Insecticides are substances used to kill

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs ...

s. They include ovicides and

larvicides A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes. Larvicides may be contact poisons, stomach poisons, growth regulators, ...

used against insect eggs and

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...

e, respectively. Insecticides are used in

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...

medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pract ...

, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain. Insecticides can be classified into two major groups: systemic insecticides, which have residual or long term activity; and contact insecticides, which have no residual activity. The

mode of action A mode of action (MoA) describes a functional or anatomical change, resulting from the exposure of a living organism to a substance. In comparison, a mechanism of action (MOA) describes such changes at the molecular level. A mode of action is impor ...

describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest. It provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action can be important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals. Insecticides may be repellent or non-repellent. Social insects such as ants cannot detect non-repellents and readily crawl through them. As they return to the nest they take insecticide with them and transfer it to their nestmates. Over time, this eliminates all of the ants including the queen. This is slower than some other methods, but usually completely eradicates the ant colony. Insecticides are distinct from non-insecticidal repellents, which repel but do not kill.

Type of activity

Systemic insecticides

Systemic insecticides become incorporated and distributed systemically throughout the whole plant. When insects feed on the plant, they ingest the insecticide. Systemic insecticides produced by

transgenic A transgene is a gene that has been transferred naturally, or by any of a number of genetic engineering techniques, from one organism to another. The introduction of a transgene, in a process known as transgenesis, has the potential to change the ...

plants are called plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). For instance, a gene that codes for a specific ''

Bacillus thuringiensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (or Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. ''B. thuringiensis'' also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflie ...

'' biocidal protein was introduced into corn (

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...

) and other species. The plant manufactures the protein, which kills the insect when consumed.

Contact insecticides

Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact. These can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include the commonly used

sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...

, and the less commonly used arsenates,

copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...

and

fluorine Fluorine is a chemical element with the symbol F and atomic number 9. It is the lightest halogen and exists at standard conditions as a highly toxic, pale yellow diatomic gas. As the most electronegative reactive element, it is extremely reacti ...

compounds. Contact insecticides can also be organic insecticides, i.e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, and comprising the largest numbers of pesticides used today. Or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil, etc. Contact insecticides usually have no residual activity. Efficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as

aerosol An aerosol is a suspension (chemistry), suspension of fine solid particles or liquid Drop (liquid), droplets in air or another gas. Aerosols can be natural or Human impact on the environment, anthropogenic. Examples of natural aerosols are fog o ...

s often improving performance.

Synthetic insecticides

Development

Organochlorides

The best known organochloride,

DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochloride. Originally developed as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. ...

, was created by Swiss scientist Paul Müller. For this discovery, he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. DDT was introduced in 1944. It functions by opening

sodium channel Sodium channels are integral membrane proteins that form ion channels, conducting sodium ions (Na+) through a cell's membrane. They belong to the superfamily of cation channels and can be classified according to the trigger that opens the channel ...

s in the insect's nerve cells. The contemporaneous rise of the chemical industry facilitated large-scale production of DDT and related chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Organophosphates

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered a ...

s are another large class of contact insecticides. These also target the insect's nervous system. Organophosphates interfere with the

enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. A ...

acetylcholinesterase Acetylcholinesterase (HGNC symbol ACHE; EC 3.1.1.7; systematic name acetylcholine acetylhydrolase), also known as AChE, AChase or acetylhydrolase, is the primary cholinesterase in the body. It is an enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that a ...

and other cholinesterases, disrupting nerve impulses and killing or disabling the insect. Organophosphate insecticides and

chemical warfare Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare, biological warfare and radiological warfare, which together make up CBRN, the military acronym ...

nerve agents (such as

sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB G-series, "B"">Nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for Nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic synthetic organophosphorus compound.tabun,

soman Soman (or GD, EA 1210, Zoman, PFMP, A-255, systematic name: ''O''-pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridate) is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a nerve agent, interfering with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system by inhibiti ...

, and VX) work in the same way. Organophosphates have a cumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity. In the US, organophosphate use declined with the rise of substitutes.

Carbamates

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formally o ...

insecticides have similar mechanisms to organophosphates, but have a much shorter duration of action and are somewhat less toxic.

Pyrethroids

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and ''Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and hou ...

pesticides mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound

pyrethrin The pyrethrins are a class of organic compounds normally derived from ''Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium'' that have potent Insecticide, insecticidal activity by targeting the nervous systems of insects. Pyrethrin naturally occurs in chrysanthemum f ...

, the biopesticide found in '' Pyrethrum'' (Now ''

Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center ...

'' and '' Tanacetum'') species. These compounds are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators and are less toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests.

Neonicotinoids

Neonicotinoids are synthetic analogues of the natural insecticide

nicotine Nicotine is a natural product, naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and ''Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreational drug use, recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As ...

(with much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are

acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Part ...

receptor

agonist An agonist is a chemical that activates a receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an antagonist blocks the action of the ago ...

s. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, with rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and

soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former te ...

treatments. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal ( aphids), disoriented movement, paralysis and death. Imidacloprid may be the most common. It has recently come under scrutiny for allegedly pernicious effects on honeybees and its potential to increase the susceptibility of rice to

planthopper A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, a group exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment ...

attacks.

Phenylpyrazoles

Phenylpyrazole insecticides Phenylpyrazole insecticides are a class of chemically-related broad-spectrum insecticides. The chemical structures of these insecticides are characterized by a central pyrazole ring with a phenyl group attached to one of the nitrogen atoms of the ...

, such as

fipronil Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. Fipronil disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the ligand-gated ion channel of the GABAA receptor and glutamate-gated chloride (GluCl ...

are a class of synthetic insecticides that operate by interfering with GABA receptors.

Butenolides

Butenolide

pesticide Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and lampri ...

s are a novel group of chemicals, similar to neonicotinoids in their mode of action, that have so far only one representative: flupyradifurone. They are

receptor

s, like neonicotinoids, but with a different pharmacophore. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, applied as sprays, drenches, seed and

treatments. Although the classic risk assessment considered this insecticide group (and flupyradifurone specifically) safe for

bee Bees are winged insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their roles in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the western honey bee, for producing honey. Bees are a monophyly, monophyletic lineage within the ...

s, novel research has raised concern on their lethal and sublethal effects, alone or in combination with other chemicals or environmental factors.

Ryanoids/diamides

Diamides are synthetic

ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from ''Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely related ...

analogues with the same mode of action as

ryanodine Ryanodine is a poisonous diterpenoid found in the South American plant ''Ryania speciosa'' (Salicaceae). It was originally used as an insecticide. The compound has extremely high affinity to the open-form ryanodine receptor, a group of calcium ch ...

, a naturally occurring insecticide extracted from ''Ryania speciosa'' ( Salicaceae). They bind to

calcium channel A calcium channel is an ion channel which shows selective permeability to calcium ions. It is sometimes synonymous with voltage-gated calcium channel, although there are also ligand-gated calcium channels. Comparison tables The following tables e ...

s in cardiac and skeletal muscle, blocking nerve transmission. The first insecticide from this class to be registered was Rynaxypyr, generic name

chlorantraniliprole Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr) is an insecticide of the ryanoid classes. Chlorantraniliprole was developed world-wide by DuPont and belongs to a class of selective insecticides featuring a novel mode of action to control a range of pests belong ...

Insect growth regulators

Insect growth regulator An insect growth regulator (IGR) is a substance (chemical) that inhibits the life cycle of an insect. IGRs are typically used as insecticides to control populations of harmful insect pests such as cockroaches and fleas. Advantages Many IGRs are la ...

(IGR) is a term coined to include insect

hormone A hormone (from the Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required ...

mimics and an earlier class of chemicals, the benzoylphenyl ureas, which inhibit

chitin Chitin ( C8 H13 O5 N)n ( ) is a long-chain polymer of ''N''-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is probably the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chit ...

(exoskeleton)

biosynthesis Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into other compounds, or joined to form macromolecules. ...

in insects

Diflubenzuron Diflubenzuron is an insecticide of the benzoylurea class. It is used in forest management and on field crops to selectively control insect pests, particularly forest tent caterpillar moths, boll weevils, gypsy moths, and other types of moths. I ...

is a member of the latter class, used primarily to control

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...

s that are pests. The most successful insecticides in this class are the juvenoids ( juvenile hormone analogues). Of these, methoprene is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats and is approved by

World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...

(WHO) for use in drinking water

cistern A cistern (Middle English ', from Latin ', from ', "box", from Greek ', "basket") is a waterproof receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater. Cisterns are distinguished from wells by t ...

s to combat

malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...

. Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including mosquitoes, several

fly Flies are insects of the Order (biology), order Diptera, the name being derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwing ...

species, and

flea Flea, the common name for the order Siphonaptera, includes 2,500 species of small flightless insects that live as external parasites of mammals and birds. Fleas live by ingesting the blood of their hosts. Adult fleas grow to about long, a ...

s. Two very similar products,

hydroprene Hydroprene is an insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is used against cockroaches, beetles, and moths. Products using hydroprene include Gencor, Gentrol, and Raid Max Sterilizer Discs. Hydropene is a synthetic juvenile hormone Ju ...

and kinoprene, are used for controlling species such as

cockroach Cockroaches (or roaches) are a paraphyletic group of insects belonging to Blattodea, containing all members of the group except termites. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Some species are well-known as ...

es and white flies. Methoprene was registered with the EPA in 1975. Virtually no reports of resistance have been filed. A more recent type of IGR is the

ecdysone Ecdysone is a prohormone of the major insect molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is secreted from the prothoracic glands. It is of steroidal structure. Insect molting hormones (ecdysone and its homologues) are generally called ecdysteroids. ...

agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Th ...

and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders.

Biological pesticides

More natural insecticides have been interesting targets of research for two main reasons, firstly because the most common chemicals are losing effectiveness, and secondly due to their toxic effects upon the environment. Many organic compounds are already produced by plants for the purpose of defending the host plant from predation, and can be turned toward human ends. Four extracts of plants are in commercial use: pyrethrum, rotenone,

neem oil Neem oil, also known as margosa oil, is a vegetable oil pressed from the fruits and seeds of the neem (''Azadirachta indica''), a tree which is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and has been introduced to many other areas in the tropics. It i ...

, and various

essential oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...

s A trivial case is tree rosin, which is a natural insecticide. Specifically, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the defense response against insect attack and fungal

pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...

infection. Many fragrances, e.g. oil of wintergreen, are in fact antifeedants.

Other biological approaches

Plant-incorporated protectants

= ''Bacillus thuringiensis''

= Transgenic crops that act as insecticides began in 1996 with a

genetically modified potato A genetically modified potato is a potato that has had its genes modified, using genetic engineering. Goals of modification include introducing pest resistance, tweaking the amounts of certain chemicals produced by the plant, and to prevent br ...

that produced

Cry protein Delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) are pore-forming toxins produced by '' Bacillus thuringiensis'' species of bacteria. They are useful for their insecticidal action and are the primary toxin produced by Bt maize/corn. During spore formation t ...

s, derived from the bacterium ''

'', which is toxic to beetle

larvae A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...

such as the Colorado potato beetle.

= RNA interference

= The technique has been expanded to include the use of RNAi insecticides which fatally silence crucial insect genes. (RNAi likely originally evolved as a defense against

virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1 ...

es.) This was first demonstrated by Baum et al 2007, who incorporated a V-APTase as a protectant into transgenic ''Zea mays'' and demonstrated effectiveness against ''

Diabrotica virgifera virgifera The Western corn rootworm, ''Diabrotica virgifera virgifera'', is one of the most devastating corn rootworm species in North America, especially in the midwestern corn-growing areas such as Iowa. A related species, the Northern corn rootworm, ''D ...

''. This suggests oral delivery against

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...

as a whole will probably be effective. Similar studies have followed Baum's technique to protect with

dsRNA Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) are nucleic acids. Along with lipids, proteins, and carbohydra ...

s targeting detox, especially insect P450s. Bolognesi et al 2012 is one of these following studies, however they found dsRNA to be processed into siRNAs by the plants (in this case '' Solanum tuberosum'') themselves, and siRNAs to be less effectively taken up by insect cells. Bolognesi therefore produced additional transgenic ''S. tuberosum'' plants which instead produced ''longer'' dsRNAs ''in the

chloroplast A chloroplast () is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it in ...

s'', which naturally accumulate dsRNAs but do not have the machinery to convert them to siRNAs. Midgut cells in many larvae take up the molecules and help spread the signal. The technology can target only insects that have the silenced sequence, as was demonstrated when a particular RNAi affected only one of four fruit fly species. The technique is expected to replace many other insecticides, which are losing effectiveness due to the spread of

insecticide resistance Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens su ...

= Venom

Spider venom The pathophysiology of a spider bite is due to the effect of its venom. A spider envenomation occurs whenever a spider injects venom into the skin. Not all spider bites inject venom – a dry bite, and the amount of venom injected can vary based on ...

peptide

fraction A fraction (from la, fractus, "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight ...

s are another class of potential transgenic traits which could expand the

repertoire and help to answer the resistance question.

Enzymes

Many plants exude substances to repel insects. Premier examples are substances activated by the

myrosinase. This enzyme converts

glucosinolate Glucosinolates are natural components of many pungent plants such as mustard, cabbage, and horseradish. The pungency of those plants is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates when the plant material is chewed, cut, or otherwise damaged. T ...

s to various compounds that are toxic to herbivorous insects. One product of this enzyme is

allyl isothiocyanate Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is an organosulfur compound (formula CH2CHCH2NCS). This colorless oil is responsible for the pungent taste of mustard, radish, horseradish, and wasabi. This pungency and the lachrymatory effect of AITC are mediated thr ...

, the pungent ingredient in

horseradish sauce Horseradish (''Armoracia rusticana'', syn. ''Cochlearia armoracia'') is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide ...

The myrosinase is released only upon crushing the flesh of horseradish. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant as well as the insect, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.

Bacterial

'' is a bacterial disease that affects

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...

ns and some other insects. Toxins produced by strains of this bacterium are used as a

larvicide A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes. Larvicides may be contact poisons, stomach poisons, growth regulators, o ...

against

s, beetles, and mosquitoes. Toxins from '' Saccharopolyspora spinosa'' are isolated from fermentations and sold as

Spinosad Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species ''Saccharopolyspora spinosa''. The genus ''Saccharopolyspora'' was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish-pink ae ...

. Because these toxins have little effect on other

organism In biology, an organism () is any living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy into groups such as multicellular animals, plants, and ...

s, they are considered more

environmentally friendly Environment friendly processes, or environmental-friendly processes (also referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green), are sustainability and marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies that clai ...

than synthetic pesticides. The toxin from ''B. thuringiensis'' ( Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of

genetic engineering Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including t ...

Other

Other biological insecticides include products based on

entomopathogenic fungi An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can kill or seriously disable insects. Typical life cycle These fungi usually attach to the external body surface of insects in the form of microscopic spores (usually asexual, mitosporic spores als ...

(e.g., ''

Beauveria bassiana ''Beauveria bassiana'' is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a parasite on various arthropod species, causing white muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is used as a biological ...

'', '' Metarhizium anisopliae''),

nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...

s (e.g., '' Steinernema feltiae'') and

es (e.g., ''

Cydia pomonella The codling moth (''Cydia pomonella'') is a member of the Lepidopteran family Tortricidae. They are major pests to agricultural crops, mainly fruits such as apples and pears. Because the larvae are not able to feed on leaves, they are highly dep ...

'' granulovirus).

Synthetic insecticide and natural insecticides

A major emphasis of organic chemistry is the development of chemical tools to enhance agricultural productivity. Insecticides represent a major area of emphasis. Many of the major insecticides are inspired by biological analogues. Many others are not found in nature.

Environmental harm

Effects on nontarget species

Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it.Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL
Wildlife & pesticides - Peanuts
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 14 October 2007. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.

DDT

The development of DDT was motivated by desire to replace more dangerous or less effective alternatives. DDT was introduced to replace

lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...

and

arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, but ...

-based compounds, which were in widespread use in the early 1940s. DDT was brought to public attention by Rachel Carson's book '' Silent Spring''. One side-effect of DDT is to reduce the thickness of shells on the eggs of predatory birds. The shells sometimes become too thin to be viable, reducing bird populations. This occurs with DDT and related compounds due to the process of

bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or eliminated ...

, wherein the chemical, due to its stability and fat solubility, accumulates in organisms' fatty tissues. Also, DDT may biomagnify, which causes progressively higher concentrations in the body fat of animals farther up the food chain. The near-worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT and related chemicals has allowed some of these birds, such as the

peregrine falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan bird of prey (Bird of prey, raptor) in the family (biology), family Falco ...

, to recover in recent years. A number of organochlorine pesticides have been banned from most uses worldwide. Globally they are controlled via the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants. These include: aldrin, chlordane, DDT,

dieldrin Dieldrin is an organochloride originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to fo ...

, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene.

Runoff and Percolation

Solid bait and liquid insecticides, especially if improperly applied in a location, get moved by water flow. Often, this happens through nonpoint sources where runoff carries insecticides in to larger bodies of water. As snow melts and rainfall moves over and through the ground, the water picks applied insecticides and deposits them in to larger bodies of water, rivers, wetlands, underground sources of previously potable water, and percolates in to watersheds. This runoff and percolation of insecticides can effect the quality of water sources, harming the natural ecology and thus, indirectly effect human populations through biomagnification and bioaccumulation.

Pollinator decline

Insecticides can kill bees and may be a cause of

pollinator decline Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinator ...

, the loss of bees that pollinate plants, and colony collapse disorder (CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive or Western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators means a reduction in

crop yield In agriculture, the yield is a measurement of the amount of a crop grown, or product such as wool, meat or milk produced, per unit area of land. The seed ratio is another way of calculating yields. Innovations, such as the use of fertilizer, the c ...

s. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect bee foraging behavior. However, research into the causes of CCD was inconclusive as of June 2007.

Bird decline

Besides the effects of direct consumption of insecticides, populations of insectivorous birds decline due to the collapse of their prey populations. Spraying of especially wheat and corn in Europe is believed to have caused an 80 per cent decline in flying insects, which in turn has reduced local bird populations by one to two thirds.

Alternatives

Instead of using chemical insecticides to avoid crop damage caused by insects, there are many alternative options available now that can protect farmers from major economic losses. Some of them are: #

Breeding Breeding is sexual reproduction that produces offspring, usually animals or plants. It can only occur between a male and a female animal or plant. Breeding may refer to: * Animal husbandry, through selected specimens such as dogs, horses, and rab ...

crops resistant, or at least less susceptible, to pest attacks. # Releasing

predators Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the ...

parasitoid In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host (biology), host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionarily stable str ...

s, or

s to control pest populations as a form of biological control. # Chemical control like releasing pheromones into the field to confuse the insects into not being able to find mates and reproduce. #

Integrated Pest Management Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates both chemical and non-chemical practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the econ ...

: using multiple techniques in tandem to achieve optimal results. # Push-pull technique: intercropping with a "push" crop that repels the pest, and planting a "pull" crop on the boundary that attracts and traps it.

Examples

Organochlorides

* Aldrin * Chlordane * Chlordecone *

Dieldrin Dieldrin is an organochloride originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to fo ...

Endosulfan Endosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being phased out globally. It became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor. ...

* Endrin * Heptachlor *

Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an organochloride with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt. It has been banned globally under the Sto ...

Lindane Lindane, also known as ''gamma''-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), gammaxene, Gammallin and benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and ...

(gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) * Methoxychlor * Mirex *

Pentachlorophenol Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names. It can be found as pure PCP, or as the sodium salt of PCP, the latter of which diss ...

* TDE

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered a ...
s

Acephate Acephate is an organophosphate foliar and soil insecticide of moderate persistence with residual systemic activity of about 10–15 days at the recommended use rate. It is used primarily for control of aphids, including resistant species, in veget ...

Azinphos-methyl Azinphos-methyl (Guthion) (also spelled azinophos-methyl) is a broad spectrum organophosphate insecticide manufactured by Bayer CropScience, Gowan Co., and Makhteshim Agan. Like other pesticides in this class, it owes its insecticidal properties ( ...

Bensulide Bensulide is a selective organophosphate herbicide. It is one of a few organophosphate compounds that are used as an herbicide. Most of the others are used as insecticides. It is used on vegetable crops such as carrots, cucumbers, peppers, and ...

* Chlorethoxyfos * Chlorpyrifos * Chlorpyriphos-methyl *

Diazinon Diazinon (IUPAC name: ''O'',''O''-Diethyl ''O''- -methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-ylphosphorothioate, INN - Dimpylate), a colorless to dark brown liquid, is a thiophosphoric acid ester developed in 1952 by Ciba-Geigy, a Swiss chemical company ( ...

Dichlorvos Dichlorvos (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate, commonly abbreviated as an DDVP) is an organophosphate widely used as an insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored products from insects. The compound has bee ...

(DDVP) *

Dicrotophos Dicrotophos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides a ...

* Dimethoate *

Disulfoton Disulfoton is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. It is manufactured under the name Di-Syston by Bayer CropScience. Disulfoton in its pure form is a colorless oil but the technical product used in vegetable ...

Ethoprop Ethoprophos (or ethoprop) is an organophosphate ester with the formula C8H19O2PS2. It is a clear yellow to colourless liquid that has a characteristic mercaptan-like odour. It is used as an insecticide and nematicide and it is an acetylcholinest ...

Fenamiphos Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides ar ...

* Fenitrothion *

Fenthion Fenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition. Due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as ...

* Fosthiazate *

Malathion Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. In the USSR, it was known as carbophos, in New Zealand and Australia as maldison and in South Africa as mercaptothion. Pesticide use Malathion is a pesti ...

* Methamidophos *

Methidathion Methidathion is an organophosphate insecticide; its use is banned in the European Union and USA. Methidathion has been used as an insecticide in many countries to control caterpillars of '' Indarbela quadrinotata''. In 2012, residues were foun ...

Mevinphos Mevinphos is an organophosphate insecticide that acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to control insects in a wide range of crops. It is most commonly used for the control of chewing and sucking insects, as well as spider mites. Common s ...

Monocrotophos Monocrotophos is an organophosphate insecticide. It is acutely toxic to birds and humans, so it has been banned in the U.S., the E.U., India and many other countries. Uses Monocrotophos is principally used in agriculture, as a relatively cheap ...

Naled Naled (Dibrom) is an organophosphate insecticide. Its chemical name is dimethyl 1,2-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethylphosphate. Naled is stable in anhydrous condition and must be stored away from light. It must also be stored under normal pressure a ...

Omethoate Omethoate (C5H12NO4PS) is a systemic organophosphorous insecticide and acaricide available as a soluble concentrate. It is used to control insects and mites in horticulture and agriculture, as well as in the home garden. It is an irritant to the ...

Oxydemeton-methyl Oxydemeton-methyl is an organothiophosphate insecticide. It is primarily used to control aphids, mites, and thrip Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mou ...

Parathion Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target organisms, incl ...

Parathion-methyl Parathion methyl, or methyl parathion, is an organophosphate insecticide, possessing an organothiophosphate group. It is structurally very similar to parathion-ethyl. It is not allowed for sale and import in nearly all countries around the worl ...

Phorate Phorate is an organophosphate used as an insecticide and acaricide. Overview At normal conditions, it is a pale yellow mobile liquid poorly soluble in water but readily soluble in organic solvents. It is relatively stable and hydrolyses only at v ...

Phosalone Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhône-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration in December 2006. The median lethal dose of oral exposure in r ...

Phosmet Phosmet is a phthalimide-derived, non-systemic, organophosphate insecticide used on plants and animals. It is mainly used on apple trees for control of codling moth, though it is also used on a wide range of fruit crops, ornamentals, and vines fo ...

* Phostebupirim *

Phoxim Phoxim is an organophosphate insecticide that is produced by the Bayer corporation. It is an analogous dimethyl ester and an organothiophosphate acaricide. It is allowed for use in limited applications in the European Union. It is banned for ...

* Pirimiphos-methyl * Profenofos *

Terbufos Terbufos is a chemical compound used in insecticides and nematicides. Terbufos is part of the chemical family of organophosphates. It is a clear, colourless to pale yellow or reddish-brown liquid and sold commercially as granulate. History Terb ...

Tetrachlorvinphos Tetrachlorvinphos is an organophosphate insecticide used to kill fleas and ticks. History Tetrachlorvinphos was initially registered for use in the United States in 1966 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Tetrachlorvinphos was originally re ...

* Tribufos *

Trichlorfon Metrifonate (INN) or trichlorfon (USAN) is an irreversible organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is a prodrug which is activated non-enzymatically into the active agent dichlorvos. It is used as an insecticide. According to the US ...

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formally o ...
s

Aldicarb Aldicarb is a carbamate insecticide which is the active substance in the pesticide Temik. It is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and leafminers, but is primarily used as a nematicide. Aldicarb is a cholineste ...

Bendiocarb Bendiocarb is an acutely toxic carbamate insecticide used in public health and agriculture and is effective against a wide range of nuisance and disease vector insects. Many bendiocarb products are or were sold under the tradenames "Ficam" and "T ...

Carbofuran Carbofuran is a carbamate pesticide, widely used around the world to control insects on a wide variety of field crops, including potatoes, corn and soybeans. It is a systemic insecticide, which means that the plant absorbs it through the r ...

* Carbaryl * Dioxacarb *

Fenobucarb Fenobucarb is a carbamate insecticide, also widely known as BPMC. A pale yellow or pale red liquid, insoluble in water; used as an agricultural insecticide, especially for control of Hemipteran pests, on rice and cotton Cotton is a soft, f ...

Fenoxycarb Fenoxycarb is a carbamate insect growth regulator. It has a low toxicity for bees, birds, and humans, but is toxic to fish. The oral LD50 for rats is greater than . Fenoxycarb is non-neurotoxic and does not have the same mode of action as ot ...

* Isoprocarb *

Methomyl Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide introduced in 1966. It is highly toxic to humans, livestock, pets, and wildlife. The EU and UK imposed a pesticide residue limit of 20 µg/kg for apples and oranges. Methomyl is a common active ingredient in c ...

Oxamyl Oxamyl is a chemical used as a pesticide that comes in two forms: granulated and liquid. The granulated form has been banned in the United States. It is commonly sold under the trade name Vydate. It is classified as an extremely hazardous subst ...

Propoxur Propoxur (Baygon) is a carbamate non-systemic insecticide introduced in 1959 with a fast knockdown and long residual effect used against turf, forestry, and household pests and fleas. It is also used in pest control for other domestic animals, ''A ...

* 2-(1-Methylpropyl)phenyl methylcarbamate

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and ''Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and hou ...
s

* Allethrin * Bifenthrin *

Cyhalothrin Cyhalothrin is the ISO common name for an organic compound that, in specific isomeric forms, is used as a pesticide. It is a pyrethroid, a class of synthetic insecticides that mimic the structure and properties of the naturally occurring insectici ...

, Lambda-cyhalothrin *

Cypermethrin Cypermethrin (CP) is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily degraded ...

Cyfluthrin Cyfluthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide and common household pesticide. It is a complex organic compound and the commercial product is sold as a mixture of isomers. Like most pyrethroids (MoA 3a), it is highly toxic to fish and invertebrates, but ...

Deltamethrin Deltamethrin is a pyrethroid ester insecticide. Deltamethrin plays a key role in controlling malaria vectors, and is used in the manufacture of long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets; however, resistance of mosquitos and bed bugs to deltamethrin ...

Etofenprox Etofenprox is a pyrethroid derivative which is used as an insecticide. Mitsui Chemicals Agro Inc. is the main manufacturer of the chemical. It is also used as an ingredient in flea medication for cats and dogs. General uses Etofenprox is an inse ...

* Fenvalerate *

Permethrin Permethrin is a medication and an insecticide. As a medication, it is used to treat scabies and lice. It is applied to the skin as a cream or lotion. As an insecticide, it can be sprayed onto clothing or mosquito nets to kill the insects that t ...

Phenothrin Phenothrin, also called sumithrin and d-phenothrin, is a synthetic pyrethroid that kills adult fleas and ticks. It has also been used to kill head lice in humans. d-Phenothrin is used as a component of aerosol insecticides for domestic use. It is ...

Prallethrin Prallethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. Prallethrin 1.6% w/w liquid vaporizer is a repellent insecticide which is generally used for the control of mosquitoes in the household. Products It is marketed as a mosquito repellent by Godrej as "Go ...

* Resmethrin *

Tetramethrin Tetramethrin is a potent synthetic insecticide in the pyrethroid family. It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point of 65-80 °C. The commercial product is a mixture of stereoisomer In stereochemistry, stereoisomerism, or spatial i ...

Tralomethrin Tralomethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. Tralomethrin has potent insecticidal properties; it kills by modifying the gating kinetics of the sodium channels in neurons, increasing the length of time the channel remains open after a stimulus, ther ...

Transfluthrin Transfluthrin is a fast-acting pyrethroid insecticide with low persistency. It has the molecular formula C15H12Cl2F4O2. Transfluthrin can be used in the indoor environment against flies, mosquitoes, moths and cockroaches. It is a relatively vo ...

Neonicotinoids

* Acetamiprid * Clothianidin *

Dinotefuran Dinotefuran is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class developed by Mitsui Chemicals for control of insect pests such as aphids, whiteflies, thrips, leafhoppers, leafminers, sawflies, mole cricket, white grubs, lacebugs, billbugs, beetles, m ...

* Imidacloprid *

Nithiazine Nithiazine is a nitromethylene neonicotinoid insecticide. It is irritating to the eyes and skin, and is moderately toxic to mammals. Nithiazine does not act as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs) als ...

Thiacloprid Thiacloprid is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. Its mechanism of action is similar to other neonicotinoids and involves disruption of the insect's nervous system by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Thiacloprid was develop ...

* Thiamethoxam

Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from ''Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely related ...
s

Chlorantraniliprole Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr) is an insecticide of the ryanoid classes. Chlorantraniliprole was developed world-wide by DuPont and belongs to a class of selective insecticides featuring a novel mode of action to control a range of pests belong ...

Cyantraniliprole Cyantraniliprole is an insecticide of the ryanoid class, specifically a diamide insecticide (IRAC MoA group 28). It is approved for use in the United States, Canada, China, and India. Because of its uncommon mechanism of action as a ryanoid, it ...

Flubendiamide Flubendiamide is a synthetic petrochemical pesticide in of the ryanoid class which acts at receptors in insect muscles. The chemical contains a perfluorinated functional group. Regulation The United States Environmental Protection Agency regist ...

Insect growth regulators

Benzoylurea Benzoylureas are chemical derivatives of ''N''-benzoyl-''N′''-phenylurea (benzoylurea). They are best known for their use as insecticides. They act as insect growth regulators by inhibiting synthesis of chitin in the insect's body. One o ...

s **

Flufenoxuron Flufenoxuron is an insecticide that belongs to the benzoylurea chitin synthesis inhibitor group, which also includes diflubenzuron, triflumuron, and lufenuron. Flufenoxuron is a white crystalline powder. It is insoluble in water, is not flamm ...

Cyromazine Cyromazine is a triazine insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is a cyclopropyl derivative of melamine. Cyromazine works by affecting the nervous system of the immature larval stages of certain insects.Methoprene *

Hydroprene Hydroprene is an insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is used against cockroaches, beetles, and moths. Products using hydroprene include Gencor, Gentrol, and Raid Max Sterilizer Discs. Hydropene is a synthetic juvenile hormone Ju ...

* Tebufenozide

Derived from plants or microbes

* Anabasine *

Anethole Anethole (also known as anise camphor) is an organic compound that is widely used as a flavoring substance. It is a derivative of phenylpropene, a type of aromatic compound that occurs widely in nature, in essential oils. It is in the class of p ...

(mosquito larvae) *

Annonin Annonins are a group of chemical compounds classified as acetogenins. They are found in the extracts of '' Annona'' seeds ('' A. squamosa'' and '' A. muricata''). Annonin-based bioinsecticides are used to control Coleoptera (beetle) pests common ...

Asimina ''Asimina'' is a genus of small trees or shrubs described as a genus in 1763. ''Asimina'' is the only temperate genus in the tropical and subtropical flowering plant family, Annonaceae. ''Asimina'' has large simple leaves and large fruit. It is ...

(pawpaw tree seeds) for

lice Louse ( : lice) is the common name for any member of the clade Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless parasitic insects. Phthiraptera has variously been recognized as an order, infraorder, or a parvorder, as a result o ...

* Azadirachtin *

Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is mainly used recreationally as a cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine t ...

Carapa ''Carapa'' is a genus of flowering plants in the mahogany family, Meliaceae. These are trees up to 30 meters tall occurring in tropical South America, Central America,Hogan, C. M. 2008Isthmian-Atlantic moist forests.Encyclopedia of Earth, World ...

Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula(C9H8O) C6H5CH=CHCHO. Occurring naturally as predominantly the ''trans'' (''E'') isomer, it gives cinnamon its flavor and odor. It is a phenylpropanoid that is naturally synthesized by the shik ...

(very effective for killing mosquito larvae) * Cinnamon leaf oil (very effective for killing mosquito larvae) *

Cinnamyl acetate Cinnamyl acetate (3-phenylprop-2-enyl acetate) is a chemical compound of the cinnamyl ester family, in which the variable R group is substituted by a methyl group. As a result of the non-aromatic carbon-carbon double bond, cinnamyl acetate can exi ...

(kills mosquito larvae) * Citral * Citronellol *

Deguelin Deguelin is a derivative of rotenone. Both are compounds classified as rotenoids of the flavonoid family and are naturally occurring insecticides. They can be produced by extraction from several plant species belonging to three genera of the leg ...

Derris ''Derris'' is genus of leguminous plants found in Southeast Asia and the southwest Pacific islands, including New Guinea. The roots of '' D. elliptica'' contain rotenone, a strong insecticide and fish poison. Despite the secondary compounds foun ...

(active ingredient is rotenone) * ''

Desmodium caudatum ''Ohwia caudata'', formerly placed in the genus ''Desmodium'' (as ''D. caudatum''), is a deciduous nitrogen fixing plant in the family Fabaceae. It is found in India, China, Taiwan and other parts of Asia Asia (, ) is one of the worl ...

'' (leaves and roots) * Eucalyptol *

Eugenol Eugenol is an allyl chain-substituted guaiacol, a member of the allylbenzene class of chemical compounds. It is a colorless to pale yellow, aromatic oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, basil ...

(mosquito larvae) * Hinokitiol * Ivermectin * Limonene *

Linalool Linalool () refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants. Linalool has multiple commercial applications, the majority of which are based on its pleasant scent (floral, with a touch of ...

Menthol Menthol is an organic compound, more specifically a monoterpenoid, made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, clear or white crystalline substance, which is solid at room temperature and ...

Myristicin Myristicin is a naturally occurring compound found in common herbs and spices, the most well known being nutmeg. It is an insecticide, and has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of other insecticides in combination. Myristicin is also a pre ...

* Neem ( Azadirachtin) *

Nicotine Nicotine is a natural product, naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and ''Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreational drug use, recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As ...

Nootkatone Nootkatone is a natural organic compound, a sesquiterpenoid, and a ketone that is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit, and which also occurs in other organisms. Previously, nootkatone was thought to be one of the main chemic ...

* '' Peganum harmala'', seeds (smoke from), root *

Oregano Oregano (, ; ''Origanum vulgare'') is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Oregano is a woody perennial pla ...

oil kills '' Rhyzopertha dominica'' (bug found in stored cereal) * Pyrethrum * '' Quassia'' (South American plant genus) *

Ryanodine Ryanodine is a poisonous diterpenoid found in the South American plant ''Ryania speciosa'' (Salicaceae). It was originally used as an insecticide. The compound has extremely high affinity to the open-form ryanodine receptor, a group of calcium ch ...

AKA Spinosyn A *

Spinosyn D Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species '' Saccharopolyspora spinosa''. The genus ''Saccharopolyspora'' was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish-pink ae ...

* Tetranortriterpenoid *

Thymol Thymol (also known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, IPMP), , is a natural monoterpenoid phenol derivative of ''p''-Cymene, isomeric with carvacrol, found in oil of thyme, and extracted from ''Thymus vulgaris'' (common thyme), ajwain, and vario ...

(controls

varroa mite ''Varroa destructor'', the ''Varroa'' mite is an external parasitic mite that attacks and feeds on the honey bees '' Apis cerana'' and ''Apis mellifera''. The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis. The ''Varroa'' mite can reproduce o ...

s in

bee colonies A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus ''Honey bee, Apis'' live and raise their young. Though the word ''beehive'' is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific and professional l ...

)

Biologicals

Bacillus sphaericus ''Lysinibacillus sphaericus'' (reclassified - previously known as ''Bacillus sphaericus'') is a Gram-positive, mesophilic, rod-shaped bacterium commonly found on soil. It can form resistant endospores that are tolerant to high temperatures, chemi ...

Bacillus thuringiensis aizawi
*

Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' serotype ''israelensis'' (Bti) is a group of bacteria used as biological control agents for larvae stages of certain dipterans. Bti produces toxins which are effective in killing various species of mosquitoes, fungu ...

* Bacillus thuringiensis kurstakihttp://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/pathogens/bacteria.html * Bacillus thuringiensis tenebrionis * Nuclear Polyhedrosis virus *

Granulovirus ''Betabaculovirus'' is a genus of viruses, in the family ''Baculoviridae''. Arthropods serve as natural hosts. There are 26 species in this genus. Taxonomy The following species are assigned to the genus: * '' Adoxophyes orana granulovirus'' * ...

* Lecanicillium lecanii

Inorganic/mineral derived insecticides

Diatomaceous earth Diatomaceous earth (), diatomite (), or kieselgur/kieselguhr is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3 μm to le ...

Borax Borax is a salt (ionic compound), a hydrated borate of sodium, with chemical formula often written . It is a colorless crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It is commonly available in powder or granular form, ...

* Boric Acid

References

External links

InsectBuzz.com
- Daily updated news on insects and their relatives, including information on insecticides and their alternatives
International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)

Pestworld.org
– Official site of the National Pest Management Association * Streaming online video about efforts to reduce insecticide use in rice in Bangladesh
on Windows Media Playeron RealPlayer

– Has a thorough explanation on how insecticides work.

Michigan State University Extension * Example of Insecticide application in th

(Japanese dry rock garden) in Lelystad, The Netherlands. * {{Authority control Biocides

Type of activity

Systemic insecticides

Contact insecticides

Synthetic insecticides

Development

Organochlorides

Organophosphates

Carbamates

Pyrethroids

Neonicotinoids

Phenylpyrazoles

Butenolides

Ryanoids/diamides

Insect growth regulators

Biological pesticides

Other biological approaches

Plant-incorporated protectants

= ''Bacillus thuringiensis''

= RNA interference

= Venom

Enzymes

Bacterial

Other

Synthetic insecticide and natural insecticides

Environmental harm

Effects on nontarget species

DDT

Runoff and Percolation

Pollinator decline

Bird decline

Alternatives

Examples

Organochlorides

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered a ...s

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formally o ...s

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and ''Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and hou ...s

Neonicotinoids

Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from ''Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely related ...s

Insect growth regulators

Derived from plants or microbes

Biologicals

Inorganic/mineral derived insecticides

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered a ...
s

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formally o ...
s

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and ''Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and hou ...
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Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from ''Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely related ...
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