, ناصيف النصار; died 24 September 1781) was the most powerful sheikh of the rural Shia Muslim (Matawilah) tribes of Jabal Amil (modern-day South Lebanon) in the mid-18th century. He was based in the to ...
, the powerful
Shia Muslim
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
sheikh of
Jabal Amil
Jabal Amil ( ar, جبل عامل, Jabal ʿĀmil), also spelled Jabal Amel and historically known as Jabal Amila, is a cultural and geographic region in Southern Lebanon largely associated with its long-established, predominantly Twelver Shia Musl ...
. Zahir consequently requested the Russian fleet to bombard Beirut, which was under Emir Yusuf's control, to distract the Ottoman forces. The siege was lifted in June prior to the Russians' arrival in Beirut. On 18 June, the Russians began to bombard Beirut, but Emir Yusuf paid them to end their assault on 28 June. Fearing that Zahir would occupy Beirut, Emir Yusuf requested al-Wakil to bolster Beirut's defenses. In response, al-Wakil dispatched al-Jazzar with a force of Maghrebi soldiers and appointed him ''muhafiz'' (garrison commander) of Beirut.
[Joudah 1987, p. 98.] Al-Jazzar upgraded Beirut's fortifications.
According to Philipp, "Beirut became the first stepping stone of Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar's career in Syria".
Meanwhile, in a sign that enmity for al-Jazzar by the Mamluks of Egypt was still strong,
Abu al-Dhahab offered 200,000
Spanish real
The ''real'' (English: /ɹeɪˈɑl/ Spanish: /reˈal/) (meaning: "royal", plural: ''reales'') was a unit of currency in Spain for several centuries after the mid-14th century. It underwent several changes in value relative to other units throu ...
s to Emir Yusuf to kill al-Jazzar in 1772. Emir Yusuf refused the offer.
[Harris 2012, p. 122.] However, instead of defending Emir Yusuf's authority, al-Jazzar used Beirut as his own power base, justifying his presence as being in defense of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
.
Emir Yusuf demanded al-Jazzar withdraw from Beirut, but the latter refused, prompting Emir Yusuf to appeal to al-Wakil. The latter did not accept Emir Yusuf's request for assistance. Al-Wakil viewed al-Jazzar as a reliable representative whose control of Beirut would prevent another important Syrian port city from falling to Zahir and provide a launch point for an offensive against Zahir.
[Joudah 1987, p. 106.]
Emir Yusuf rallied his Druze forces to dislodge al-Jazzar, but the latter was able, through bribes, to manipulate the deeply factional Druze clans against each other and stave off Emir Yusuf's attempts. Emir Yusuf then sought to form an alliance with Zahir to oust al-Jazzar,
gaining Emir Yusuf the enmity of al-Wakil.
A punitive expedition sent by al-Wakil targeting Emir Yusuf in September 1773 was repelled by Zahir.
Zahir's success prompted Emir Yusuf to seek the assistance of the Russian fleet by appealing to Zahir, the Russians' ally, to intercede with the Russians on Emir Yusuf's behalf.
The Russians agreed to the request and began bombarding Beirut on 2 August.
[Joudah 1987, p. 107.] Al-Jazzar initially refused to surrender despite the heavy naval bombardment. However, after the Russians managed to land artillery pieces near Beirut and cut the city off by land, al-Jazzar decided to surrender to Zahir,
four months after the siege.
Fearing that Emir Yusuf would kill him in custody, al-Jazzar only agreed to surrender if placed in Zahir's custody because the latter promised to protect him and his Maghrebi garrison.
Escorted by an envoy of Zahir,
al-Jazzar subsequently headed for Zahir's headquarters in Acre.
[Philipp 2013, p]
63
Al-Jazzar entered into Zahir's service, and the latter dispatched al-Jazzar and his men to help collect the ''miri'' (taxes designated for the annual Hajj caravan) from the area between
Jaffa
Jaffa, in Hebrew Yafo ( he, יָפוֹ, ) and in Arabic Yafa ( ar, يَافَا) and also called Japho or Joppa, the southern and oldest part of Tel Aviv-Yafo, is an ancient port city in Israel. Jaffa is known for its association with the b ...
and
Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
.
Al-Jazzar decided to defect from Zahir's service by requesting employment by Ibrahim Pasha, the ''sanjak-bey'' of Jerusalem, but the latter refused al-Jazzar entry into the city due to suspicions that his request was a ploy by Zahir to enter the city without resistance and conquer it.
With the ''miri'' money that he stole,
al-Jazzar departed for Damascus, where he was welcomed by al-Wakil.
Al-Jazzar then left for Constantinople. There, he used his charisma to gain the favor of sultans
Mustafa III
Mustafa III (; ''Muṣṭafā-yi sālis''; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his ...
(r. 1757–1774) and
Abdul Hamid I
Abdülhamid or Abdul Hamid I ( ota, عبد الحميد اول, ''`Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel''; tr, Birinci Abdülhamid; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning over the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to ...
(r. 1774–1789).
He was subsequently appointed ''sanjak-bey'' of
Afyon Sanjak in western Anatolia.
Ruler of Acre
Consolidation of power in Galilee
![Aerial view of Acre 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Aerial_view_of_Acre_1.jpg)
In August 1775, the Ottomans, having secured a truce with the Russians, redoubled their efforts to end Zahir's autonomous rule. Zahir was defeated and killed on 22 August.
[Joudah 1987, p. 116.] Later, in September,
[Philipp 2013, p]
70
Sultan Abdul Hamid I appointed al-Jazzar ''muhafiz'' of Acre,
and prior to his departure to Constantinople,
Hasan Kapudan Pasha, the Ottoman admiral who led the campaign against Zahir, handed control of Acre over to al-Jazzar.
Al-Jazzar, using his influence in Constantinople,
managed to secure promotion as the administrator of
Sidon Eyalet
ota, ایالت صیدا
, common_name = Eyalet of Sidon
, subdivision = Eyalet
, nation = the Ottoman Empire
, year_start = 1660
, year_end = 1864
, date_start =
, date_end =
, eve ...
with the rank of ''
vezir
A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called '' katib'' (secretary), who was ...
'' (minister),
but not ''
wali
A wali (''wali'' ar, وَلِيّ, '; plural , '), the Arabic word which has been variously translated "master", "authority", "custodian", "protector", is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the ...
'' (governor),
in March 1776.
He was also officially ranked as a
pasha
Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, gener ...
of three horsetails, the highest pasha rank, in the spring of 1776.
While the administrative capital of Sidon Eyalet was nominally Sidon,
al-Jazzar made Acre his seat of power.
Part of the reason that al-Jazzar chose Acre as his headquarters was that the city's citadel provided him a more strategic advantage over Sidon in the event of a potential dismissal by the Ottoman authorities from his post; the central Ottoman authorities replaced provincial governors relatively quickly, either out of fear that a prolonged reign would lead to a governor's rebellion or in pursuit of bribes that aspiring governors often paid to gain appointment.
[Mishaqah, ed. Thackston, 1988, p]
19
According to historian William Harris, "al-Jazzar aimed to make himself indispensable, while respecting Ottoman sovereignty."
Al-Jazzar's move to Acre was meant to secure his rule and he proceeded to strengthen the city's fortifications and stock up on arms, artillery and ammunition.
Initially, al-Jazzar's power was effectively limited to Acre because Zahir's
Zaydani kinsmen still controlled their fortress villages in the
Galilee
Galilee (; he, הַגָּלִיל, hagGālīl; ar, الجليل, al-jalīl) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon. Galilee traditionally refers to the mountainous part, divided into Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and Lower Galil ...
and challenged the new order.
[Joudah 1987, p. 117.] Indeed, al-Jazzar's official justification for relocating the province's headquarters to Acre was to eliminate the remnants of Zahir's realm still active in the city's hinterland.
The most significant Zaydani opponent resisting al-Jazzar was Zahir's son Ali, who was based in
Deir Hanna
Deir Hanna ( ar, دير حنا, he, דֵיר חַנָּא) is a local council in the Northern District of Israel, located on the hills of the Lower Galilee, southeast of Acre. In it had a population of . Approximately 90% of Deir Hanna's inha ...
.
Meanwhile, Nasif al-Nassar submitted to al-Jazzar's authority.
The Shia Muslim clans sought to make amends with the Ottoman authorities following their alliance with Zahir and the principal Shia Muslim notable of
Tyre hosted al-Jazzar during his visit to the city in the spring of 1776.
[Winter 2010, p]
140
Meanwhile, Hasan Kapudan returned to Acre in the summer of 1776,
and he and al-Jazzar, whose forces were bolstered by Nasif's Shia horsemen,
besieged Deir Hanna, which capitulated in June.
With the defeat of Zahir's sons, al-Jazzar consolidated his control over Acre and the
Safad
Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevat ...
area.
Domination of Mount Lebanon
Al-Jazzar actively sought to dominate Mount Lebanon, which was controlled by the Druze clans.
He seized Beirut from Emir Yusuf despite Emir Yusuf's authority over the city being confirmed by Hasan Kapudan.
Moreover, al-Jazzar also demanded that Emir Yusuf pay the annual tax to Sidon, despite Emir Yusuf having already paid this tax via Hasan Kapudan.
In August 1776, the forces of al-Jazzar and Emir Yusuf entered into armed confrontation.
In the autumn of that year, al-Jazzar and Nasif, through mediation by the Shia sheikh of Tyre, Sheikh Qublan, finalized a tax payment arrangement. Thereafter, Nasif backed al-Jazzar in his conflict with the Druze clans, namely the
Jumblatt The Jumblatt family (, originally , meaning "steel-bodied" or "soul of steel"), also transliterated as Joumblatt and Junblat) is a prominent Druze family based in the Chouf area of Mount Lebanon that has dominated Druze politics since the 18th centu ...
s, but also the various Shihab emirs, whose divisions al-Jazzar exploited in order to consolidate his authority in the mountainous hinterland of Sidon Eyalet.
Al-Jazzar also utilized Nasif's cavalry to combat rebellious groups of Bedouins and
Turkmens
Turkmens ( tk, , , , ; historically "the Turkmen"), sometimes referred to as Turkmen Turks ( tk, , ), are a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia, living mainly in Turkmenistan, northern and northeastern regions of Iran and north-weste ...
in the province.
Al-Jazzar continued to lobby for appointment as ''wali'' of Sidon Eyalet and was approaching open rebellion against the Ottomans in protest at not receiving the post. However, in May 1777, al-Jazzar was officially appointed ''wali''.
That year, al-Jazzar requested assistance against Emir Yusuf from
Muhammad Pasha al-Azm
Muhammad Pasha al-Azm was the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman governor of Sidon Eyalet (1763–1770) and Damascus Eyalet (1771–72 and 1773–83). He was a member of the prominent al-Azm family, the son of a former governor As'ad Pasha al-Azm.
During Mu ...
, the ''wali'' of Damascus, and his son Yusuf Pasha al-Azm, the ''wali'' of
Tripoli
Tripoli or Tripolis may refer to:
Cities and other geographic units Greece
*Tripoli, Greece, the capital of Arcadia, Greece
* Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece
* Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in ...
.
Both refused, citing Emir Yusuf's loyalty and regular payment of taxes. They also feared al-Jazzar's growing power more than Emir Yusuf.
Al-Jazzar dispatched the commander of his Maghrebi troops in Sidon, Mustafa ibn Qara Mulla, to collect payments from the Druze clans and kill Emir Yusuf. In his first foray into Mount Lebanon, the Druze forced him to retreat to Sidon. Mustafa was also unsuccessful in his second offensive, this time through the
Beqaa Valley
The Beqaa Valley ( ar, links=no, وادي البقاع, ', Lebanese ), also transliterated as Bekaa, Biqâ, and Becaa and known in classical antiquity as Coele-Syria, is a fertile valley in eastern Lebanon. It is Lebanon's most important ...
. In the latter offensive, the harvest of the valley was confiscated and the two sides entered into indecisive clashes.
However, conflict emerged between the Druze of Mount Lebanon, with the Jumblatt and Abu Nakad clans moving to depose Emir Yusuf and replace him with his brothers Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi.
The latter two offered al-Jazzar 50,000
qirsh in September 1778 for the
tax farm
A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a governmental organization in order to fund government spending and various public expenditures (regional, local, or n ...
s of Mount Lebanon. Al-Jazzar accepted the offer.
[Philipp 2013, p]
64
To support Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi's appointment, al-Jazzar departed for Beirut with his troops and from there he besieged Emir Yusuf at
Jubail
Jubail ( ar, الجبيل, ''Al Jubayl'') is a city in the Eastern province on the Persian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia, with a total population of 684,531 as of 2021. It is home to the largest industrial city in the world. It is also home to th ...
.
Emir Yusuf was backed by his other brother, Emir Muhammad, and Yusuf Pasha of Tripoli.
Emir Yusuf was able to withstand the siege, which entered into a stalemate, but ultimately agreed to pay al-Jazzar 100,000 qirsh to restore him as emir of Mount Lebanon.
Thereafter, al-Jazzar commissioned Nasif to launch an assault against Sayyid-Ahmad and Afandi to restore Mount Lebanon to Emir Yusuf.
[Winter 2010, p]
141
During the months after Emir Yusuf was restored, he proceeded to eliminate many of his relatives, who were potential rivals to the emirate, and felt secure enough to withhold tax payments to al-Jazzar. As a consequence, al-Jazzar launched a punitive expedition against the Druze, which succeeded in deposing Emir Yusuf, albeit temporarily.
[Philipp 2013, p]
65
In 1780, Nasif backed al-Jazzar in a military confrontation with al-Jazzar's principal regional enemy at the time, Muhammad Pasha of Damascus.
In May 1781, Nasif confronted Muhammad Pasha's forces in a second engagement on al-Jazzar's behalf.
Destruction of Shia autonomy
![Chateau de Beaufort](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Chateau_de_Beaufort.jpg)
Al-Jazzar's relations with Nasif soured by September 1781,
when, according to the local Shia chronicler Ali al-Subayti, the Shia sheikh of
Hunin
Hunin ( ar, هونين) was a Palestinian Arab village in the Galilee Panhandle part of Mandatory Palestine close to the Lebanese border. It was the second largest village in the district of Safed, but was depopulated in 1948.Gelber, 2006, p. 22 ...
requested al-Jazzar's intervention against Nasif.
[Winter 2010, p]
142
Al-Jazzar dispatched one of his senior ''mamluk'' commanders, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, with 3,000 troops against Nasif and his Ali al-Saghir al-Wa'il clan.
On 23–24 September,
al-Jazzar's forces routed Nasif's forces, killing Nasif and 470 of his cavalrymen in a three-hour-long battle at
Yaroun
Yaroun (also spelled Yarun; ar, يارون)From personal name, according to Palmer, 1881, p104"perhaps the Iron of Josh. xix 38" is a Lebanese village located in the Caza of Bint Jbeil in the Nabatieh Governorate in Lebanon.
Geography
Yaroun ...
, marking the virtual end of Shia autonomy in Jabal Amil.
Most of the leading Shia sheikhs of Jabal Amil were killed during a subsequent series of assaults against Shia-held fortress towns, the last being the
Beaufort Castle Beaufort Castle can refer to several places:
* Beaufort Castle, Florennes, Belgium
* Beaufort Castle, France, in the historical region of Auvergne
* Beaufort Castle in Huy, Belgium
* Beaufort Castle, Greece, a Frankish castle in Laconia
* Beaufor ...
(Shaqif Arnun), where the Shia clans made a last stand.
Beaufort's inhabitants were not harmed following their surrender, and al-Jazzar coordinated their flight to the Beqaa Valley.
The remainder of the leading Shia sheikhs took refuge with the
Harfush clan
The Harfush dynasty (or Harfouche, Harfouch, or most commonly spelled Harfoush dynasty, all varying transcriptions of the same Arabic family name حرفوش) was a dynasty that descended from the Khuza'a tribe, which helped, during the reign of ...
in the Beqaa Valley.
According to the French consul of Sidon and local Shia chronicler Haydar Rida al-Rukayni, following the defeat of the Shia sheikhs, Druze forces took Shia women and others captive as slaves to al-Jazzar in Sidon, while Isma'il Shihab of
Hasbaya
Hasbeya or Hasbeiya ( ar, حاصبيا) is a town in Lebanon, situated at the foot of Mount Hermon, overlooking a deep amphitheatre from which a brook flows to the Hasbani. In 1911, the population was about 5000.
Hasbaya is the capital of the Wadi ...
proceeded to extort the survivors in return for protection.
Massive amounts of valuables were seized from the Shia and their fortresses were largely demolished.
In mid-October, Nasif's son 'Aqid launched a last-ditch effort against al-Jazzar's forces in the Beqaa Valley, but he ultimately fled during the battle.
With this, Jabal Amil was conquered and the port city of Tyre became a permanent part of al-Jazzar's realm.
The
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The nam ...
(Ottoman imperial government) commended al-Jazzar's victory in a letter filled with rhapsodic praise and a promise to him of the empire's unyielding support to "clean the land of the filth of their existence", in reference to the Shia clans.
First term as Wali of Damascus
Al-Jazzar had long sought the governorship of Damascus to be added to his realm. Al-Jazzar's moves to gain the governorship in the wake of Muhammad Pasha al-Azm's death in 1783 were initially unsuccessful. The Sublime Porte was reticent to give al-Jazzar the added power of the governorship of Damascus, and instead the appointment went to a man who died 29 days into office and who was then replaced by
Darwish Pasha al-Kurji
Darwish Pasha al-Kurji (also known as Osmanzade Dervish Pasha) was an Ottoman statesman who served as ''wali'' (governor) of Sidon in 1770–1771 and Damascus in 1783–1784. He was the son of Uthman Pasha al-Kurji, who was of Georgian origin.
Da ...
. The latter was replaced after a year by Muhammad Pasha Battal. Both Darwish and Battal were deemed incompetent and the Sublime Porte ultimately appointed al-Jazzar to the governorship in March 1785, after the latter expended a large bribe to imperial officials in Constantinople.
[Philipp, p. 71.] Al-Jazzar also managed to have one of his senior ''mamluks'' and treasurer, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, appointed ''wali'' of Sidon in his place, and another of his senior ''mamluks'',
Sulayman Pasha, appointed ''wali'' of Tripoli.
Al-Jazzar departed for
Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
in mid-April with a ceremonial procession demonstrating his military might.
This was the first and last time that al-Jazzar headquartered himself anywhere outside of Acre since becoming ''wali'' of Sidon in 1777.
Sometime in 1785, the Sublime Porte sought al-Jazzar's advice regarding how to address the increasing autonomy of Egypt's Mamluk rulers, namely
Murad Bey
Murad Bey Mohammed ( 1750 – 22 April 1801) was an Egyptian Mamluk chieftain ( Bey), cavalry commander and joint ruler of Egypt with Ibrahim Bey. He is often remembered as being a cruel and extortionate ruler, but an energetic courageous fighter ...
.
Al-Jazzar wrote that the Ottomans should launch an expedition against the Mamluks with 12,000 soldiers, reassert centralized rule there, appoint a governor with previous political experience in Egypt, and to regularly "present gifts to the soldiers ... in order to attract their support".
The Ottomans launched an expedition led by Hasan Kapudan in 1786, but they were ordered to withdraw after the war with Russia resumed and the Mamluks were restored to power in Egypt.
With an army of some 5,000 soldiers, al-Jazzar made the ''dawrah'' (collection tour of the ''miri'' tax) in Palestine, which was largely part of Damascus Eyalet, in June and July 1785.
The ''dawrah'', which the inhabitants considered particularly brutal that year, coincided with spreading plague and famine in Palestine, and under these collective circumstances, many of Palestine's inhabitants left their villages.
During the ''dawrah'', al-Jazzar combated and defeated the local forces of
Nablus
Nablus ( ; ar, نابلس, Nābulus ; he, שכם, Šəḵem, ISO 259-3: ; Samaritan Hebrew: , romanized: ; el, Νεάπολις, Νeápolis) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank, located approximately north of Jerusalem, with a populati ...
, and asserted his authority in
Hebron
Hebron ( ar, الخليل or ; he, חֶבְרוֹן ) is a Palestinian. city in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East J ...
and Jerusalem, installing one of his ''mamluks'', Qasim Bey, as the ''mutasallim'' (enforcer/tax collector) of the latter, replacing a local from the Nimr clan.
The violence used by al-Jazzar during the ''dawrah'' was meant to stamp his authority in Palestine.
The ''wali'' of Damascus was traditionally the ''amir al-hajj'' of the Syrian pilgrimage caravan, and after collecting the ''miri'', al-Jazzar departed Damascus for Mecca in command of the Hajj caravan in October.
Al-Jazzar returned from the Hajj around January 1786. By mid-July, al-Jazzar was effectively the most powerful figure in Ottoman Syria, with the Damascus, Sidon and Tripoli
eyalet
Eyalets ( Ottoman Turkish: ایالت, , English: State), also known as beylerbeyliks or pashaliks, were a primary administrative division of the Ottoman Empire.
From 1453 to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman local government ...
s under his direct rule or that of his lieutenants. Al-Jazzar attempted to establish a monopoly on the
grain trade
The grain trade refers to the local and international trade in cereals and other food grains such as wheat, barley, maize, and rice. Grain is an important trade item because it is easily stored and transported with limited spoilage, unlike other ...
in
Hauran
The Hauran ( ar, حَوْرَان, ''Ḥawrān''; also spelled ''Hawran'' or ''Houran'') is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, eastwards by the al-Safa (Syria), al-Safa ...
by having grain shipped solely through Acre, bypassing Damascus and thus provoking the ire of that city's grain merchants. The Sublime Porte dismissed him later that year for unclear reasons. Al-Jazzar did not challenge the dismissal and returned to Acre to resume his duty as ''wali'' of Sidon.
Mamluk rebellion
On 4 May 1789, al-Jazzar dispatched two of his senior ''mamluk'' commanders and their troops to collect taxes from Emir Yusuf, which the latter had been reticent to pay. For this purpose, Salim Pasha al-Saghir was sent with 2,000 cavalry to Hasbaya, while
Sulayman Pasha was sent with 800 infantry to the coast. According to French consul Jean-Pierre Renaudot, the relatively large size of mobilized troops sent for a relatively routine procedure such as collecting taxes was actually an attempt by al-Jazzar to avoid contributing his forces to the Ottoman war effort with Russia by demonstrating how his forces were still needed to combat the Druze of Mount Lebanon.
[Philipp 2013, p]
143
On 8 May, al-Jazzar became aware of sexual relations between a number of his ''mamluks'' and women from his
harem
Harem (Persian: حرمسرا ''haramsarā'', ar, حَرِيمٌ ''ḥarīm'', "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family") refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family. A hare ...
.
He consequently cut off the arms of the ''mamluks'' who were headquartered in Acre's
seraglio
A seraglio, serail, seray or saray (from fa, سرای, sarāy, palace, via Turkish and Italian) is a castle, palace or government building which was considered to have particular administrative importance in various parts of the former Ott ...
(where the harem was located) and had a number of women drowned at sea.
[Philipp 2013, p]
144
On 9 May, al-Jazzar proceeded to purge his ''mamluks'', arresting many, a number of whom were then executed, with the assistance of 30 Bosnian soldiers.
The ''mamluks'' of Acre subsequently revolted and barricaded themselves in the treasury, which was located in Acre's Big Tower.
Angered by the execution of his favored
valet
A valet or varlet is a male servant who serves as personal attendant to his employer. In the Middle Ages and Ancien Régime, valet de chambre was a role for junior courtiers and specialists such as artists in a royal court, but the term "vale ...
, the treasurer, a brother of Salim Pasha, then broke the incarcerated ''mamluks'' out of prison and linked up with the ''mamluk'' rebels at the Big Tower. The ''mamluks'' aimed the artillery pieces of the Big Tower at the seraglio and threatened to destroy it.
A stalemate ensued giving the
mufti
A Mufti (; ar, مفتي) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion ('' fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatwas'' played an important rol ...
of Acre an opportunity to mediate between al-Jazzar and the ''mamluks''.
With the threat to his capital, al-Jazzar was compelled to agree to the safe departure of the 70–80 ''mamluk'' rebels from the city with their weapons and horses.
The ''mamluks'' who remained in Acre, namely the pre-adolescents, were then either killed by al-Jazzar or exiled to Egypt.
Meanwhile, the ''mamluks'' who were able to depart the city, led by the treasurer, moved north to the Lebanon and met with Sulayman Pasha and Salim Pasha.
A reconciliation attempt between the ''mamluks'' and al-Jazzar failed and the ''mamluks'', under the command of Sulayman and Salim, decided to topple al-Jazzar.
They reached a truce with Emir Yusuf and secured the support of the Maghrebi unit commander in Beirut, al-Jaburi, who turned down al-Jazzar's orders to kill Salim.
The ''mamluks'' used Sidon as their base of operations. However, the revolt met a challenge when the ''mamluks'' attempted to enter Tyre, but were refused by that city's commander.
The ''mamluks'' proceeded to assault the town and plundered it after the ''mamluk'' commanders were unable to control them.
News of the events in Tyre persuaded many in Acre who were wary of al-Jazzar's rule to prefer al-Jazzar instead of Salim.
After the sack of Tyre, the ''mamluks'' launched their offensive against Acre, where al-Jazzar was increasingly isolated from his troops. His remaining military forces in the city consisted of around 200 Albanian troops commanded by Juwaq Uthman.
On 3 June, the rebels, numbering some 1,200 soldiers, including Kurdish cavalry from
Hama
, timezone = EET
, utc_offset = +2
, timezone_DST = EEST
, utc_offset_DST = +3
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, ar ...
commanded by Mulla Isma'il, reached the plain of Acre, but had no apparent plan on how to capture the city.
[Philipp 2013, p]
145
In a last-ditch attempt to bolster Acre's defenses, al-Jazzar gathered and armed all of the city's government laborers and masons.
The ''
qadi
A qāḍī ( ar, قاضي, Qāḍī; otherwise transliterated as qazi, cadi, kadi, or kazi) is the magistrate or judge of a '' sharīʿa'' court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and mino ...
'' of Acre, Shaykh Muhammad, advised al-Jazzar to mount a nighttime raid against the rebel's camp in the plain.
Al-Jazzar heeded Shaykh Muhammad's advice, but also prepared a ship in Acre's harbor to escape in case of a rebel victory.
At nightfall, Acre's defenders launched a
sortie
A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare. ...
against the rebel camp, while the city's artillery bombarded the rebels.
The assault took the rebels by surprise.
Mulla Isma'il immediately withdrew during the assault, while the ''mamluks'' were defeated and fled during the five-hour battle.
Sulayman and Salim escaped to Mount Lebanon, before heading to Damascus to renew their efforts to topple al-Jazzar.
The rebellion and its suppression effectively marked the end of the ''mamluk'' household al-Jazzar had raised,
[Philipp, p. 329.] and the end of the ''mamluks'' as a military institution during al-Jazzar's rule.
According to Philipp, the ''mamluk'' rebellion was al-Jazzar's "gravest military and political crisis", with the only exception perhaps being Napoleon's siege of Acre in 1799, although the rebellion "was in many ways more serious since it arose from an internal source."
The revolt was perceived by al-Jazzar, himself a virtual product of the ''mamluk'' system, as a betrayal of his most senior lieutenants,
whose careers and wealth he created through his patronage.
The rebellion thus had traumatic effects on al-Jazzar's personality, which according to Philipp, transformed al-Jazzar's "latent fears, suspicions and distrust ... into a sense of paranoia".
In the rebellion's aftermath, al-Jazzar launched a massive purge in his realm, executing and exiling people of all societal ranks.
The 19th-century chronicler Haydar Ahmad Shihab noted that as a result of the rebellion, al-Jazzar "became like an untamed animal ... he imagined that the whole world was against him."
Second term as Wali of Damascus
In line with a pattern by the Sublime Porte to appoint al-Jazzar to Damascus in times of crisis, al-Jazzar was reappointed Wali of Damascus in October 1790,
succeeding
Ibrahim Deli Pasha
Ibrahim Pasha al-Dalati (also known as Ibrahim Deli Pasha) was the Ottoman governor of Damascus in 1788.
Life
Ibrahim was a Kurdish professional soldier who entered the service of the Azm family, members of which served as the governors of Damasc ...
.
[Douwes 2000, p. 92.] This came following a revolt by imperial
Janissaries
A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
from the
Citadel of Damascus
The Citadel of Damascus ( ar, قلعة دمشق, Qalʿat Dimašq) is a large medieval fortified palace and citadel in Damascus, Syria. It is part of the Ancient City of Damascus, which was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
The loc ...
led by Ahmad Agha al-Za'faranji and ''
aghawat'' (local commanders) from the southern quarter of
al-Midan
Al-Midan ( ar, حي الميدان) is a neighbourhood and municipality in Damascus, Syria, south of the old walled city and near the modern city centre. In the 2004 census, it had a population of 177,456. Today, the neighbourhood is often co ...
against Ibrahim Deli, which the latter was able to suppress. However, unlike his first term, al-Jazzar chose to remain in Acre and appointed one of his close advisers,
[Philipp 2013, p]
72
Muhammad Agha, as ''mutasallim'' or ''qaimaqam'' (deputy governor)
[Douwes 2000, p. 93.] of Damascus to administer the internal affairs of the province on his behalf.
Through Muhammad Agha, al-Jazzar reestablished his monopoly on the grain trade of Damascus and Hauran, re-routing its export through Acre.
Al-Jazzar still commanded the hajj caravan however, and officially remained the Wali of Sidon as well.
This was in contrast to his first term as Wali of Damascus, where al-Jazzar officially relinquished Sidon Eyalet to his subordinate and subsequently struggled to persuade the Sublime Porte to restore him to the governorship of Sidon after being dismissed as Wali of Damascus in 1786.
Al-Jazzar's enmity with the
Azm family, his chief rivals for power in Damascus, at times manifested into an alliance with the ''aghawat'' of al-Midan, who traditionally controlled the grain trade, against the ''aghawat'' of the northern city quarters who were traditionally allied with the Azms.
[Douwes 2000, p. 91.] The ''aghawat'' of al-Midan had likely joined the calls to dismiss al-Jazzar in 1786 due to the immediate financial harm they experienced with the establishment of the grain monopoly.
However, during al-Jazzar's second term, a commercial interest of sorts was established between them, al-Jazzar and Jewish merchants from Acre and Damascus.
They often served as al-Jazzar's ''mutasallims'' in various districts of Damascus Eyalet.
The feud between al-Jazzar and the Azms intensified when Muhammad Agha had Ali Bey al-Azm, a son of Muhammad Pasha, killed by poison, on orders from al-Jazzar, and confiscated his properties.
Al-Jazzar appointed al-Za'faranji as ''mutasallim'' of
Hama
, timezone = EET
, utc_offset = +2
, timezone_DST = EEST
, utc_offset_DST = +3
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, ar ...
, a stronghold of the Azms,
which had supported Ibrahim Deli against him in 1788.
However, prior to his departure to command the hajj caravan in 1791, al-Jazzar had Muhammad Agha execute al-Za'faranji, likely out of fear that the latter, who was a popular commander and from the northern quarters, would conspire against al-Jazzar while he was away on the hajj.
[Philipp 2013, p]
73
Dozens or hundreds of Damascenes, including numerous city notables, Muslim scholars and ''aghawat'' were executed during al-Jazzar's second term.
These executions were overseen by Muhammad Agha,
who was known to be "unusually oppressive", according to Philipp,
and "extremely unpopular", according to historian Dick Douwes. Among the Muslim scholars who died in custody were three
Hanafi
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named aft ...
muftis,
who were targeted by al-Jazzar because of their association with the Azm family and their political clout in the city as the most senior indigenous religious officials; the most senior religious official was the ''qadi'' who was appointed by the Sublime Porte.
In 1794, al-Jazzar dismissed Muhammad Agha and replaced him with the trustee of the Sinaniyya Mosque of al-Midan, Ahmad Agha. The latter chose to target Jewish financial interests in Damascus in defiance of al-Jazzar, while he was leading the hajj caravan that year.
Upon al-Jazzar's return, Ahmad Agha fled the city.
Throughout his second term as Wali of Damascus, al-Jazzar continuously fought against the
Jarrar and Nimr clans of
Jabal Nablus
The Nablus Sanjak ( ar, سنجق نابلس; tr, Nablus Sancağı) was an administrative area that existed throughout Ottoman rule in the Levant (1517–1917). It was administratively part of the Damascus Eyalet until 1864 when it became part o ...
, part of Damascus Eyalet, to assert his control over the virtually autonomous
Nablus Sanjak
The Nablus Sanjak ( ar, سنجق نابلس; tr, Nablus Sancağı) was an administrative area that existed throughout Ottoman rule in the Levant (1517–1917). It was administratively part of the Damascus Eyalet until 1864 when it became part o ...
. He established an alliance with the
Tuqan family The Tuqan clan ( ar, طوقان ''ṭūqān'', also spelled ''Toukan'', ''Touqan'', ''Tukan'' and ''Tokan'') is a prominent Palestinian and Jordanian political and business family. During the Ottoman era, they dominated the political and socio-ec ...
, appointing Musa Bey Tuqan as ''mutasallim'' of
Nablus
Nablus ( ; ar, نابلس, Nābulus ; he, שכם, Šəḵem, ISO 259-3: ; Samaritan Hebrew: , romanized: ; el, Νεάπολις, Νeápolis) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank, located approximately north of Jerusalem, with a populati ...
in 1794, a move which the Jarrars challenged. Al-Jazzar besieged them at their hilltop fortress at
Sanur, but ended the siege in failure and with heavy casualties.
Al-Jazzar was dismissed from the governorship of Damascus in 1795, marking his second term as his longest tenure as Wali of Damascus.
Defense of Acre and aftermath
![حصار-عكا](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B9%D9%83%D8%A7.jpg)
In 1798 General Bonaparte conquered Egypt as part of his
campaign
Campaign or The Campaign may refer to:
Types of campaigns
* Campaign, in agriculture, the period during which sugar beets are harvested and processed
*Advertising campaign, a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme
* Bl ...
against the Ottomans. The French invasion caused popular riots in Damascus, prompting the Ottomans to replace Abdullah Pasha as Wali of Damascus with Ibrahim Pasha al-Halabi,
[Douwes 2000, p. 95.] who became the target of an uprising.
[Philipp 2013, p]
77
/ref> Al-Jazzar was ultimately appointed to a post akin to caretaker governor of Damascus and his troops subsequently restored order in the city. Upon al-Jazzar's visit to Damascus, he had numerous ''aghawat'' beheaded with their heads on display at the gate of the citadel.
Meanwhile, in February 1799, Bonaparte entered Palestine, first occupying Gaza and then moving north along the coastal plain,[Filiu, 2014, p. 29.] where eventually laid siege to Jaffa. Jaffa was defended by al-Jazzar's troops,[Philipp 2013, p]
20
but they surrendered during the siege in return for French promises that they would not be killed.[McGregor, 2006, p]
44
However, in custody al-Jazzar's troops were not given food or shelter, and after several days French forces marched them, 3,000 or 4,000 in all,[Philipp 2013, p]
57
to the sand dunes of Jaffa's shore and executed them by bayonet over the course of several days. Simultaneous with the execution of al-Jazzar's troops, a plague afflicted Bonaparte's troops, resulting in numerous deaths.
Bonaparte's army then captured Haifa and used it as a staging ground for their siege of Acre Siege of Acre may refer to:
* Siege of Acre (1104), following the First Crusade
*Siege of Acre (1189–1191), during the Third Crusade
* Siege of Acre (1263), Baibars laid siege to the Crusader city, but abandoned it to attack Nazareth.
*Siege of A ...
. Al-Jazzar commanded his troops in Acre and personally scaled the town's walls and engaged in direct fighting with French soldiers. Prior to Bonaparte's arrival at Acre, al-Jazzar's forces had been bolstered by an advance brigade of 700 troops dispatched by the Sublime Porte.[Aksan, 2014 p]
230
With access to the sea largely unfettered, he was able to secure supplies and reinforcements. Among the key reinforcements were some 800 British marines, who were led by Sidney Smith. The British Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
,[Masters, p. 132.] specifically two men-of-war ships,[Finkel, 2007, p]
411
also came to al-Jazzar's aid and bombarded Bonaparte's trenches through the course of the siege, resulting in heavy French casualties prior to the arrival of artillery batteries that the French used to shell Acre's fortress. After 62 days, Bonaparte withdrew his army with heavy loss of life on 20 May.
The Ottomans had been shocked by Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt,[Finkel, 2007, p]
410
and were "spared further military embarrassment" by al-Jazzar's successful defense of Acre, according to historian Bruce Masters. His Muslim and Christian contemporaries both regarded his victory over the French Army as his greatest achievement.[Philipp 2013, p. 48.] Al-Jazzar's victory significantly boosted his prestige.[Krämer, 2011, p]
61
Mass celebrations in Damascus and Aleppo followed his victory, and al-Jazzar became "the defender of the faith" in Muslim public opinion, while being credited by European observers as among the few to have defeated Bonaparte.[Philipp 2013, p]
49
Following Napoleon's withdrawal, al-Jazzar requested from the Sublime Porte to be appointed commander-in-chief of Egypt and lead the Ottoman reconquest of the province.[Aksan, 2014, p]
231
Sultan Selim III
Selim III ( ota, سليم ثالث, Selim-i sâlis; tr, III. Selim; was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, the Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa ...
's military advisers considered al-Jazzar's request, but ultimately decided that appointing al-Jazzar to Egypt would only empower him further and make him difficult to remove from the province. Instead, the Ottomans assembled an army under Grand Vizier
Grand vizier ( fa, وزيرِ اعظم, vazîr-i aʾzam; ota, صدر اعظم, sadr-ı aʾzam; tr, sadrazam) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. The office of Grand Vizier was first ...
, Kör Yusuf Ziya Pasha, to restore Ottoman control in Egypt. Yusuf Pasha restored Abdullah Pasha al-Azm to the governorship of Damascus in mid-1799, ending al-Jazzar's third and shortest (seven months) tenure in Damascus.
Final years
The Ottomans and the British defeated the French in Egypt in 1801, and during Yusuf Pasha's return to Istanbul through Palestine, Yusuf Pasha appointed his protégé and Hebron
Hebron ( ar, الخليل or ; he, חֶבְרוֹן ) is a Palestinian. city in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after East J ...
-area native Muhammad Abu Maraq to control Jaffa as the governor of the sanjaks of Gaza and Jerusalem. Giving Abu Maraq control of southern Palestine was intended to limit al-Jazzar's influence in that region.[Philipp 2013, p]
75
/ref> In defiance of the Sublime Porte, al-Jazzar sought to oust Abu Maraq and immediately besieged Jaffa, which al-Jazzar considered to be of immense strategic importance to his rule in Acre despite the city being in the jurisdiction of the Damascus Eyalet.[Philipp 2013, p]
76
Consequently, the Ottomans issued a ''firman
A firman ( fa, , translit=farmân; ), at the constitutional level, was a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in an Islamic state. During various periods they were collected and applied as traditional bodies of law. The word firman com ...
'' condemning al-Jazzar as a rebel. Al-Jazzar dismissed the ''firman'' and continued his siege of Jaffa until Abu Maraq surrendered and fled the city in early 1803. Al-Jazzar subsequently mustered large funds and directed his lobby of influence in Constantinople and managed to have imperial support for his rule restored.
When Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
was occupied by Wahhabi
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, an ...
tribesmen in 1803 and humiliated the Hajj pilgrims under Abdullah Pasha's protection, the Ottomans dismissed Abdullah and reappointed al-Jazzar Wali of Damascus in late 1803. Abdullah Pasha did not accept his dismissal and mobilized troops from Hama to occupy Damascus, but his troops refused to fight because they were not paid their regular wage and because they did not want to challenge the Ottoman government. Al-Jazzar assigned Shaykh Taha al-Kurdi and his Kurdish units to oversee Damascus on his behalf.[Philipp 2013, p]
74
Al-Jazzar also launched another siege against the Jarrar sheikhs of Sanur, but was again unable to oust them.
Death and succession
Al-Jazzar was afflicted with a tertian fever
Malaria is a Mosquito-borne disease, mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes Signs and symptoms, symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue (medical), tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In se ...
in August 1803 and the illness he suffered kept him inactive.[Buckingham, p. 126.] Al-Jazzar had Sulayman Pasha command the Hajj caravan of 1803–04 as ''amir al-hajj'' in his place.[Philipp 2013, p. 78.] Al-Jazzar died on 7 May 1804. In 1816, James Silk Buckingham
James Silk Buckingham (25 August 1786 – 30 June 1855) was a British author, journalist and traveller, known for his contributions to Indian journalism. He was a pioneer among the Europeans who fought for a liberal press in India.
Early life
B ...
described al-Jazzar as the following:
He was a man famous for his personal strength, his ferocious courage, his cruelty, and his insatiable avarice, as well as for the great power which the active exertion of all these qualities together procured for him.
The Ottomans attempted to stop a potential power struggle from occurring in Acre when it became apparent that al-Jazzar was seriously ill, and in April 1804, they secretly appointed the Wali of Aleppo, Ibrahim Pasha Qataraghasi
Ibrahim Pasha Qatarağasi (nisba also spelled ''Qattar Aghasi'' or ''Qataraghasi'') was an Ottoman statesman who served as ''wali'' (governor) of Aleppo, Damascus, Diyarbekir and Tripoli '' eyalets'' (provinces) in the early 19th century.
Ear ...
, as the ''wali'' of both the Sidon and Damascus ''eyalets'', officially replacing al-Jazzar. After al-Jazzar's death, however, one of his imprisoned officers, Isma'il Pasha, was released by friendly soldiers. Isma'il assumed power in Acre in defiance of the Sublime Porte, which condemned him as a rebel in June. The Ottomans dispatched Qataraghasi to defeat Isma'il and assert his governorship of the Sidon and Damascus ''eyalets''. Qataraghasi was backed by Sulayman Pasha on his way back from the Hajj, and the two men besieged Isma'il in Acre. Qataraghasi had to withdraw from the siege to begin the ''miri'' collection tour and prepare for the scheduled departure of the Hajj caravan in January 1805. This left Sulayman in command of the siege, during which Sulayman was appointed Wali of Sidon, which further motivated him to defeat Isma'il. The latter launched a sortie from Acre against Sulayman's troops near Shefa-'Amr
Shefa-Amr, also Shfar'am ( ar, شفاعمرو, Šafāʻamr, he, שְׁפַרְעָם, Šəfarʻam) is an Arab city in the Northern District of Israel. In it had a population of , with a Sunni Muslim majority and large Christian Arab and Druz ...
and in the ensuing battle, Sulayman was victorious.
Politics
Administration
Al-Jazzar used his experiences and knowledge from his career with the Mamluks of Egypt to set up the mamluk system of military rule in Acre.[Philipp 2004, p. 319.] Prior to the dissolution of his mamluk household in 1789, mamluks served as al-Jazzar's personal bodyguards and political advisers, as well as his subordinate administrators in the other cities and areas of his realm. The inner circle of his mamluk household was made up of Salim Pasha al-Kabir, Salim Pasha al-Saghir, Sulayman Pasha and Ali Agha Khazindar. They were either purchased or given to him during his time in Egypt, but it is not clear if they left Egypt with him in 1768 or if they moved to Acre after al-Jazzar was given the governorship of Sidon.[Philipp 2004, p. 320.] Al-Jazzar had an emotional attachment to his mamluks and when his first mamluk, Salim Pasha al-Kabir, died in 1786 from the plague
Plague or The Plague may refer to:
Agriculture, fauna, and medicine
*Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis''
* An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural)
* A pandemic caused by such a disease
* A swarm of pes ...
, al-Jazzar "cried like a child", according to the French consul in Acre. Despite the profound sense of betrayal he felt at the rebellion of his senior mamluks, when Sulayman Pasha returned to Acre in 1802, al-Jazzar "received him like a lost son", according to Philipp.
Towards the end of the 18th century, al-Jazzar employed Haim Farhi
Haim Farhi ( he, חיים פרחי}, ; ar, حيم فارحي, also known as Haim "El Mu'allim" ar, المعلم lit. "The Teacher"), (1760 – August 21, 1820) was an adviser to the governors of the Galilee in the days of the Ottoman Empire. Amo ...
, a Damascene Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""Th ...
from a banking family, to serve as his treasury manager and administrative adviser. At one point, al-Jazzar dismissed and arrested Farhi and had his eye gouged, and his ears and nose cut. Farhi was restored to his position and his role in Acre became increasingly influential under al-Jazzar's successors, Sulayman Pasha and Abdullah Pasha.
After establishing himself in Acre, al-Jazzar assigned a small of group of Kurds commanded by a certain Shaykh Taha, who was considered by the Muslims of al-Jazzar's realm to be a Yazidi
Yazidis or Yezidis (; ku, ئێزیدی, translit=Êzidî) are a Kurmanji-speaking endogamous minority group who are indigenous to Kurdistan, a geographical region in Western Asia that includes parts of Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran. The majo ...
and a devil worshiper, to administer internal security.[Philipp 2004, p. 322.] In effect, they became responsible for running prisons and carrying out the torture and execution of individuals.
Military
Al-Jazzar's military forces were largely organized along ethnic lines, which helped guarantee loyalty and cooperation within each ethnic unit.[Philipp 2013, p]
141
The unit commanders were also typically from the same ethnic origin as the rest of the unit and were better placed to ensure a level of intra-unit discipline. The units consisted of Maghrebi infantry, Arnaut
Arnaut ( ota, ارناود) is a Turkish ethnonym used to denote Albanians. ''Arvanid'' (), ''Arnavud'' (), plural: ''Arnavudlar'' (): modern Turkish: ''Arnavut'', plural: ''Arnavutlar''; are ethnonyms used mainly by Ottoman and contemporary ...
(Albanian) and Bushnak
Bushnak ( ar, بشناق, meaning "Bosnian" or "Bosniak", also transliterated Bushnaq, Boshnak, Bouchenak and Bouchnak) is a surname common among Levantines of Bosniak origin. Those sharing this surname are the descendants of Bosniaks apprehensive ...
(Bosnian) cavalrymen from the Balkans
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
who al-Jazzar purchased, and Kurdish Dalat cavalry units. The Maghrebi and Dalat units were mercenaries hired by al-Jazzar. The former previously formed a major part of Zahir's army, while the latter were originally part of the Ottoman imperial army but became private militias in the service of various Ottoman Syrian governors throughout the 18th century.
Al-Jazzar also purchased individual mamluks, the majority of whom were of Georgian
Georgian may refer to:
Common meanings
* Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country)
** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group
** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians
**Georgian scripts, three scrip ...
origin. The mamluks served as his most senior commanders in the field, but following the destruction of the mamluks during their 1789 rebellion, al-Jazzar increasingly relied on the commanders of the Dalat cavalry and other military entrepreneurs for hire from disbanded Ottoman imperial army units. An irregular force of Bedouin tribesmen or local levies known as "Hawwara" were employed by al-Jazzar at certain times as well, and their units became more frequently commissioned following the mamluks' demise. Although paying these various military units was a massive expense, al-Jazzar paid his troops well, at least during the early part of his rule as ''wali'', in an effort to guarantee their loyalty and gratitude to him.
Al-Jazzar typically remained in Acre and dispatched his commanders and their units on campaigns. However, according to Philipp, "the truly great feats of the army occurred when al-Jazzar personally led his troops". Arab chroniclers from the 18th century often suggested that al-Jazzar raised new troops during each military campaign that he launched, although Philipp believes this to be unlikely, "but partially true, especially considering the high casualties of his troops in many lost battles". The number of soldiers in his permanent army versus those that were demobilized following a campaign is not clear, but a general consistent estimate from the chroniclers of the period suggests the total number of his permanent troops was between 7,000 and 8,000, while about 1,000 to 2,000 were typically dispatched at a time for most expeditions. However, these numbers by Arab chroniclers and French consuls were often based on guesses. At the approximate peak of his power in April 1785, a description by Renaudot of al-Jazzar's military procession from Acre to Damascus indicates the strength of his forces. The procession was described as consisting of 750 Maghrebi infantrymen, 200 Maghrebi cavalry, 540 Arnaut cavalry, and 300 Dalat cavalry, as well as 400 camels, 200 mules, some pulling artillery pieces, and several artillerymen. Each unit had a band and played its own music.
Al-Jazzar maintained a small naval force. In 1779, it consisted of two galiot
A galiot, galliot or galiote, was a small galley boat propelled by sail or oars. There are three different types of naval galiots that sailed on different seas.
A ''galiote'' was a type of French flat-bottom river boat or barge and also a flat- ...
s and two zebecs. The vessels did not possess basic technical equipment and so al-Jazzar had such equipment, including compasses, stolen off French vessels. They were largely commissioned to thwart raids against the Syrian coast by Maltese buccaneers. By 1789, his naval squadron consisted of three galiots, one zebec and two Dalmatia
Dalmatia (; hr, Dalmacija ; it, Dalmazia; see #Name, names in other languages) is one of the four historical region, historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of ...
n boats that were based in Acre, but at times were briefly anchored at Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, Tripoli or Latakia
, coordinates =
, elevation_footnotes =
, elevation_m = 11
, elevation_ft =
, postal_code_type =
, postal_code =
, area_code = Country code: 963 City code: 41
, geocode ...
. Al-Jazzar also owned three trading ships that routinely traveled between Acre and Damietta
Damietta ( arz, دمياط ' ; cop, ⲧⲁⲙⲓⲁϯ, Tamiati) is a port city and the capital of the Damietta Governorate in Egypt, a former bishopric and present multiple Catholic titular see. It is located at the Damietta branch, an easter ...
, a port city in Egypt.
Domestic policies
Al-Jazzar understood well that in order to maintain his political and military dominance in Syria, his rule needed a solid economic foundation.[Krämer, 2011, p]
62
Al-Jazzar acquired his income from a variety of means, namely taxes, commerce, tolls and extortion. As such, he continued and strengthened the lucrative monopolies on cotton and grain that were established by Zahir. In the 1780s, he expelled French cotton traders from Acre and Jaffa. Improvements in agricultural development and increased trade from Palestine bolstered the economic prosperity of certain enclaves of territory in his domain, particularly the coastal cities of Acre, Sidon and Beirut. He successfully suppressed marauding Bedouin tribes and thus increased security and maintained order in his territories. Although he attempted to attract immigrants, including Christians and Jews, to settle in his domains, al-Jazzar's institution and strict enforcement of a stringent and high taxation policy heavily burdened the population to the point that many emigrated from the areas he ruled to neighboring regions.
In a description of al-Jazzar's rule in Acre, Renaudot wrote that al-Jazzar was "violent, carried away by his temperament; though he is not inaccessible ... He is sometimes just, great, and generous, at other times furious and bloody."[Philipp 2013, p]
58
Commenting on his method of rule, al-Jazzar wrote "In order to govern the people of this land, one cannot be too severe. But if I strike with one hand, I recompense with the other. This is how I maintained for thirty years, in spite of everybody, complete possession of all he landbetween the Orontes and the estuary of the Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
".
Al-Jazzar maintained a significant level of popularity and familiarity with the inhabitants of Acre, and would often invite the town's poorer residents to hear their complaints and console them.[Philipp 2013, p]
59
According to Olivier, al-Jazzar would have "constantly enormous pots of rice in his palace for the destitute and the old" and had "money distributed to them every week with the greatest regularity". Al-Jazzar is reputed to have walked around with a mobile gallows in case anyone displeased him.[Acre – Past and Future](_blank)
French Orientalist Pierre Amédée Jaubert
Pierre Amédée Emilien Probe Jaubert (3 June 1779 – 28 January 1847) was a French diplomat, academic, orientalist, translator, politician, and traveler. He was Napoleon's "favourite orientalist adviser and dragoman".
Biography
Born in Aix ...
visited Acre in 1802 and wrote that al-Jazzar maintained a well-guarded prison whose doors he kept open so that residents could view the incarcerated prior to their torture or execution.
According to the contemporary chronicler Mikha'il Mishaqah, "even in the worst of his infamy, he maintained equal treatment of his subjects of different religions, for he would imprison Muslim ulema, Christian priests, Jewish rabbis and Druze elders alike." However, unlike during Zahir's reign when Muslims and Christians lived harmoniously, al-Jazzar did not attempt to put a stop to incidents of harassment against Christians in Nazareth by Muslim peasants who entered the town during Friday prayer
In Islam, Friday prayer or Congregational prayer ( ar, صَلَاة ٱلْجُمُعَة, ') is a prayer ('' ṣalāt'') that Muslims hold every Friday, after noon instead of the Zuhr prayer. Muslims ordinarily pray five times each day according ...
s. Following the French occupation and withdrawal from Palestine in 1799, local Muslim anger was directed at local Christians, with the Catholics of Ramla
Ramla or Ramle ( he, רַמְלָה, ''Ramlā''; ar, الرملة, ''ar-Ramleh'') is a city in the Central District of Israel. Today, Ramle is one of Israel's mixed cities, with both a significant Jewish and Arab populations.
The city was f ...
in particular being killed, plundered and forced to flee.[Haas 1934, p. 301.] Al-Jazzar did not make an effort to end these attacks and instead took advantage of popular anger to order attacks against the Christians of Nazareth and Jerusalem. These directives were aborted by al-Jazzar following a warning by British admiral Sidney Smith.
In the early years of his rule, al-Jazzar maintained an amiable relationship with the Jews of Galilee. As part of rehabilitation of Safad
Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevat ...
, which had been destroyed by the Near East earthquakes of 1759
The Near East earthquakes of 1759 were a series of devastating earthquakes that shook a large portion of the Levant in October and November of that year. This geographical crossroads in the Eastern Mediterranean were at the time under the rule ...
, he called on Jews to help settle the city, offering rate reductions in taxes and customs duties. However, following the 1799 siege of Acre by Napoleon, relations between al-Jazzar and the Jewish community became marked by extortion on al-Jazzar's part to make up for financial losses incurred during the war.[Barnay 1992, pp. 18–19.]
Personal life and characteristics
In his sixties, al-Jazzar was described as having a white beard and being agile and of muscular build. His native tongue was Bosnian, but he spoke Ottoman Turkish
Ottoman Turkish ( ota, لِسانِ عُثمانى, Lisân-ı Osmânî, ; tr, Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language used by the citizens of the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extens ...
and Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
with a distinctively Egyptian accent.[Philipp 2013, p]
60
Although he had previously been a frequent drinker, he quit consuming alcohol following his participation in the Hajj of 1791. Towards the end of his life, he maintained a seemingly austere lifestyle and refrained from extravagant spending, with the exception of his bribery of imperial officials and his building works in Acre. He would typically either don a standard Arab dress or a coarse cloth and turban. He would often meet guests sitting beneath a date palm or on a cushion-less board. He was an avid gardener and later took up paper artwork as a hobby with which he entertained his guests and his harem.
Philipp asserts that "there can be no doubt that there was a streak of cruelty and perhaps of sadism" and an "uncontrollable temper" in al-Jazzar, but that "cruelty was only one of his character traits." In addition to his brutality, his French contemporaries wrote that al-Jazzar was intelligent, talented, cunning, generous and boastful of these attributes and of his courage and physical stamina. He also possessed considerable engineering ability, although it is not known how he gained that knowledge.
Legacy
Al-Jazzar created a level of domestic security and economic prosperity in the land he ruled for nearly 30 years, mostly with the support of the Sublime Porte and occasionally in defiance. However, the socio-economic development and dynamism that occurred during his rule was reversed in later decades. Unlike his predecessor Zahir, al-Jazzar was a foreign ruler and a representative of the Ottoman state. Nonetheless, he pursued his own ambitions of autonomous rule from Acre, which was continued by his successors Sulayman Pasha and Abdullah Pasha (a son of one of al-Jazzar's senior ''mamluks'').
Although there are numerous biographical works and poems about al-Jazzar by his contemporaries and in the immediate decades after his death, little has been written about him in the modern era. In Palestinian historiography the native-born Zahir has been embraced, al-Jazzar, with his negative reputation, has been ignored. Neither has al-Jazzar been adopted by Bosnian nationalists, likely due to his distance from Bosnian history. According to Philipp, the issue of al-Jazzar's integration into national historiography is part of a broader issue of the historiographic integration of the Ottoman-era Mamluks, especially the Mamluk rulers of Egypt, who in the modern era were deemed as elite foreigners that dominated the local population and only in recent years have been discussed in detail by local historians.
Building works
El-Jazzar Mosque
When al-Jazzar established himself in Acre in 1775, the city contained four mosques, three of which were built during Zahir's reign and one prior.[Philipp 2013, p]
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Three years later, al-Jazzar had a fifth mosque built, known then as the "White Mosque" or the "Friday Mosque",[Sharon, p. 49.] but known today as the el-Jazzar Mosque. According to Philipp, it was the "largest and most beautiful" of Acre's mosques. Although al-Jazzar had no architectural background, he was the architect of the mosque and supervised the entire complex's construction.[Sharon, p. 47.]
The mosque was modeled on the mosques of Constantinople and was built across from the seraglio, which served as both al-Jazzar's administrative headquarters and residence. The mosque complex contained the mosque itself, which is a square building topped by a dome, a portico
A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls. This idea was widely used in ancient Greece and has influenced many cult ...
at the entrance of the mosque, which consisted of five domes and arches supported by free-standing marble column
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. ...
s, a large courtyard with a sundial
A sundial is a horological device that tells the time of day (referred to as civil time in modern usage) when direct sunlight shines by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word, it consists of a flat ...
, and vaulted chambers on the courtyard's eastern, western and northern sides, which are separated from the courtyard by an arcade
Arcade most often refers to:
* Arcade game, a coin-operated game machine
** Arcade cabinet, housing which holds an arcade game's hardware
** Arcade system board, a standardized printed circuit board
* Amusement arcade, a place with arcade games
* ...
of arches and columns consisting of white marble and granite. The various vaulted chambers housed the central Islamic court of Acre, an Islamic theological academy, a library and lodging for pilgrims and the academy's pupils. The building material used for the complex came from ancient ruins in Acre, Caesarea
Caesarea () ( he, קֵיסָרְיָה, ), ''Keysariya'' or ''Qesarya'', often simplified to Keisarya, and Qaysaria, is an affluent town in north-central Israel, which inherits its name and much of its territory from the ancient city of Caesare ...
and Atlit
Atlit ( he, עַתְלִית, ar, عتليت) is a coastal town located south of Haifa, Israel. The community is in the Hof HaCarmel Regional Council in the Haifa District of Israel.
Off the coast of Atlit is a submerged Neolithic village. Atli ...
.[Sharon, p. 50.]
Fortifications
Following Napoleon's failed siege, al-Jazzar repaired the relatively thin and vertical wall around Acre, built by Zahir, and added a new, extensive wall around it. Al-Jazzar's fortifications included a significantly larger wall than Zahir's wall and one which was sloped and thus better placed to defend against the newer artillery of Jazzar's era. The fortifications also included a moat
A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places moats evolved into more extensive ...
system and towers.
In the seraglio, al-Jazzar built the ''diwankhanah'' (guest wing), a spacious area which consisted of three palaces.[Sharon, p. 60.] The largest palace was where al-Jazzar spent most of his time in the day and occasional evenings. It also had a hidden door to the harem, the second major component of the seraglio which was separated from the ''diwankhanah'' by a high wall. Only al-Jazzar had the keys to the door of the harem and kept them on his person at all times.
Commercial buildings
Al-Jazzar attached significant importance to Acre's growing commercial economy and had the large Khan al-Umdan
Baháʼí name: Khán-i-'Avámid
, image = Akko BW 13.JPG
, caption =
, map_type =
, altitude =
, building_type = Caravanserai
, architectural_style = Ottoman
, structural_system ...
caravanserai
A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was a roadside inn where travelers ( caravaners) could rest and recover from the day's journey. Caravanserais supported the flow of commerce, information and people across the network of trade routes covering ...
built in 1784 and enlarged the Khan al-Shawarda, which was built by Zahir in the 1760s.[Philipp 2013, p]
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Al-Jazzar also commissioned the construction of the Suq al-Jazzar bazaar
A bazaar () or souk (; also transliterated as souq) is a marketplace consisting of multiple small Market stall, stalls or shops, especially in the Middle East, the Balkans, North Africa and India. However, temporary open markets elsewhere, suc ...
and a number of relatively minor commercial structures as well. To supply the city with fresh water, al-Jazzar launched major efforts to build an aqueduct that transported water from al-Kabri
Al-Kabri ( ar, الكابري) was a Palestinian Arab town in the Galilee located northeast of Acre. It was captured by the Haganah 21 May 1948, a week after the State of Israel was declared. In 1945, it had a population of 1,520Khalidi, 1992, p ...
into Acre. French forces destroyed the aqueduct during their siege, but it was rebuilt by Sulayman Pasha.
In 1781, al-Jazzar had a large '' hamaam'' (public bathhouse) built in Acre.[Philipp 2013, p]
27
The bathhouse is known as "Hammam al-Pasha" and it is among the largest and ornate Ottoman-era bathhouses in Israel. Hammam al-Basha was dedicated as a ''waqf
A waqf ( ar, وَقْف; ), also known as hubous () or '' mortmain'' property is an inalienable charitable endowment under Islamic law. It typically involves donating a building, plot of land or other assets for Muslim religious or charitabl ...
'' (endowment) to the el-Jazzar Mosque and is built of granite, marble, porphyry and painted tiles. The ''hammam'' closed in the wake of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War
Events January
* January 1
** The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is inaugurated.
** The Constitution of New Jersey (later subject to amendment) goes into effect.
** The railways of Britain are nationalized, to form British ...
, became a museum run by the Municipality of Acre in 1954 and closed again in the 1990s.
References
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Pasha, Jazzar
18th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
19th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire
Political people from the Ottoman Empire
1804 deaths
Ottoman governors of Damascus
Year of birth unknown
Ottoman governors of Sidon
18th-century births
Ottoman military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Ottoman rulers of Galilee