The Kingdom of Abkhazia ( ka, აფხაზთა სამეფო, tr; lit. "Kingdom of the Abkhazians"), also known as Abasgia or Egrisi-Abkhazia, was a

medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the Post-classical, post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with t ...

feudal Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a wa ...

state in the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...

which was established in the 780s. Through dynastic succession, it was united in 1008 with the

Kingdom of the Iberians The Kingdom of the Iberians ( ka, ქართველთა სამეფო, tr) was a medieval Georgian monarchy under the Bagrationi dynasty which emerged circa 888 AD, succeeding the Principality of Iberia, in historical region of Ta ...

, forming the

Kingdom of Georgia The Kingdom of Georgia ( ka, საქართველოს სამეფო, tr), also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval Eurasian monarchy that was founded in circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic ...

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...

sources record that in the early years of the 10th century Abkhazia stretched three hundred

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

miles along the

Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Roma ...

coast, from the frontiers of the '' thema'' of Chaldia to the mouth of the river

Nicopsis Nicopsis, Nikopsis, or Nikopsia ( el, Νικόψις; ka, ნიკოფსი, ნიკოფსია; ) was a medieval fortress and town on the northeastern Black Sea coast, somewhere between the towns of Tuapse, Russia, and New Athos, Georg ...

, with the

behind it.

History

Background

Abkhazia, or

Abasgia Abasgia may refer to: *Region inhabited by ancient Abasgoi tribes *Kingdom of Abkhazia, 778–1008 *Kingdom of Georgia The Kingdom of Georgia ( ka, საქართველოს სამეფო, tr), also known as the Georgian Empire, wa ...

of classic sources, was a

princedom A principality (or sometimes princedom) can either be a monarchical feudatory or a sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a regnant-monarch with the title of prince and/or princess, or by a monarch with another title considered to fall under ...

under

authority. It lay chiefly along the

coast in what is now the northwestern part of the modern-day

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...

(disputed Republic of

Abkhazia Abkhazia, ka, აფხაზეთი, tr, , xmf, აბჟუა, abzhua, or ( or ), officially the Republic of Abkhazia, is a partially recognised state in the South Caucasus, recognised by most countries as part of Georgia, which vi ...

) and extended northward into the territory of today's

Krasnodar Krai Krasnodar Krai (russian: Краснода́рский край, r=Krasnodarsky kray, p=krəsnɐˈdarskʲɪj kraj) is a federal subject of Russia (a krai), located in the North Caucasus region in Southern Russia and administratively a part of t ...

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...

. It had

Anacopia New Athos or Akhali Atoni ( ka, ახალი ათონი, ''Akhali Atoni''; ab, Афон Ҿыц, ''Afon Ch'yts''; russian: Новый Афон; ''Novy Afon'', gr, Νέος Άθως, ''Neos Athos'') is a town in the Gudauta ''raion'' of ...

as its capital. Abkhazia was ruled by a hereditary ''

archon ''Archon'' ( gr, ἄρχων, árchōn, plural: ἄρχοντες, ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem αρχ-, mean ...

'' who effectively functioned as a Byzantine viceroy. The country was chiefly

Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...

and the city of

Pityus Pitsunda ( ab, Пиҵунда, russian: Пицунда) or Bichvinta ( ka, ბიჭვინთა ) is a resort town in the Gagra District of Abkhazia/Georgia. Founded by Greek colonists in the 5th century BC, Pitsunda became an important politi ...

was a seat of an

archbishop In Christian denominations, an archbishop is a bishop of higher rank or office. In most cases, such as the Catholic Church, there are many archbishops who either have jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province in addition to their own archdi ...

directly subordinated to the

Patriarch of Constantinople The ecumenical patriarch ( el, Οἰκουμενικός Πατριάρχης, translit=Oikoumenikós Patriárchēs) is the archbishop of Constantinople (Istanbul), New Rome and '' primus inter pares'' (first among equals) among the heads of th ...

. Another Abasgian episcopal see was that of

Soterioupolis Soterioupolis ( el, Σωτηριούπολις; "City of the Redeemer (Christianity), Saviour") or Soteropolis (Σωτηρόπολις) was a Byzantine fortress in the southeastern Black Sea coast during the 10th–12th centuries. The name has been ...

. In 735, a large expedition led by Arab general Marwan was launched against the Georgian kingdoms. The Arabs, pursuing the retreating Georgian princes – brothers Mirian and Archil – surged into Abkhazia in 736.

Dysentery Dysentery (UK pronunciation: , US: ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications ...

and

flood A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrol ...

s, combined with a stubborn resistance offered by the archon Leon I and his Iberian and Lazic allies, made the invaders retreat. Leon I then married Mirian's daughter, and a successor, Leon II exploited this dynastic union to acquire

Lazica Lazica ( ka, ეგრისი, ; lzz, ლაზიკა, ; grc-gre, Λαζική, ; fa, لازستان, ; hy, Եգեր, ) was the Latin name given to the territory of Colchis during the Roman/Byzantine period, from about the 1st centur ...

in the 770s. Presumably considered as a

successor state Succession of states is a concept in international relations regarding a successor state that has become a sovereign state over a territory (and populace) that was previously under the sovereignty of another state. The theory has its roots in 19th- ...

of Lazica (''Egrisi,'' in Georgian sources), this new polity continued to be referred to as Egrisi (Lazica) in some contemporary Georgian (e.g., ''The Vitae of the Georgian Kings'' by

Leonti Mroveli Leonti Mroveli ( ka, ლეონტი მროველი) was the 11th-century Georgian chronicler, presumably an ecclesiastic. ''Mroveli'' is not his last name, but the adjective for the diocese of Ruisi, whose bishop he probably was. Rayfi ...

) and

Armenia Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...

n (e.g., ''The History of Armenia'' by Hovannes Draskhanakertsi) chronicles.

Establishment and consolidation

The successful defense against the Arabs, and new territorial gains, gave the Abkhazian princes enough power to claim more autonomy from the

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...

. Towards circa 778, Leon II won his full independence with the help of the

Khazars The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...

; he assumed the title of "'' King of the Abkhazians"'' and transferred his capital to the western Georgian city of

Kutaisi Kutaisi (, ka, ქუთაისი ) is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the third-most populous city in Georgia, traditionally, second in importance, after the capital city of Tbilisi. Situated west of Tbilis ...

. According to Georgian annals, Leon subdivided his kingdom into eight duchies:

proper, Tskhumi, Bedia,

Guria Guria ( ka, გურია) is a region (''mkhare'') in Georgia, in the western part of the country, bordered by the eastern end of the Black Sea. The region has a population of 113,000 (2016), with Ozurgeti as the regional capital. Geography ...

Racha Racha (also Račha, , ''Račʼa'') is a highland area in western Georgia, located in the upper Rioni river valley and hemmed in by the Greater Caucasus mountains. Under Georgia's current subdivision, Racha is included in the Racha-Lechkhumi and ...

and Takveri,

Svaneti Svaneti or Svanetia (Suania in ancient sources; ka, სვანეთი ) is a historic province in the northwestern part of Georgia. It is inhabited by the Svans, an ethnic subgroup of Georgians. Geography Situated on the southern slop ...

Argveti Argveti (), also Margveti (), is a historic district in Imereti, western Georgia. Overview The area lay on the historic Iberian- Lazican frontier, i.e., between what are now eastern and western parts of Georgia. From the 3rd century BC to the ...

, and Kutatisi. During his reign Abkhazian kingdom was at the stage of the state building and was less active in the matter of spreading the borders of the kingdom to the East. After obtaining of the state independence, the matter of the church independence became the main problem. In the early 9th century Abkhazian Church broke away from

Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...

and recognized the authority of the Catholicate of Mtskheta; language of the church in Abkhazia shifted from

Georgian Georgian may refer to: Common meanings * Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country) ** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group ** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians **Georgian scripts, three scrip ...

, as Byzantine power decreased and doctrinal differences disappeared. The most prosperous period of the Abkhazian kingdom was between 850 and 950. Beginning with

George I George I or 1 may refer to: People * Patriarch George I of Alexandria (fl. 621–631) * George I of Constantinople (d. 686) * George I of Antioch (d. 790) * George I of Abkhazia (ruled 872/3–878/9) * George I of Georgia (d. 1027) * Yuri Dolgor ...

(864 – 871), the increasingly expansionist tendencies of the kingdom led to the enlargement of its realm to the east. The Abkhazian kings controlled

duchy of Kartli A duchy, also called a dukedom, is a medieval country, territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or queen in Western European tradition. There once existed an important difference between " ...

(central and part of eastern Georgia), and interfered in the affairs of the

n and Georgian Bagratids. In about 908 King Constantine III (894 – 923) had finally annexed a significant portion of Kartli, bringing his borders close to the Arab-controlled Tbilisi. For a brief period of time,

Kakheti Kakheti ( ka, კახეთი ''K’akheti''; ) is a region (mkhare) formed in the 1990s in eastern Georgia from the historical province of Kakheti and the small, mountainous province of Tusheti. Telavi is its capital. The region comprises eigh ...

and

Hereti The Kingdom of Hereti ( ka, ჰერეთის სამეფო ''heretis samepo'') was a medieval monarchy which emerged in Caucasus on the Iberian- Albanian frontier. Nowadays it roughly corresponds to the southeastern corner of Georgia's K ...

in eastern Georgia also recognized the Abkhazian suzerainty. Constantine III also tried to extend his influence over Alania by supporting their

Christianization Christianization ( or Christianisation) is to make Christian; to imbue with Christian principles; to become Christian. It can apply to the conversion of an individual, a practice, a place or a whole society. It began in the Roman Empire, conti ...

. Under his son,

George II George II or 2 may refer to: People * George II of Antioch (seventh century AD) * George II of Armenia (late ninth century) * George II of Abkhazia (916–960) * Patriarch George II of Alexandria (1021–1051) * George II of Georgia (1072–1089) ...

(923 – 957), the Abkhazian Kingdom reached a climax of power and prestige. George was also known as a promoter of

Orthodox Christianity Orthodoxy (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Late antiquity, A ...

and a patron of Georgian Christian culture. He helped to establish Christianity as an official religion in Alania, winning the thanks of

. The contemporary Georgian annals knew him as a "builder of churches". George's successors, however, were unable to retain the kingdom's strength and integrity. During the reign of Leon III (960–969), Kakheti and Hereti emancipated themselves from the Abkhazian rule. A bitter

civil war A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...

and feudal revolts which began under Demetrius III (969–976) led the kingdom into complete anarchy under the unfortunate Theodosius III the Blind (975 – 978), a weak and inauspicious king.

Unification

By that time the hegemony in the

South Caucasus The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Arme ...

had finally passed to the Georgian Bagratids of

Tao-Klarjeti Tao-Klarjeti may refer to: * Tao-Klarjeti, part of Georgian historical region of Upper Kartli * Kingdom of Tao-Klarjeti, AD 888 to 1008 {{set index article Kingdom of Iberia Historical regions of Georgia (country) ...

. In 978, the Bagratid prince

Bagrat Bagrat ( hy, Բագրատ, in Western Armenian pronounced Pakrad, ka, ბაგრატ) is a male name popular in Georgia and Armenia. It is derived from the Old Persian ''Bagadāta'', "gift of God". The names of the Armenian Bagratuni and ...

, nephew (sister's son) of the heirless Theodosius, occupied the Abkhazian throne with the help of his adoptive father

David III of Tao David III Kuropalates (, ''Davit’ III Kurapalati'') or David III the Great (დავით III დიდი, ''Davit’ III Didi''), also known as David II, (c. 930s – 1000/1001) was a Georgian prince of the Bagratid family of Tao, a histo ...

. Bagrat's descent from both Bagratid and Abkhazian dynasties made him an acceptable choice for the nobles of the realm who were growing weary of internecine quarrels. In 1008, Bagrat succeeded on the death of his natural father

Gurgen Gurgen or Gourgen (Armenian: Գուրգեն, Georgian: გურგენ) is an Armenian and Georgian masculine name of Middle Persian origin (''Gurgēn''), itself ultimately deriving from Old Iranian ''Vṛkaina-''. It may refer to: Georgian mona ...

as the "King of the Iberians". Thus, these two kingdoms unified through dynastic succession, in practice laying the foundation for the unified Georgian monarchy, officially styled then as the

Rulers

Most Abkhazian kings, with the exception of

John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Secon ...

and Adarnase of the Shavliani (presumably of Svan origin), came from the dynasty which is sometimes known in modern history writing as the Leonids after the first king Leon, or Anosids, after the prince Anos from whom the royal family claimed their origin. Prince

Cyril Toumanoff Cyril Leo Toumanoff (russian: Кирилл Львович Туманов; 13 October 1913 – 4 February 1997) was a Russian-born Georgian historian and genealogist who mostly specialized in the history and genealogies of medieval Georgia, Armenia, ...

relates the name of Anos to the later Abkhaz noble family of

Anchabadze Anchabadze ( ka, ანჩაბაძე), also known as Achba ( ab, А́чба), is a Georgian and Abkhazian family, and the oldest surviving noble house originating in Abkhazia. History The Anchabadze family is supposed to have its roots in ...

. By convention, the regnal numbers of the Abkhazian kings continue from those of the

s of

. There is also some lack of consistency about the dates of their reigns. The chronology below is given as per Toumanoff.

Historiographical conundrum

Writing the kingdom's primary history was dominated by

and

sources supported by modern epigraphic and archaeological records. The problem of the Abkhazian Kingdom, particularly the questions of the nature of its ruling family and its ethnic composition, is a major point of controversy between modern Georgian and Abkhaz scholars. This can be largely explained by the scarcity of primary sources on these issues. Many Georgian historians as well as other historians agree, that the formation of kingdom of Abkhazia was due to the unification of tribes such as

Misimians Misimians ( ka, მისიმიელები) were a mountainous indigenous tribe in ancient Georgia. Along with the Sanigs they are thought of as the ancestors of the modern day Svan people, who constitute a subethnos of the Georgian people ...

(

Proto-Kartvelian The Proto-Kartvelian language, or Common Kartvelian ( ka, წინარექართველური ენა, tr), is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Kartvelian languages, which was spoken by the ancestors of th ...

Svan tribe)

Sanigs The Sanigs ( ka, სანიგები) were a tribe inhabiting Western Georgian/ Abkhazia during antiquity. Their ethnic identity is obscure and is the subject of a controversy. They are first attested in the works of Pliny, Arrian and Memn ...

(Proto-Kartvelian

Zan Zan or ZAN, may refer to: Geography * Zhan, Kurdistan, Iran, also known as Zān * Zhan, Lorestan, Iran, also known as Žān * Zan, Tehran, a village in Tehran Province, Iran Ethnicity and language * Zans, the Zan People, people who speak the Za ...

/Svan tribe), Apsilaes and Abasgoi. In the VII-VIII centuries, during the period of the weakening of Kingdom of Egrisi, the principality of Abazgia was strengthened, which united the already mentioned tribes. Georgian sources call the unification of these tribes Abkhazians, therefore term Abkhazian wasn't used as description of one specific nation but the unification of

Kartvelian Kartvelian may refer to: * Anything coming from or related to Georgia (country) * Kartvelian languages * Kartvelian alphabet, see Georgian alphabet * Kartvelian studies * Georgians {{disambig Language and nationality disambiguation pages ...

and

Northwest Caucasian The Northwest Caucasian languages, also called West Caucasian, Abkhazo-Adyghean, Abkhazo-Circassian, Circassic, or sometimes ''Pontic languages'' (from the historical region of Pontus, in contrast to ''Caspian languages'' for the Northeast Cauc ...

tribes. This is objected to on the side of the Abkhazian historians, Most Abkhaz historians claim the kingdom was formed as a result of the consolidation of the early Abkhaz tribes that enabled them to extend their dominance over the neighboring areas. Most international scholars agree that it is extremely difficult to judge the ethnic identity of the various population segments due primarily to the fact that the terms "Abkhazia" and "Abkhazians" were used in a broad sense during this period—and for some while later—and covered, for all practical purposes, all the population of the kingdom, comprising both the Georgian (including also

Mingrelians The Mingrelians ( xmf, მარგალეფი, margalefi; ka, მეგრელები, tr) are an indigenous Kartvelian-speaking ethnic subgroup of Georgians that mostly live in the Mingrelia ( xmf, სამარგალო, sam ...

, Laz, and

Svans , native_name = , native_name_lang = , image = File:Kartvelian languages.svg , caption = Distribution of the Svan language in relation to other Kartvelian (South Caucasian) languages. , population = –80,00 ...

with their distinct languages that are related to the

Georgian language Georgian (, , ) is the most widely-spoken Kartvelian language, and serves as the literary language or lingua franca for speakers of related languages. It is the official language of Georgia and the native or primary language of 87.6% of its p ...

) and possible modern Abkhaz ( Abasgoi, Apsilae, and

Zygii The Zygii ( grc-gre, Ζυγοί, ''Zygoí'') or Zygians were described by Strabo as a nation to the north of Colchis. He wrote: ''And on the sea lies the Asiatic side of the Bosporus, or the Syndic territory. After this latter, one comes to the ...

) peoples. It seems likely that a significant (if not predominant) proportion of the Georgian-speaking population, combined with a drive of the Abkhazian kings to throw off the Byzantine political and cultural dominance, resulted in Georgian replacing

as the language of literacy and culture.Alexei Zverev, ''Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus''; Graham Smith, Edward A Allworth, Vivien A Law et al., pages 56-58; ''Abkhaz'' by W. Barthold . Minorskyin the

Encyclopaedia of Islam The ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'' (''EI'') is an encyclopaedia of the academic discipline of Islamic studies published by Brill. It is considered to be the standard reference work in the field of Islamic studies. The first edition was published in ...

; ''The Georgian-Abkhaz State'' (summary), by George Anchabadze, in: Paul Garb, Arda Inal-Ipa, Paata Zakareishvili, editors, Aspects of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: Cultural Continuity in the Context of Statebuilding, Volume 5, August 26–28, 2000.

Legacy

File:Bediacup.jpg, The

Bedia Chalice The Bedia Chalice ( ka, ბედიის თასი, tr) is a piece of the medieval Georgian goldsmithery, a liturgical vessel made of ducat gold and richly decorated. Dated to , the chalice was commissioned by King Bagrat III for the Bedia ...

donated by Bagrat to the Bedia Monastery is an important piece of Georgian metal art. c. 999 AD File:Mokva cathedral.jpg,

Mokvi Cathedral Mokvi Cathedral ( ka, მოქვის ეკლესია) is a Georgian Orthodox Cathedral located in Mokvi, in the Ochamchira District of the de facto independent Republic of Abkhazia, internationally recognized to constitute a part of Ge ...

constructed in 10th century, during the reign of King

Leon III of Abkhazia Leon III () was King of Abkhazia from 957 AD until 967 AD. He was the second son and successor of George II of the Anchabadze dynasty. Life He succeeded in 926 as viceroy of Kartli to his older brother Constantine, the latter was blinded and c ...

File:2014 Nowy Aton, Cerkiew św. Szymona Apostoła (06).jpg, Church of St. Simon the Canaanite, New Athos, Church of St. Simon the Canaanite constructed between 9-10th century in New Athos File:Bzyb church.jpg, Church of Bzyb constructed in the second half of IX century File:Pitsunda cathedral.jpg, Pitsunda Cathedral was built at the end of the 10th century by King Bagrat III of Georgia. File:Lykhny temple.jpg, Lykhny Church built in the 10th century. File:Martvili_Monastery_(3).jpg, Chkondidi cathedral built by

, X century File:George of Abkhazia cross.jpg, The cross of George II of Abkhazia, X century File:2014_Suchum,_Pozostałości_zamku_Bagrata_(02).jpg, The remains of the Bagrat's Castle. File:Kumurdo_Cathedral.jpg, Kumurdo Cathedral was built by Ioane the Bishop during the reign of King

in 964.

Notes

References

Sources and further reading

Alexei Zverev, Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus 1988-1994
in B. Coppieters (ed.), ''Contested Borders in the Caucasus'', Brussels: VUBPress, 1996 # Graham Smith, Edward A Allworth, Vivien A Law, Annette Bohr, Andrew Wilson, ''Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities'', Cambridge University Press (September 10, 1998),

# Center for Citizen Peacebuilding

#S. H. Rapp, ''Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts'', Peeters Bvba (September 25, 2003)

an article by Levan Gigineishvili, 2003 # [http://src-home.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/Proceed97/kitagawa.html The Role of Historiography in the Abkhazo-Georgian Conflict] , an article by Seiichi Kitagawa, 1996 # #Georgiy I Mirsky, G I Mirskii, ''On Ruins of Empire: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union (Contributions in Political Science)'', Greenwood Press (January 30, 1997) #Ronald Grigor Suny, ''The Making of the Georgian Nation'': 2nd edition (December 1994), Indiana University Press, , page 45 #Robert W. Thomson (translator), ''Rewriting Caucasian History: The Medieval Armenian Adaptation of the Georgian Chronicles: The Original Georgian Texts and Armenian Adaptation (Oxford Oriental Monographs)'', Oxford University Press, USA (June 27, 1996), #Toumanoff C., ''Chronology of the Kings of Abasgia and other Problems'' // Le Muséon, 69 (1956), S. 73-90. {{Historical states of Georgia , state=collapsed Kingdom of Abkhazia, Former kingdoms, Abkhazia 778 establishments 1008 disestablishments in Asia States and territories established in the 8th century Former monarchies of Europe Former monarchies of Asia Medieval Georgia (country) Former monarchies of Western Asia